W._A Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines containing a clear exposition of their principles and practice

WACKE, is a massive mineral, intermediate between claystone and basalt.

It is of a greenish-gray colour; vesicular in structure; dull, opaque;

streak shining; soft, easily frangible; spec. grav. 2·55 to 2·9; it

fuses like basalt.

WADD, is the provincial name of plumbago in Cumberland; and also of an

ore of manganese in Derbyshire, which consists of the peroxide of that

metal, associated with nearly its own weight of oxide of iron.

WADDING (_Ouate_, Fr.; _Watte_, Germ.); is the spongy web which serves

to line ladies’ pelisses, &c. _Ouate_, or _Wat_, was the name originally

given to the glossy downy tufts found in the pods of the plant commonly

called _Apocyn_, and by botanists _Asclepias syriaca_, which was

imported from Egypt and Asia Minor for the purpose of stuffing cushions,

&c. Wadding is now made with a lap or fleece of cotton prepared by the

carding-engine (see _Carding_, COTTON MANUFACTURE), which is applied to

tissue paper by a coat of size, made by boiling the cuttings of

hare-skins, and adding a little alum to the gelatinous solution. When

two laps are glued with their faces together, they form the most downy

kind of wadding.

WAFERS. There are two manners of manufacturing wafers: 1, with wheat

flour and water, for the ordinary kind; and 2, with gelatine. 1. A

certain quantity of fine flour is to be diffused through pure water, and

so mixed as to leave no clotty particles. This thin pap is then coloured

with one or other of the matters to be particularly described under the

second head; and which are, vermillion, sulphate of indigo, and gamboge.

The pap is not allowed to ferment, but must be employed immediately

after it is mixed. For this purpose a tool is employed, consisting of

two plates of iron, which come together like pincers or a pair of

tongs, leaving a certain small definite space betwixt them. These plates

are first slightly heated, greased with butter, filled with the pap,

closed, and then exposed for a short time to the heat of a charcoal

fire. The iron plates being allowed to cool, on opening them, the thin

cake appears dry, solid, brittle, and about as thick as a playing-card.

By means of annular punches of different sizes, with sharp edges, the

cake is cut into wafers. 2. The transparent wafers are made as

follows:--

Dissolve fine glue, or isinglass, in such a quantity of water, that the

solution, when cold, may be consistent. Let it be poured hot upon a

plate of mirror glass, (previously warmed with steam, and slightly

greased,) which is fitted in a metallic frame, with edges just as high

as the wafers should be thick. A second plate of glass, heated and

greased, is laid on the surface, so as to touch every point of the

gelatine, resting on the edges of the frame. By this pressure, the thin

cake of gelatine is made perfectly uniform. When the two plates of glass

get cold, the gelatine becomes solid, and may easily be removed. It is

then cut with proper punches into discs of different sizes.

The colouring-matters ought not to be of an insalubrious kind.

For red wafers, carmine is well adapted, when they are not to be

transparent; but this colour is dear, and can be used only for the finer

kinds. Instead of it, a decoction of brazil wood, brightened with a

little alum, may be employed.

For yellow, an infusion of saffron or turmeric has been prescribed; but

a decoction of weld, fustic, or Persian berries, might be used.

Sulphate of indigo, partially saturated with potash, is used for the

blue wafers; and this mixed with yellow, for the greens. Some recommend

the sulphate to be nearly neutralized with chalk, and to treat the

liquor with alcohol, in order to obtain the best blue dye for wafers.

Common wafers are, however, coloured with the substances mentioned at

the beginning of the article; and for the cheaper kinds, red lead is

used instead of vermillion, and turmeric instead of gamboge.

WALNUT HUSKS, or PEELS (_Brout des noix_, Fr.); are much employed by the

French dyers for rooting or giving dun colours.

WARP (_Chaine_, Fr.; _Kette_, _Auschweif_, _Zettel_, Germ.); is the name

of the longitudinal threads or yarns, whether of cotton, linen, silk, or

wool, which being decussated at right angles by the woof or weft

threads, form a piece of cloth. The warp yarns are parallel, and

continuous from end to end of the web. See WEAVING, for a description of

the _warping-mill_.

