RECONNAISSANCE DUTIES, RANGE-FINDING, AND COMMUNICATION SERVICE.
=240.= _General instructions._
1. The primary object of artillery reconnaissance is to collect and
transmit information, which is important from an artillery point of
view, to the commander who orders the reconnaissance. At the same time
anything which is likely to prove of value to the other arms should be
noted. While smokeless powder and long-range weapons have increased the
difficulties of reconnaissance, they have also added to the value and
importance of accurate information. It is essential, therefore, that
artillery should be well trained in this difficult work.
2. In each artillery brigade there should be at least one officer’s
patrol, the members of which are accustomed to work together, and
capable of carrying out a combined reconnaissance.
These patrols, which should ordinarily consist of an officer with one
or two selected non-commissioned officers and range-takers, may often
be required to carry out reconnaissances for the divisional artillery
commander. (_See_ Sec. =153= (2).)
When not so required they are at the disposal of the brigade commander.
As batteries may also have to act singly, there should be some men in
each capable of carrying out a simple reconnaissance.
Men selected for this work should be good riders and horse-masters.
3. The mounted men of brigade or divisional artillery headquarters
should also be trained in reconnaissance and scouting, so that they may
be capable of:--
i. Reconnoitring the enemy’s position and observing the
effect of fire.
ii. Watching and reporting the progress of friendly troops
during an attack.
iii. Reconnoitring and watching ground in the vicinity of
batteries to assist in ensuring their safety.
iv. Supplementing other means of intercommunication.
These duties cannot all be performed simultaneously with the number of
men available. A commander must, therefore, husband his resources so as
to have one or more of his headquarters available in an emergency.
4. The training should be individual and progressive and should be made
as interesting as possible. The following sections are intended to
serve as a guide to the principal points to which attention should be
directed.
=241.= _Visual training._
1. The men should be taken to some ground with a good view all round,
and each in turn questioned as to what he makes of distant objects such
as men, cattle, bushes, rocks, &c.; his answers being checked with
field glasses by the instructor. These practices should be repeated
till the men are proficient at picking out objects under varying
circumstances of light, atmosphere, background and surroundings.
2. The effect which these conditions have on the appearance and
apparent distance of objects should be pointed out. Thus the ranges to
objects are underestimated in a bright light or clear atmosphere, when
background and object are of different colours, with the sun at one’s
back, with water or snow to look over and when looking up or down hill.
With a dark background, with the light in the eyes, on broken ground
and when looking over a valley or undulating ground, the ranges to
objects are overestimated.
Objects dimly seen at evening, and in misty weather, appear
more distant and larger than in reality. When the sun shines on
entrenchments, the salient parts project their shadows on to the
re-entering parts and when freshly raised they look lighter than the
surrounding ground.
=242.= _Training in judging distance._
1. The faculty of judging distances correctly can be developed by
practice, but rapid and accurate estimates cannot be expected until the
visual powers of the soldier have been developed.
When judging distance a man must not be allowed to guess, but must be
made to give reasons for his estimate.
2. The following is the system usually recommended:--
i. Measure out distances of hundreds of yards, from 100 to 500, and
accustom the soldier to recognize these distances.
ii. Ascertain the exact range of certain objects visible from the
drill ground or barracks and teach him to note from these places the
appearance of the objects under varying atmospheric conditions. When he
has got the measured distances and the appearance of the objects firmly
into his mind he should be exercised at longer ranges. To judge these
he should measure the intervening ground by mental comparison with the
distances with which he is familiar, or, should all the ground up to
the object not be visible, he must judge the range from the impression
conveyed to his eye by the object, bearing in mind how this impression
may be affected by the conditions mentioned in Sec. =241= (2), as well
as those which follow.
3. Under normal conditions:--
i. Movement of legs and arms can be distinguished at 1,000 yds.
ii. Individual men become vertical lines at 1,500 yards.
iii. Infantry and cavalry at 1,500 yards can be
distinguished only by their mode of motion.
iv. At 2,000 yards infantry presents a thick line, cavalry a
thicker line with a jagged top.
4. In estimating long distances, the time taken in going over them
should form a very fair guide. A man should know his own normal pace
and the various rates at which his horse walks and trots.
5. Distance can also be judged by sound. The time in seconds between
the flash of a gun and hearing the report multiplied by 370 gives
the distance (in yards) travelled by the sound approximately: this,
however, may be affected by wind and atmosphere.
=243.= _Training in observation._
1. The habit of noting and remembering small signs or details, both at
a distance and near at hand, is important. It is closely connected with
the two subjects discussed above, and should be gradually introduced
while they are being taught.
