3. Vorde din villie, paa iorden som i himmelen. 4. Giff oss i dag
vort daglige bred. 5. Oc forlad oss vor skyld, som wi forlade vore
skyldener. 6. Oc leede oss icke i fristelse. 7. Men frels os fra ont.
Amen.
[From Chamberlayn, p. 70.]
IV.
_Swedish._
Fader war som ast i himmelen. 3. Helgat warde titt nampn. 2. Till komme
titt ricke. 3. Skei tin willie saa paa lordenne, som i himmelen. 4.
Wart dagliga brod giff oss i dagh. 5. Och forlat os wara skulder sa
som ock wi forlaten them oss skildege aro. 6. Och inleed oss icke i
frestelse. 7. Ut an frals oss i fra ondo. Amen.
[From Chamberlayn, p. 70.]
SPECIMENS _of the_ FINN _and_ LAPLAND TONGUES.
I.
The _Finn_ Language.
_Isa meidan joca olet taiwassa. 1. Pyhitetty olcon sinum nimes. 2.
Lahes tulcon sinum waldacundas. 3. Olcon sinun tahtos niin maase cuin
taiwasa. 4. Anna meile tanapaiwana meidan joca paiwainen leipam. 5.
Sa anna meille meidan syndim andexi nuncuin mekin andex annam meidan
welwottistem. 6. Ja ala johdata meita kiusauxen. 7. Mutta paasta meita
pahasta. Amen._
[From Chamberlayn, p. 82.]
II.
The _Lapland_ Tongue.
_Atka mijam juco lee almensisne. 1. Ailis ziaddai tu nam. 2.
Zweigubatta tu ryki. 3. Ziaddus tu willio. naukuchte almesne nau
ei edna mannal. 4. Wadde mijai udni mijan fært pæfwen laibebm. 5.
Jah andagasloite mi jemijan suddoid, naukuchte mije andagasloitebt
kudi mije welgogas lien. 6. Jah sissalaidi mijabni. 7. Æle tocko
kæckzællebma pahast. Amen._
[From Chamberlayn, p. 83.]
* * * * *
_A_ SPECIMEN _of the_ CANTABRIAN _or_ BISCAYAN LANGUAGE, _still
preserved in_ SPAIN.
The _Basque_.
_Gure Aita kerutéan caréna. 1. Erabilbedi sainduqui çure jcena.
2. Ethorbedi çure eressuma. 3. Eguinbedi çure borondatea çerú
an becala turre'an ore. 4. Emandieçagucu egun gure egunorozco
oguia. 5. Eta barkhadietcatgutçu gure çorrac gucere gure coidunei
barkhatcendiotçaguten becala. 6. Eta ezgaitçatcu utc tentacionétan
erortcerat. 7. Aitcitic beguiragaitcatçu gaite gucietaric. Halabiz._
[From Chamberlayn, p. 44.]
Here we find many of the same words, with small variations, in all the
languages of Teutonic origin. It is however observable that the English
have softened some words, by omitting the gutturals. Thus _gehalgud_
in the Anglo-Saxon; _geheiliget_ in the German; _gheheylight_ in the
Belgic; and _geheyligt_ in the Swiss, are softened into _hallowed_ in
English; _taeglich_ and _dagelijcht_ become _daily_. Similar omissions
run thro the language. Thus _nagel_, _hagel_ have become in English
_nail_ and _hail_. The _gh_ in _might_, _night_ are still pronounced by
the Scotch; but the English say _mite_, _nite_.[145]
The affinity between the ancient British, the modern Welsh, and the
Armoric, is very obvious; but in the latter, we find a few Latin or
French words--_pardon_, _peichdon_, _deliur_, which we should naturally
expect from the vicinity of Britanny to the French language.
I have been at the pains to examin a great number of radical words in
the Danish, and find the most of them, amounting to more than four
hundred, very little different from the English. Where the English
write _w_, the Danes write _v_; _vind_ for _wind_. Where the English
write _c_ hard, the Danes, with more judgement, write _k_; _klover_,
_kan_, _kommer_, for _cleave_, _can_, _come_. Where the English write
_wh_, the Danes, with propriety, write _hv_, _v_ having the sound of
_w_; as _hvad_, _hvi_, _hval_; _what_, _why_, _whole_.
The words, common to the Danish and English, are mostly monosyllables.
As a corroborating proof of the Eastern origin of the Goths, authors
produce the resemblance between their religious opinions and the
notions of the Magi. The Scandinavian mythology is preserved in the
EDDA, written by Snorro Sturleson, an Icelander, a learned judge and
first magistrate in the 12th century.