WASH, is the fermented wort of the distiller.

WASHING. See BLEACHING, and SCOURING.

WATERING OF STUFFS (_Moirage_, Fr.); is a process to which silk and

other textile fabrics are subjected, for causing them to exhibit a

variety of undulated reflections, and plays of light. It is produced by

sprinkling water upon the goods, and then passing them through a

calender, either with cold or hot rollers, plain or variously indented.

WATER-PROOF CLOTH. See CAOUTCHOUC, and GELATINE.

A patent was obtained, in August, 1830, by Mr. Thomas Hancock, for

rendering textile fabrics impervious to water and air, by spreading the

liquid juice of the caoutchouc tree upon the surfaces of the goods, and

then exposing them to the air to dry. It does not appear that this

project has been realized in our manufactures.

Mr. William Simpson Potter proposes, in his patent, of April, 1835, to

render fabrics water-proof by imbuing them with a solution of isinglass,

alum, and soap, by means of a brush applied to the wrong side of the

cloth, distended upon a table. After it is dry, it must be brushed on

the wrong side, against the grain. Then the brush is to be dipped in

clean water, and passed lightly over the cloth. The gloss caused by the

above application can be taken off by brushing the goods when they are

dry. Cloth so prepared is said to be impervious to water, but not to

air.

I have examined woollen cloth now on sale in a shop in the Strand, which

may be breathed through with the greatest facility, but which retains

water upon its surface, as is evinced by a body of water standing upon a

concave piece of it tied over a show-glass in the window.

Mr. Sievier’s plan of rendering cloth water-proof, for which he obtained

a patent in December, 1835, consists in spreading over it, with a brush,

a solution of India rubber in spirits of turpentine, at one or more

applications, and then applying a similar solution mixed with acetate of

lead, litharge, sulphate of zinc, gum mastic, or other drying material.

He next takes wool, or other textile material, cut into proper lengths,

and spreads it upon the surface of the fabric varnished in this manner,

for the purpose of forming the nap or pile. He then presses the cloth by

means of rollers, or brushes, so as to fix the nap firmly to its

surface.

WATERS, MINERAL--TABLE I. ANALYSES of the principal MINERAL WATERS of

Germany.

+------------------------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+-------+

| | | | | |nen. |

+------------------------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+-------+