2. The following is one method of training men in this subject:--
The whole terrain in front is roughly divided into right, centre and
left sections.
These again are divided into:--
i. The background.
ii. The foreground.
The men are formed up in extended order and allowed to observe the
landscape for a few minutes, and then turned about. The instructor then
ascertains the number, nature, and distance, of the objects each man
has noted in these divisions. Even if only one object is noted in each,
it makes six objects noticed, and this is more than the untrained mind
usually identifies.
They should learn to classify the objects they see under various
headings, as for example:--
Human beings.
Animals.
Houses, farms, roads, paths, &c.
Trees and vegetable growths.
Water and rivers.
Rocks, hills, &c.
They should also know such facts as that dust raised by cavalry forms
a high light cloud; by infantry a lower and denser one; by wheeled
vehicles denser still, and broken.
3. Regular instruction of this kind, whether held indoors or in the
open, gradually educates men to make an intelligent use of their eyes
until an automatic connection is established between the eye and brain,
and sight becomes observation.
When the instruction of the men has advanced sufficiently, they may be
classified both by a “time test” and a “number of objects” test, which
increases the interest.
4. The men who prove themselves most proficient in these exercises
should be further instructed in the use of the telescope and field
glasses. When ground is available, a military aspect should be given
to the training as much as possible. For instance, a number of objects
such as dummies, kneeling and lying behind rocks, hats or helmets
resting on stones or bushes, horses or dummies standing against a dark
background, and dummies’ heads on the sky line may be arranged on some
position the distance of which from the selected point of observation
will depend on the atmospheric conditions. The class is then taken out
by the instructor, the battery telescope on the tripod set up, each man
looks through it, identifies as many objects as he can, and writes them
down. When a certain amount of proficiency has been attained in this
way the tripod should be dispensed with and the men taught to use the
telescope kneeling or prone, making use of any improvised rest that may
be available.
Practice at locating and identifying moving objects should also be
given.
5. Exercises in observation may be carried out during a march or at
exercising order. Thus, after going a certain distance each man may
be questioned upon, or required to jot down what he has observed
of any military importance, _e.g._, rivers, bridges, cross roads,
sign posts, villages, provision shops, smithies, post and telegraph
offices, haystacks, &c. These occasions also afford the instructor an
opportunity of pointing out such objects of interest as the varieties
of trees and vegetation, and the habits of animals.
=244.= _Reports and sketches._
(_See also_ F.S. Regs., Part I, Sec. 16.)
1. Officers who may be called upon to carry out reconnaissances should
be capable of executing rough maps and also panorama sketches. They
should be trained in selecting aiming points, in calculating the
necessary deflection from them to various objectives, and in estimating
slopes over which guns can fire at given ranges.
They should be able to write a concise report containing only such
information as will be of use to the officer for whom it is intended,
and which is relevant to the object in view. If an area is being
reconnoitred for artillery positions the report should commence with
a brief description of the area reconnoitred, the positions available
with their special advantages or disadvantages.
The positions recommended to be occupied should then be given and
information furnished on such points as the following:--
i. The approaches, whether concealed or exposed: and the
nature of the ground, whether hard or boggy.
ii. What formation batteries can advance in.
iii. Positions of readiness in their vicinity.
iv. Suitability for direct or indirect laying.
v. Nature of gun-platform.
vi. Number of guns for which there is room at full interval.
vii. Best positions for observation of fire.
viii. Positions for first line wagons.
ix. Description and position of any natural screen in front
or to the flanks.
x. Necessity for any field work.
xi. Best method of protecting position from surprise; dead
ground in front or to the flanks.
xii. Best lines of advance from the position and the extent
to which they are concealed from view.
xiii. Obstacles to movement, such as streams with high banks
and bogs.
If time admits a rough map on a scale of about 4 inches to 1 mile,
showing the proposed positions of the guns and 1st line wagons, the
approaches to them and the position of any natural screens, will be a
valuable addition to the report and will often save much writing.
Concurrently with the above any information obtainable on the following
points should be noted and reported:--
(_a_) Description of the enemy’s position giving
approximate relative heights.
(_b_) Likely positions for the enemy’s guns or
observing stations.
(_c_) Any earthworks that can be observed.
[Illustration: PLATE IX.
Position P
_VIEW FROM FARM LOOKING NORTH._]
[Illustration: Plate X.
RANGE-TAKER’S CARD.
Ranges taken from position P.]