In this there are many notions which seem to bear a great analogy to
the doctrines revealed in the Bible.
It is represented in the Edda, that before creation, "all was one vast
abyss;" an idea not unlike the scripture account of what we usually
call _chaos_.--"That _Surtur_, the black, shall come at the end of the
world, vanquish the gods and give up the universe to the flames"--a
crude notion of the conflagration.--"That _Ymer_ the first man or great
giant, slept and fell into a sweat, and from the pit of his left arm
were born male and female;" this has some resemblance to the scripture
account of the creation of the woman--"That the sons of _Bore_ slew
the giant _Ymer_, and all the giants of the frost were drowned, except
Bengelmer, who was saved in his bark;" in which notion we observe some
tradition of the deluge.
The opinion that the world will be destroyed by fire seems to have
been universal among the Gothic nations. The descriptions of that
catastrophe resemble those of the Stoics and of the ancient Magi and
Zoroaster, from whom the idea was probably taken. These descriptions
all agree with the scripture representation of that event in the
material circumstances.
The doctrine of a future state, or of a renovation of the world, was
part of the Gothic system. It was taught by Zamolxis, the celebrated
Druid of the Getæ and Scythians.---- Herod. Lib. 4. § 95.
In this same Edda, we also find the origin of some customs still
remaining among the descendants of the northern nations. The drinking
of bumpers is not an invention of modern bacchanals; it is mentioned,
fable 25, of the Edda, where it is said Thor challenged one to a
drinking match.
The custom of hanging up bushes on Christmas eve is derived probably
from the superstitious veneration paid to the Misseltoe by the
Scandinavians.
Indeed the festival of Christmas was grafted upon an ancient pagan
feast, celebrated at the winter solstice, in honour of the sun and to
render the new year propitious. It answered to the Roman Saturnalia,
and was probably of as high an origin. The night on which it was
observed was called _Mother Night_, as that which produced the rest;
and the feast itself was called by the Goths _Iuul_.--See Mallet's
North. Antiq. vol. 1. p. 130. Hence the old word _yeul_ or _yule_
for Christmas; a word that is still used, or at least has been used
till within a century in Scotland and the north of England. "Yule,"
says that learned antiquary, Cowel, "in the north parts of England,
is used by the country people as the name of the feast of our Lord's
nativity, usually termed _Christmas_. The sports used at Christmas,
called Christmas Gamboles, they stile _Yule Games_. _Yule_ is the
proper Scotch word for Christmas."----Cowel's Law Dictionary, tit.
Yule. The Parliament passed an act for discharging the _Yule Vacance_,
which was repealed after the union by stat. George I. cap. 8. The
feast was celebrated from time immemorial among the Romans and Goths;
the Christians changed its object and name; tho such is the force of
custom, that the Gothic name existed in Scotland till lately, and
perhaps still exists among the lower ranks of people.
From the northern nations also we have the names of the days of the
week; or at least of some of them. The ancient Goths devoted particular
days to particular deities.
TUESDAY was _Tyrsdag_, from Tyr the God of bravery. It is in the
Danish, _Tyrsdag_, and in the Swedish _Tisdag_.
WEDNESDAY is _Woden'sdag_, from _Woden_, a celebrated warrior deified.
In Icelandic, it is _Wonsdag_; in Swedish, _Odinsdag_; in Dutch,
_Woensdag_; in Anglo Saxon, _Wodensdag_.
THURSDAY is from _Thor_, god of the air. In Danish it is _Thorsdag_; in
Swedish _Torsdag_.
FRIDAY is from _Frea_, the earth and goddess of love, answering to the
Venus of the Greeks. In some languages it is called _Freytag_.---- See
Mallet's North. Antiquities.
I will just add, it is a weighty argument in favor of the truth of
the Scripture history, and of the opinion here advanced of the common
origin of languages, that in all the ancient and modern European
alphabets, the letters are of a similar figure and power, and arranged
nearly in the same order.[146] The true Greek letters were only the
Cadmean letters reversed: This reversal took place early in Greece,
when the ancient Phenician and Hebrew order of writing from right to
left, was changed for the modern order, which is from left to right.
The Hebrew or Phenician Alphabet was clearly the parent of the Greek,
Roman and Gothic.
[B], page 52.
The reader will please to accept the following specimen, which will
convey an idea of the whole.
_Punic._
Yth al o nim ua lonuth! sicorathissi me com syth chim lach chunyth mum
ys tyal myethi barii im schi.
_Irish._
Iath all o nimh uath lonnaithe! socruidhse me com sith chimi lach
chuinigh! muini istoil miocht beiridh iar mo scith.