|Carbonate of Soda | 7·2712 | 8·0625 | 6·1133 | 5·3499| 4·5976|

|Ditto of Lithia | 0·0150 | 0·0405 | 0·0127 | 0·0858| 0·0507|

|Ditto of Baryta | -- | 0·0022 | -- | -- | -- |

|Ditto of Strontia | 0·0055 | 0·0080 | 0·0165 | 0·0028| 0·0040|

|Ditto of Lime | 1·7775 | 0·8555 | 1·7497 | 2·9509| 3·0085|

|Ditto of Magnesia | 1·0275 | 0·5915 | 1·4107 | 2·0390| 2·2867|

|Do. (Proto) of Manganese| 0·0048 | 0·0028 | -- | 0·0288| 0·0692|

|Ditto (Proto) of Iron | 0·0208 | 0·0120 | 0·0480 | 0·1319| 0·2995|

|Sub-Phos. of Lime | 0·0012 | -- | -- | -- | -- |

|Ditto of Alumina | 0·0019 | 0·0014 | 0·0045 | -- | 0·0040|

|Sulphate of Potassa | -- | 0·4050 | 0·2220 | -- | -- |

|Ditto of Soda | 14·9019 | -- | 2·2095 |28·5868|16·9022|

|Ditto of Lithia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |

|Ditto of Lime | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |

|Ditto of Strontia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |

|Ditto of Magnesia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |

|Nitr. of Magnesia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |

|Chlor. of Potassium | - - | 0·0338 | -- | -- | -- |

|Ditto of Sodium | 5·9820 | 5·7255 | 0·8752 |10·1727| 6·7472|

|Ditto of Magnesium | - - | -- | -- | -- | -- |

|Fluoride of Calcium | 0·0184 | 0·0014 | -- | -- | -- |

|Alumina | - - | -- | -- | 0·0023| -- |

|Silica | 0·4329 | 0·3104 | 0·2531 | 0·2908| 0·5023|

| +-----------+----------+--------+-------+-------+

|Total | 31·4606 | 16·0525 |12·9152 |49·6417|34·4719|

| +-----------+----------+--------+-------+-------+

|cubic inches | 58 | 51 | 98 | 105 | 146 |

| |Neub. 138°|Kess. 117°| 58° | 53° | 46° |

+------------------------+-----------+----------+--------+-------+-------+

+------------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+

|Ingredients in One |Fran- | mont. | Pou- |ingen. | nau. | zer. |

| |nen. | | | | | |

| | | | | | | |

+------------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+

|Carbonate of Soda |3·8914| -- |0·5531|12·3328|4·9658| 4·6162|

|Ditto of Lithia |0·0282| | | | | |

|Ditto of Baryta | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0·0014|

|Ditto of Strontia |0·0023| -- | -- | -- | -- | 0·0144|

|Ditto of Lime |1·3501| 4·7781|0·7387| 1·8667|2·2279| 1·4004|

|Ditto of Magnesia |0·5040| -- |0·8425| 1·2983|1·6282| 1·5000|

|Do. (Proto) of Manganese|0·0322| 0·0364|0·0389| -- | -- | -- |

|Ditto (Proto) of Iron |0·1762| 0·3213|0·2813| -- | -- | -- |

|Sub-Phos. of Lime |0·0172| -- |0·0102| 0·0061| -- | 0·0007|

|Ditto of Alumina |0·0092| 0·0110|0·0064| -- | -- | 0·0020|

|Sulphate of Potassa | -- | 0·0314|0·0598| -- |0·2154| 0·2978|

|Ditto of Soda |8·3785| 1·6092|0·0289| 0·1267|0·0315| -- |

|Ditto of Lithia | -- | 0·0067| -- | -- | -- | -- |

|Ditto of Lime | -- | 5·0265| -- | -- | -- | -- |

|Ditto of Strontia | -- | 0·0154| -- | -- | -- | -- |

|Ditto of Magnesia | -- | 2·3684| -- | -- | -- | -- |

|Nitr. of Magnesia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |

|Chlor. of Potassium | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0·2685|

|Ditto of Sodium |6·9229| -- |0·3371| 3·2337|0·4072|12·9690|

|Ditto of Magnesium | -- | 0·8450| -- | -- | -- | -- |

|Fluoride of Calcium | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 0·0013|

|Alumina | -- | -- | -- | -- |0·0185| |

|Silica |0·3548| 0·3727|0·3739| 0·0657|0·2021| 0·2265|

| +------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+

|Total |1·6670|15·4221|3·2691|18·9300|9·6966|21·2982|

| +------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+

|cubic inches | 154 | 160 | 136 | 135 | 163 | 126 |

| | 53° | 56° | 50° | 50° | 51° | 58° |

| | | | | | | |

| |ius | |ve. |schoff.|ve. | |

+------------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+

+------------------------+-------+-------+--------+

| | | | |

+------------------------+-------+-------+--------+

|Carbonate of Soda | 4·6162| | |

|Ditto of Baryta | 0·0014| | |

|Ditto of Strontia | 0·0144| | |

|Ditto of Lime | 1·4004| 5·1045| 0·5775|

|Ditto of Magnesia | 1·5000| 0·8235| 4·8045|

|Do. (Proto) of Manganese| -- | 0·0032| |

|Ditto (Proto) of Iron | -- | 0·0095| |

|Sub-Phos. of Lime | 0·0007| 0·0117| 0·0026|

|Ditto of Alumina | 0·0020| 0·0088| |

|Sulphate of Potassa | 0·2978| 3·6705| 3·6000|

|Ditto of Soda | -- |17·6220| 92·8500|

|Ditto of Lithia | -- | | |

|Ditto of Lime | -- | 1·1287| 1·9500|

|Ditto of Strontia | -- | 0·0347| |

|Ditto of Magnesia | -- |62·3535| 69·8145|

|Nitr. of Magnesia | -- | 5·9302| |

|Chlor. of Potassium | 0·2685| | |

|Ditto of Sodium |12·9690| | |

|Ditto of Magnesium | -- | 1·2225| 14·7495|

|Fluoride of Calcium | 0·0013| | |

|Silica | 0·2265| 0·0900| 0·1320|

| +-------+-------+--------+

|Total |21·2982|98·0133|188·4806|

| +-------+-------+--------+

|cubic inches | 126 | 20 | 7 |

| | 58° | 58° | 58° |

| | | | |

| | | | |

+------------------------+-------+-------+--------+

TABLE II.--The COMPOSITION of other celebrated MINERAL WATERS.