2. A panorama sketch of the enemy’s position should, if possible, be
made and will save much writing. For firing at moving objects from
under cover, for switches, and in night firing a sketch of this nature
is invaluable.
Plate IX shows a form on which the sketch may be made so as to render
it a most useful and practical aid more particularly adapted to hilly
country. It will be seen that the lateral angle and the angle of sight
to any point can be judged with considerable accuracy at a glance.
It has, moreover, the great advantage that, with its assistance, the
poorest draughtsman can produce a useful, panoramic sketch.
The sketch should show the principal features in outline, one of
which near the centre of the field of view is chosen as the reference
point. A line is drawn from each of these features, with the range and
description marked thereon, also the angle of sight on the right of the
line and the lateral angle, in degrees, between it and the reference
point on the left of the line, thus--=L.A. 4° | L 3°=.
The sketch should state clearly the point from which it is made.
3. If time does not admit of this sketch, it may be replaced by a
range-taker’s card (Plate X), on which the following should appear:--
i. A line, if possible in red, drawn to the most prominent object near
the centre of the field of view. (_See_ P.T., Plate X.) The object so
selected is called the reference point. In drawing this line the card
should be set so that its longer edge roughly corresponds to the line
of the position to be occupied. The lateral angle, in degrees, between
the line to the reference point, and a line to all prominent features
for ranging upon should be given.
ii. The range to and the angle of sight of these features which should
be given names. It may often be more convenient to letter and describe
them with their ranges and angles of sight on a separate paper.
4. The above instructions apply to officers, but in order that N.C.Os.
and men employed on reconnaissance work may be of use to them, they
will require training in the following subjects:--
i. _Map reading._--They should be able to find the way in a strange
country, first, by practical map reading; then by memory of the map;
by sun and compass; by landmarks; by questioning natives of the
country. As maps may not always be available on service, they should be
practised in working without their aid.
It should be a habit with them to notice the general direction taken
and changes of direction subsequently made.
ii. _Sketching._--When they have learnt to read a map, elementary
instruction in sketching should be given. This to include instruction
in conventional signs; judging distances by time or by eye; making a
simple approximate scale, finding approximate north point; dictating a
map; sketching a piece of simple country; drawing a map from memory;
estimating heights.
iii. _Reporting._--As the value of the men’s work depends largely on
their ability to furnish a clear report they should receive instruction
in this subject. Written reports should be in telegraphic language, and
verbal reports thought out beforehand.
iv. _Concealment._--Their attention should be drawn to the great
importance of dismounting and taking cover and of selecting a
background to suit the colour of their clothing when observing; the
importance of remaining perfectly still; of avoiding the sky line; of
selecting look-out points when on the move, and of getting from one to
another quickly, and unseen.
RANGE FINDING.
=245.= _General instructions._
1. However accurate in itself the instrument for finding the range may
be, satisfactory results can only be expected if the range-takers are
themselves efficient. To ensure this, careful training and regular
practice are essential. In order that the system of instruction may
be similar in each brigade, the brigade commander should personally
supervise it; an officer or qualified non-commissioned officer being
detailed annually to take charge of the instruction of all range-takers
in the brigade.
2. In addition to the authorized establishment of range-takers an
adequate and efficient reserve to replace possible casualties must be
maintained.
3. These requirements necessitate a class being formed each year, which
should commence work during the period of individual training.
4. The men selected for a course must be active and willing to learn.
They must have good hearing and eyesight and a steady hand. They should
be able to write clearly, and it will be an advantage if they can read
a map and be a good judge of distance before commencing work.
5. The course should be a progressive one, beginning with a few short
lectures, which should be devoted to explaining the working of the
instrument, the names of its various parts and their uses, and the
errors that are commonly made. The proper way to handle the instrument
can also be taught.
6. The next step is to take the class out of doors and practise them
in taking ranges to well-defined upright objects, such as chimneys and
later to smaller objects, such as posts, at close and known ranges. Any
errors in the handling of the instrument or in the methods employed
should be pointed out at the time.
7. The men should now be ready to be taken into the country and
practised in taking ranges at first to well-defined objects from three
to four thousand yards away, and subsequently to others, such as crest
lines and hedges, which would form the more usual and less distinct
objectives in war.
8. =It is a matter of the greatest importance that the men should learn
to take ranges with the least possible exposure, in order to avoid
giving any information to the enemy as to the artillery positions.= The
instructor should, from the earliest moment possible, act as though he
were a battery commander and, having pointed out the objects to which
he requires the range, should insist on the men withdrawing under cover
and moving to another position before taking it, unless well concealed
in their present position. The same precautions should be taken when
reporting the range, due allowance being made for any extra distance to
the front or rear that the range was taken from.