_English._
Omnipotent, much dreaded Deity of this country! asswage my troubled
mind! Thou, the support of feeble captives! being now exhausted with
fatigue, of thy free will, guide me to my children.
In this example the affinity between the Punic and Irish is striking;
and the same runs thro the whole speech.
That Ireland received colonies from Spain or Carthage is probable from
other circumstances. The Irish historians say their ancestors received
letters from the Phenicians; and the Irish language was called _Bearni
Feni_, the Phenician tongue. _Cadiz_ in Spain was first settled by
Phenicians; and _cadas_ in Irish signifies _friendship_.
The Irish seems to be a compound of _Celtic_ and _Punic_; and if
Ireland was peopled originally from Carthage, and received colonies
from thence, the event must have been subsequent to the first Punic
war; for this was the period when the Carthaginians adopted the Roman
letters, and there is no inscription in Ireland in the Phenician
character.
The Hebrew was the root of the Phenician and the Punic. The Maltese
is evidently a branch of the Punic; for it approaches nearer to the
Hebrew and Chaldaic, than to the Arabic. For this assertion we have
the authority of _M. Maius_, professor of the Greek and oriental
languages in the Ludovician university of Giessen, who had his
accounts from _Ribier_, a missionary Jesuit and native of Malta. This
fact will account for the correspondence between the Irish and the
Maltese, in several particulars. In Maltese, _Alla_ signifies _God_;
in Irish, _All_ is _mighty_. _Baol_ in Maltese, and _Bel_ or _Bal_ in
Irish, signify _Chief Deity_ or _Sun_. In Maltese, _ordu_ is _end_ or
_summit_; in Irish, _ard_, _arda_, are _hill_, _high_. These words are
probably from the same root as the Latin _arduus_, and the English
_hard_, implying labor. _Bandla_ in Maltese, is _a cord_; in Irish,
_bann_ is suspension. In Maltese, _gala_ is the sail of a ship; and in
Irish, _gal_ is a gale of wind. These Maltese words are taken from a
Punica Maltese Dictionary, annexed to a treatise, Della lingua Punica
presentamente usitate da Maltese, by G. Pietro Francisco Agius de
Solandas.
There is also a correspondence between the Irish and Punic, in the
variation of their nouns, as may be observed in the following example.
_Punic._ _Irish._
Nom. A dar, the house an dae, the house, &c.
Gen. Mit a dar, of the house mend na dae
Dat. La dar, with or to the house la dae
Acc. A dar, the house an dae
Voc. Ya dar, O house a dae
Abl. Fa dar, with or by the house fa dae
In several particulars the Irish bears a close affinity to the Hebrew
and Greek. It was the custom with the Hebrews, and it still remains
with them, to face the east in the act of devotion. From this practice
it proceeded, that the same word which signified _right hand_,
signified also _south_; the same with _left hand_ and _north_; _before_
and _east_; _behind_ and _west_. This is the case also in the Irish
language.
_Hebrew._ _Irish._
Jamin,[147] right hand, south deas, the same
Smol, left hand, north thuaidh, the same
Achor, behind, west tar, the same
Cedem, before, east oir and oithear, the same, or
rising sun. Latin, oriens
That the Greeks had an intercourse with the islands of Britain and
Ireland, or sent colonies thither, is not impossible; and Dr. Todd, not
many years ago, discovered, at Colchester, in Essex, an altar dedicated
to the Tyrian Hercules, with an inscription in Greek capitals,
~HÊRAKLÊS TYREO DEIO DOKA ARCHIERIA~.
There is a place in Ireland called _Airchil_. And it is a remarkable
fact, that some fragments of old Irish laws, which, for a long time,
puzzled the antiquaries of the nation, are found to be written in
a very ancient language, and in the manner which the Greeks called
_Boustrophedon_; that is, from right to left, and from left to right,
in the manner that oxen plow. This was supposed to be an improvement
on the Hebrew and Phenician order of writing all the lines from right
to left, which Cadmus introduced into Greece. This manner of writing
in Greece was prior to Homer, and if the Irish copied from the Greeks,
which is not impossible, the fact would prove a very early settlement
of Ireland by Greek colonies or their descendants. See Leland's Hist.
of Ireland, Prelim. Dis.
All these circumstances corroborate the opinion that the Celts came
originally from the east, and formed settlements on the shores of the
Mediterranean and Atlantic. The affinity between the Phenician, the
Punic, the Maltese, the Irish and the British languages, discoverable
in a great number of words, makes it probable, that after colonies
were settled at Carthage and at Cadiz, some commercial intercourse
was carried on between them and the nations at the head of the
Mediterranean, and that an emigration from Spain might people Ireland
before any settlements had been made there by the Gauls or Britons. It
is however more probable that the Punic words in the Irish language
might have been introduced into that island by subsequent colonization.