+------------------------------+------+--------------------------+

|Names of the Springs. |Grains| Cubic Inches of Gases. |

| | of +------+-----+------+------+

| | | |acid.| gen. | |

+------------------------------+------+------+-----+------+------+

| | | | | | |

| Kilburn (1)--acidulous. |138240| -- | 84·0| 36·0 | -- |

| | | | | | |

| Harrowgate (2) |103643| -- | 8·0| 19·0 | 7·0 |

| Moffat (2) |103643| -- | 1·0| 10·0 | 4·0 |

| Aix-la-Chapelle (3) | 8940| -- | -- | 13·06| -- |

| Enghein (4) | 92160| -- | 18·5| 7·0 | -- |

| | | | | | |

| Seidlitz | 58309| -- | 8·0| -- | -- |

| Cheltenham (5) |103643| -- | 30·3| 3·0 | 12·0 |

| Plombieres (6) | 14600| -- | -- | -- | -- |

| Dunblane (7) sp. gr. 1·00475| 7291| -- | -- | -- | -- |

| Pitcaithley (7) | 7291| -- | 1·0| -- | -- |

| | | | | | |

| Tunbridge (3) |103643| 1·4 | 10·6| -- | 4·0 |

| Brighton (8) | 58309| -- | 18·0| -- | -- |

| Toplitz (9) | 22540| -- | -- | -- | -- |

| | | | | | |

| Bath (10) | 15360| -- | 2·4| -- | -- |

| Buxton (11) | 58309| -- | -- | -- | 2·0 |

| Bristol (12) | 58309| -- | 30·3| -- | -- |

| Matlock | 58309| -- | -- | -- | -- |

| Malvern (13) | 58309| -- | -- | -- | -- |

| | | | | | |

| Dead Sea (14) sp. gr. 1·211 | 100| -- | -- | -- | -- |

| Do. (15) sp. gr. 1·245 | | -- | -- | -- | -- |

| Do. (16) sp. gr. 1·2283| | -- | -- | -- | -- |

| Sea water, Forth (7) | 7291| -- | -- | -- | -- |

+------------------------------+------+------+-----+------+------+

+------------------------------+--------------------------+

|Names of the Springs. | Carbonates of |

| +-----+-----+-----+--------+

| | | |ne- | |

| | | |sia. | |

+------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+--------+

| | grs.|grs. |grs. | grs. |

| Kilburn (1)--acidulous. | -- | 2·4 | 1·25| 0·3-1/4|

| | | | | |

| Harrowgate (2) | -- |18·5 | 5·5 | -- |

| Moffat (2) | -- | -- | -- | -- |

| Aix-la-Chapelle (3) | -- |15·25| 5·89| -- |

| Enghein (4) | -- |21·4 | 1·35| -- |

| | | | | |

| Seidlitz | -- | 6·7 |21·0 | -- |

| Cheltenham (5) | -- | -- |12·5 | 5·0 |

| Plombieres (6) | 36·0| 0·4 | -- | -- |

| Dunblane (7) sp. gr. 1·00475| -- | 0·5 | -- | 0·17 |

| Pitcaithley (7) | -- | 0·5 | -- | -- |

| | | | | |

| Tunbridge (3) | -- | -- | -- | 1·0 |

| Brighton (8) | -- | -- | -- | -- |

| Toplitz (9) | 13·5|16·5 | -- | 32·5 |

| | | | | |

| Bath (10) | -- | 1·6 | -- | 0·004 |

| Buxton (11) | -- |10·5 | -- | -- |

| Bristol (12) | -- |13·5 | -- | -- |

| Matlock | -- | -- | -- | -- |

| Malvern (13) | 5·33| 1·6 | 0·92| 0·625 |

| | | | | |

| Dead Sea (14) sp. gr. 1·211 | -- | -- | -- | -- |

| Do. (15) sp. gr. 1·245 | -- | -- | -- | -- |

| Do. (16) sp. gr. 1·2283| -- | -- | -- | -- |

| Sea water, Forth (7) | -- | -- | -- | -- |

+------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+--------+

+------------------------------+--------------------------+

|Names of the Springs. | Sulphates of |

| +------+------+------+-----+

| | | | ne- | |

| | | | sia. | |

+------------------------------+------+------+------+-----+