9. =All officers should understand the general working of the
instrument in use in their unit and be capable of taking ranges with
it.=
SERVICE OF COMMUNICATION.
=246.= _General system and principles._
1. Artillery communications in the field are divided into:--
i. Internal communications, consisting of those established between the
various artillery headquarters and units.
ii. External communications, which are those formed as a temporary
measure to link up artillery with infantry.
2. The means of communication available for horse and field artillery
are given in Sec. =149=.
3. The signalling personnel allowed is laid down in War Establishments.
This establishment is based on the principle that signalling personnel
is required for the purpose of providing communications downwards,
_i.e._, with subordinates, and laterally, _i.e._, with equals.
To enable commanders of artillery brigades to carry out this principle
they must be able to communicate with brigade stations of the
divisional signal service as well as with their subordinates. The
standard of efficiency of a proportion of the signallers must therefore
be equal to that required of the divisional signal service. On the
other hand, as long distance work is not needed within the batteries,
the standard required of their signallers need not be so high.
The signalling personnel is therefore divided into two classes--
i. Brigade signallers.
ii. Battery signallers.
4. As it is usually of importance to ensure the continuity of
communications when once they have been opened between any two points,
alternative methods should be established, if possible. To enable
this to be done it is essential that men employed on the service of
communication should be capable of acting in any of the capacities laid
down for the classes to which they belong. All signallers should also
be capable of acting as despatch riders, since it will often be quicker
to send a message in this way than by signal. Instructions for training
despatch riders are laid down in Signal Training, Part II.[43]
[43] In course of preparation.
=247.= _Internal communications._
1. For communicating between brigade headquarters and the headquarters
of batteries and ammunition columns an establishment of brigade
signallers is provided as an integral part of brigade headquarters.
These men should be fully qualified signallers as laid down in Training
Manual--Signalling.
This establishment has been calculated on the assumption that
communication with one battery at least will be more conveniently
carried out verbally or by message. Communication by telephone or
visual signalling will not, therefore, be required with more than
two batteries, orderlies being used to communicate with the brigade
ammunition column.
The officer in charge of communications at brigade headquarters is
responsible for allotting the brigade signallers to batteries for
the purpose of maintaining communication between them and brigade
headquarters in accordance with circumstances.
2. Communication within the battery from the battery commander to his
guns and observers will be carried out by the battery signallers. These
battery signallers are maintained solely for purposes of communication
within the battery. Their training is limited to the use of semaphore,
telephone and buzzer.
Communication may be carried out by means of:--
(_a._) Telephones.
(_b._) Semaphore.
(_c._) Orderlies.
For the purpose of maintaining communication between a battery and its
observing station, four signallers are necessary, two at each station.
They should be provided with telephones and flags, so that alternative
means of communication may be available.
Semaphore signalling is the most rapid system of visual signalling with
small flags. (_See_ Sec. =201= (4).)
The best way of utilizing semaphore signalling is to employ two sets of
signallers, each pair having different coloured flags. Those with the
same coloured flags should communicate with each other only.
In sending orders, or the result of observations, by signal the
abbreviations laid down in Sec. =201=, will be used.
=248.= _External communications._
1. Effectual co-operation between artillery and infantry depends
largely on the receipt of timely information. An efficient system of
communication is therefore very important.
2. A personal exchange of views between subordinate infantry and
artillery commanders is likely to produce the best results in a
combined tactical operation. If unable to remain in the vicinity of the
infantry commander, the artillery commander should be represented by an
officer (_See_ Sec. =153= (7).)
3. No rules can be laid down as to the means by which communication is
to be maintained between this officer and the artillery commander.
If circumstances are favourable communication may be maintained by
the brigade telephone or by visual signalling, but as the infantry
commander will usually change his position as the fight progresses, it
may be necessary to rely on orderlies, or a combination of orderlies
and telephone or visual signalling.
4. It may be possible to arrange direct communication between the
artillery commander and advanced observation posts, with a view to
keeping him informed as to the progress of the attacking infantry and
the effect of the artillery fire. (_See_ Sec. =153= (11).)
The means of communication which can be employed will depend on the
nature of the country.
Visual communication will usually be inadvisable on account of the
difficulty of finding positions which are invisible to the enemy,
and the telephone may be expected to give the best results. When no
artillery telephone is available the possibility of sending information
of equal importance to the artillery and infantry through the infantry
communication service should be kept in view. It must be borne in mind
that a message sent by orderly will take an appreciable time to reach
its destination.