At any rate, from the Hebrew, Chaldaic, or Phenician, or the common
root of these languages, proceeded the Punic, the Maltese, the Iberian
or Spanish, the Gaulish, the British, and the Irish. The order I have
mentioned is obvious and natural; and history furnishes us with some
facts to strengthen the supposition.
[C], page 58.
Bishop Hickes, in his Saxon Grammar, which is a vast treasure of
valuable learning, has preserved a specimen of the language and of the
opinions of the English respecting it, in an extract from a manuscript
of one Ranulphus Higdenus, _de Incolarum linguis_, translated by John
Trevisa in 1385, and the ninth of Richard II. Trevisa's stile bears
some affinity to that of Chaucer, with whom he was cotemporary.
"As it is knowne how meny maner peple beeth in this land: There
beeth also so many dyvers longages and tongues. Nathless, Walschemen
and Scotts, that hath nought medled with other nations, holdeth wel
nyh his firste langage and speeche: But yif the Scottes that were
sometime considerat and woned with the Picts draw somewhat after
hir[148] speeche: But yif the Flemynges that woneth in the weste
side of Wales haveth left her strange speeche and speketh Sexon
like now. Also Englishmen, they had from the begynnynge thre maner
speeche, northerne, sowtherne, and middel speeche in the middle of
the lande, as they come of the maner peple of Germania. Nathless by
comyxtion and mellynge[149]; first with Danes and afterwards with
Normans, in meny the contray langage is apayred[150] and som useth
strong wlafferynge,[4] chiterynge,[4] hartynge[4] and gartynge,[4]
grisbayting;[151] this apayryng[152] of the burthe of the tunge is
because of tweie thinges: oon is for children in scole, agenst the
usage and maner of all other nations, beeth compelled for to leve
hire owne langage, and for to consture hir lessons and here[153]
thinges in Frenche and so they haveth sethe[154] Normans came firste
into England. Also gentilmen children beeth taught to speke Frenche
from the tyme that they beeth rokked in hire cradle and conneth[155]
speke and play with a childes brache and uplandissche men[156] will
likne hymself to gentilmen and fondeth[157] with the greet besynesse
for to speke Frenche for to be told of. [Trevisa, the translator
remarks here--"This maner was moche used to, for first deth,[158] and
is sithe[159] sum del[160] changed. For John Cornwaile, a maister of
grammer, changed the lore[161] in grammer scole and construction of
Frenche into Englishe. And Richard Peneriche lerned the manere techynge
of him as other men, of Penriche. So that now the yere of our Lorde
a thousand thre hundred and four score and fyve and of the second
king Richard after the conquest, nyne; and alle the grammar scoles of
England children lerneth Frenche and construeth and lerneth an Englishe
and haveth thereby advantage in oon side, and disadvantage in another
side. Here[162] advantage is that they lerneth hir grammer in lasse
tyme, than children were wonned to doo. Disadvantage is, that now
children of grammer scole conneth na more Frenche than can hir _lift
heele_,[163] and that is harme for hem an they schulle[164] passe the
see and travaille in strange londes and in many other places. Also
gentilmen haveth now moche left for to teche here children Frenche."]
_Ranulphus_.--Hit seemeth a great wonder how Englishe men and her[165]
own longage and tongue is so dyverse of sown in this oon ilande, and
the longage of Normandie is comlynge[166] of another lande and hath oon
maner soun among all men that speketh hit arigt in England. [Trevisa's
remark--"Nevertheless there is as many diverse maner Frenche in the
reeme[167] of France, as is dyvers maner Englishe in the reeme of
England."] _R_. Also of the aforesaid Saxon tonge that is deled[168]
athree and is abide scarceliche[169] with few uplandishe men, is great
wonder. For men of the est with men of the west is as it were under
the same partie of hevene accordeth more in sownynge of speeche than
men of the north with men of the south. Therefore it is that Mercii,
that beeth men of myddel England, as it were, parteners of the endes,
understandeth bettrie the side longages than northerne and southerne
understandeth either other. All the longage of the Northumbers and
specialliche at York, is so scharp, slitting and frotynge and unschape
that the southerne men may that longage unnethe[170] understande. I
trow that is because that they beeth nyh to strange men and nations,
that speketh strongliche, and also because the kinges of Englande
woneth[171] alway fer[172] from that contray, for they beeth more
turned to the south contray, and yif they goeth to the northe contray,
they goeth with great helpe and strengthe. The cause why they beeth
more in the southe contray than in the northe, for it may be better
corn londe, more peple, more noble cities, and more profitable
havenes."[173]
On this passage we may make the following remarks:
1. That the third person singular of the verb is invariably used
with _plural_ as well as singular nouns; _they_ _beeth_, _haveth_.