| | grs. | grs. | grs. | grs.|

| Kilburn (1)--acidulous. |18·2 |13·0 |91·0 | -- |

| | | | | |

| Harrowgate (2) | -- | -- | 0·5 | -- |

| Moffat (2) | -- | -- | -- | -- |

| Aix-la-Chapelle (3) | -- | -- | -- | -- |

| Enghein (4) | -- |33·3 | 5·8 | -- |

| | | | | |

| Seidlitz | -- |41·1 |14·44 | -- |

| Cheltenham (5) |48·0 |40·0 | -- | -- |

| Plombieres (6) | 1·0 | -- | -- | -- |

| Dunblane (7) sp. gr. 1·00475| 3·7 | -- | -- | -- |

| Pitcaithley (7) | 0·9 | -- | -- | -- |

| | | | | |

| Tunbridge (3) | -- | 1·25 | -- | -- |

| Brighton (8) | -- |32·7 | -- |11·2 |

| Toplitz (9) | -- | -- | -- | -- |

| | | | | |

| Bath (10) | 3·0 |18·0 | -- | -- |

| Buxton (11) | -- | 2·5 | -- | -- |

| Bristol (12) |11·2 |11·7 | -- | -- |

| Matlock | -- |trace | -- | -- |

| Malvern (13) | 2·896| -- | -- | -- |

| | | | | |

| Dead Sea (14) sp. gr. 1·211 | -- | ·054| -- | -- |

| Do. (15) sp. gr. 1·245 | -- | -- | -- | -- |

| Do. (16) sp. gr. 1·2283| -- | -- | -- | -- |

| Sea water, Forth (7) |25·6 | -- | -- | -- |

+------------------------------+------+------+------+-----+

+------------------------------+--------------------------+

|Names of the Springs. | Muriates of |

| +-------+-----+------+-----+

| | Soda. |Lime.| Mag- |Pot- |

| | | | ne- |ash. |

| | | | sia. | |

+------------------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+

| | grs. | grs.| grs.| grs.|

| Kilburn (1)--acidulous. | 6·0 | 0·6 | 2·8 | -- |

| | | | | |

| Harrowgate (2) |615·5 | 3·0 | 9·1 | -- |

| Moffat (2) | 3·6 | -- | -- | -- |

| Aix-la-Chapelle (3) | 6·21 | -- | -- | -- |

| Enghein (4) | 2·4 | -- | 8·0 | -- |

| | | | | |

| Seidlitz | -- | -- | 36·5 | -- |

| Cheltenham (5) | 5·0 | -- | 12·5 | -- |

| Plombieres (6) | 2·0 | -- | -- | -- |

| Dunblane (7) sp. gr. 1·00475| 21·0 |20·8 | -- | -- |

| Pitcaithley (7) | 12·7 |20·2 | -- | -- |

| | | | | |

| Tunbridge (3) | 0·5 | -- | 2·25| -- |

| Brighton (8) | 12·2 | -- | 6·0 | -- |

| Toplitz (9) | 61·3 |28·5 | -- | -- |

| | | | | |

| Bath (10) | 6·6 | -- | -- | -- |

| Buxton (11) | 1·5 | -- | -- | -- |

| Bristol (12) | 4·0 | -- | 7·25| -- |

| Matlock | -- | -- | -- | -- |

| Malvern (13) | 1·55 | -- | -- | -- |

| | | | | |

| Dead Sea (14) sp. gr. 1·211 | 10·676| 3·8 | 10·1 | |

| Do. (15) sp. gr. 1·245 | 7·8 |10·6 | 24·2 | |

| Do. (16) sp. gr. 1·2283| 6·95 | 4·0 | 15·31| |

| Sea water, Forth (7) |159·3 | 5·7 | 35·5 |trace|

| | | | |[70] |

+------------------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+

+------------------------------+----+----+----+-----+

|Names of the Springs. |Sil-|Alu-|Res-|Tem- |

| |ica.|mi- |ins.|pera-|

| | |na. | |ture.|

| | | | | |

+------------------------------+----+----+----+-----+

| |grs.|grs.|grs.| |

| Kilburn (1)--acidulous. | -- | -- | 6·0| cold|

| | | | | |

| Harrowgate (2) | -- | -- | -- | cold|

| Moffat (2) | -- | -- | -- | cold|

| Aix-la-Chapelle (3) | -- | -- | -- | 143°|

| Enghein (4) | -- | -- | -- | cold|

| | | | | |

| Seidlitz | -- | -- | -- | cold|

| Cheltenham (5) | -- | -- | -- | cold|

| Plombieres (6) | -- | -- | -- | cold|

| Dunblane (7) sp. gr. 1·00475| -- | -- | -- | cold|

| Pitcaithley (7) | -- | -- | -- | cold|

| | | | | |

| Tunbridge (3) | -- | -- | -- | cold|

| Brighton (8) |1·12| -- | -- | cold|

| Toplitz (9) | -- |15·1| -- | cold|

| | | | | |

| Bath (10) | 0·4| -- | -- | 114°|

| Buxton (11) | -- | -- | -- | 82°|

| Bristol (12) | -- | -- | -- | 74°|

| Matlock | -- | -- | -- | 66°|

| Malvern (13) | -- | -- | -- | cold|

| | | | | |

+------------------------------+----+----+----+-----+

(1) Schmesser.

(2) Garnet.

(3) Babington.

(5) Fothergill.

(6) Vauquelin.

(7) Dr. Murray.

(8) Marcet.

(9) John.

(10) Phillips.

(11) Pearson.

(12) Carrick.

(13) Dr. Philip.

(14) Dr. Marcet.

(15) Klaproth.

(16) M. Gay Lussac.

[70] Dr. Wollaston.

Mineral waters may, in most cases, be artificially prepared, by the

skilful application of the knowledge derived from analysis, with such

precision as to imitate very closely the native springs. When the

various earthy or metallic constituents, are held in solution by

carbonic acid, or sulphuretted, they should be placed along with their

due proportions of water, in the receiver of the aerating machine (see

SODA WATER), and then the proper quantity of gas should be injected into

the water. Sufficient agitation will be given by the action of the

forcing-pump to promote their solution.

WAX (_Cire_, Fr.; _Wachs_, Germ.); is the substance which forms the

cells of bees. It was long supposed to be derived from the pollen of

plants, swallowed by these insects, and merely voided under this new

form; but it has been proved by the experiments, first of Mr. Hunter,

and more especially of M. Huber, to be the peculiar secretion of a

certain organ, which forms a part of the small sacs, situated on the

sides of the median line of the abdomen of the bee. On raising the lower

segments of the abdomen, these sacs may be observed, as also scales or

spangles of wax, arranged in pairs upon each segment. There are none,

however, under the rings of the males and the queen. Each individual has

only eight wax sacs, or pouches; for the first and the last ring are not

provided with them. M. Huber satisfied himself by precise experiments

that bees, though fed with honey, or sugar alone, produced nevertheless

a very considerable quantity of wax; thus proving that they were not

mere collectors of this substance from the vegetable kingdom. The pollen

of plants serves for the nourishment of the larvæ.

But wax exists also as a vegetable product, and may, in this point of

view, be regarded as a concrete fixed oil. It forms a part of the green

fecula of many plants, particularly of the cabbage; it may be extracted

from the pollen of most flowers; as also from the skins of plums, and

many stone fruits. It constitutes a varnish upon the upper surface of

the leaves of many trees, and it has been observed in the juice of the

_cow-tree_. The berries of the _Myrica angustifolia_, _latifolia_, as

well as the _cerifera_, afford abundance of wax.