Whereas in Chaucer and Mandeville the same person ends generally
in _en_; _they seyn_ for _they say_.
The same third person was used for the imperative, by the best English
writers,
"And soft take me in your armes twey,
For love of God, and hearkeneth what I sey."
Chaucer, Knight's Tale, 2783.
"And at certyn houres, they seyn to certyn offices,
_maketh pees_;" that is, _make peace_.--Mandeville, p. 281.
2. That _yif_ is used for _if_; a proof that _if_ is a verb, a
contraction of _gif_ or _yif_ (for they were used promiscuously)
the imperative of _gifan_, to give.[174]
3. That the subjunctive form of verbs was not used after _if_;
_and yif they goeth to the northe contray_.
4. That there were three principal dialects in the English; the
_northern_, which was corrupted by the Scots and Picts, and from
which the present Yorkshire language is derived; the _middle_,
which came from Germany and retained its primitive purity, and
is the true parent of modern English; and the _southern_, by
which is meant, either the language of the southern parts which
was corrupted by an intercourse with foreigners; or what is more
probable, the language spoken in Devonshire, and on the borders of
Cornwall, which was mixed with the old British, and is now almost
unintelligible.
5. That the conquests of the Danes and Normans had corrupted the
pure language of the Saxons.
6. That this corruption proceeded principally from the teaching of
French in schools.
7. That country people, (uplandish men) imitated the practice of
the polite, and learnt French, as many do now, _to be told of_.
8. That Cornwail and others, in Trevisa's time, had begun to
reform this practice.
9. That French had almost banished the native Saxon from the
polite part of the nation, and that the _uplandish_ or western
people alone retained it uncorrupted.
10. That the kings of England resided principally in the southern
parts of the kingdom, where the land was most fertile, best
cultivated, most populous, and most advantageous for commerce.
[D], page 59.
Chaucer's particular patron was John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. He
married Philippa, the sister of Lady Swinford, who before her marriage
and after her husband's death, was one of the Duke's family.
"Grete well _Chaucer_ when you mete--
Of dittees and of songes glade,
The which he----made
The londe fulfilled is over all."
Gower.
Gower is said to have been Chaucer's preceptor.
"My maister _Chaucer_--chiefe poet of Bretayne
Whom all this lond should of right preferre,
Sith of our language he was _the lode starre_,
That made first to dystylle and rayne
The gold dew dropys of speche and eloquence
Into our tungue through his excellence."
Lydgate.
Chaucer's merit in improving the English language is celebrated by
other poets of his time--Occleve, Douglas and Dunbar. They call him the
_floure of eloquence_, the _fader in science_, and the _firste fynder
of our fayre langage_.
He died in 1400.
It must however be remarked that Chaucer did not import foreign words,
so much as introduce them into books and give them currency in writing.
It must further be observed that when I speak of the incorporation of
Latin words with the English, I would not be understood to mean that
words were taken directly from the Roman tongue and anglicised. On
the other hand, they mostly came thro the channel of the Norman or
Provençal French; and perhaps we may call them with propriety _French_
words; for they had lost much of their Roman form among the Gauls,
Franks and Normans.
The most correct account I have seen of the state of the language in
the 11th, 12th, 13th and 14th centuries, is in the first volume of
Bell's edition of Chaucer.
We have the authority of Ingulphus, a historian of credit, for
alleging that the French began to be fashionable in England, before
the conquest. Edward the Confessor resided many years in Normandy,
and imbibed a predilection for the French manners and language. On
his accession to the throne of England, in 1043, he promoted many of
his Norman favorites to the first dignities in the kingdom; under the
influence of the king and his friends, the English began to imitate the
French fashions.
But the conquest in 1066, completed the change. The court of William
consisted principally of foreigners who could speak no language but
French. Most of the high offices and rich livings in the kingdom
were filled with Normans, and the castles which, by order of the
conqueror, were built in different parts of the country, were
garrisoned by foreign soldiers, in whom the king might most safely
confide.[175] Public business was transacted in the French, and it
became dishonorable or a mark of low breeding, not to understand that
language. Indeed under the first reigns after the conquest, it was a
disgrace to be called an _Englishman_. In this depressed state of the
English, their language could not fail to be neglected by the polite
part of the nation.