Bees’ wax, as obtained by washing and melting the comb, is yellow. It

has a peculiar smell, resembling honey, and derived from it, for the

cells in which no honey has been deposited, yield a scentless white wax.

Wax is freed from its impurities, and bleached, by melting it with hot

water or steam, in a tinned copper or wooden vessel, letting it settle,

running off the clear supernatant oily-looking liquid into an oblong

trough with a line of holes in its bottom, so as to distribute it upon

horizontal wooden cylinders, made to revolve half immersed in cold

water, and then exposing the thin ribbons or films thus obtained to the

blanching action of air, light, and moisture. For this purpose, the

ribbons are laid upon long webs of canvas stretched horizontally between

standards, two feet above the surface of a sheltered field, having a

free exposure to the sunbeams. Here they are frequently turned over,

then covered by nets to prevent their being blown away by winds, and

watered from time to time, like linen upon the grass field in the old

method of bleaching. Whenever the colour of the wax seems stationary, it

is collected, remelted, and thrown again into ribbons upon the wet

cylinder, in order to expose new surfaces to the blanching operation. By

several repetitions of these processes, if the weather proves

favourable, the wax eventually loses its yellow tint entirely, and

becomes fit for forming white candles. If it be finished under rain, it

will become gray on keeping, and also lose in weight.

In France, where the purification of wax is a considerable object of

manufacture, about four ounces of cream of tartar, or alum, are added to

the water in the first melting-copper, and the solution is incorporated

with the wax by diligent manipulation. The whole is left at rest for

some time, and then the supernatant wax is run off into a settling

cistern, whence it is discharged by a stopcock or tap, over the wooden

cylinder revolving at the surface of a large water-cistern, kept cool by

passing a stream continually through it.

The bleached wax is finally melted, strained through silk sieves, and

then run into circular cavities in a moistened table, to be cast or

moulded into thin disc pieces, weighing from two to three ounces each,

and three or four inches in diameter.

Neither chlorine, nor even the chlorides of lime and alkalis, can be

employed with any advantage to bleach wax, because they render it

brittle, and impair its burning quality.

Wax purified, as above, is white and translucent in thin segments; it

has neither taste nor smell; it has a specific gravity of from 0·960 to

0·966; it does not liquefy till it be heated to 154-1/2° F.; but it

softens at 86°, becoming so plastic, that it may be moulded by the hand

into any form. At 32° it is hard and brittle.

It is not a simple substance, but consists of two species of wax, which

may be easily separated by boiling alcohol. The resulting solution

deposits, on cooling, the waxy body called _cerine_. The undissolved

wax, being once and again treated with boiling alcohol, finally affords

from 70 to 90 per cent. of its weight of cerine. The insoluble residuum

is the _myricine_ of Dr. John, so called because it exists in a much

larger proportion in the wax of the _Myrica cerifera_. It is greatly

denser than wax, being of the same specific gravity as water; and may be

distilled without decomposition, which cerine undergoes. See these two

articles.

Wax is adulterated sometimes with starch; a fraud easily detected by oil

of turpentine, which dissolves the former, and leaves the latter

substance; and more frequently with mutton suet. This fraud may be

discovered by dry distillation; for wax does not thereby afford, like

tallow, sebacic acid (benzoic), which is known by its occasioning a

precipitate in a solution of acetate of lead. It is said that two per

cent. of a tallow sophistication may be discovered in this way.

Bees’ wax imported for home consumption:--in 1835, unbleached, 4,449

cwts.; bleached, 243 cwts.;--in 1836, unbleached, 4,673 cwts.; bleached,

121 cwts. Duty, when from British possessions, 10_s._; from foreign,

30_s._

WAX, MINERAL, or _Ozocerite_, is a solid, of a brown colour, of various

shades, translucent, and fusible like bees’ wax; slightly bituminous to

the smell, of a foliated texture, a conchoidal fracture, but wanting

tenacity, so that it can be pulverized in a mortar. Its specific gravity

varies from 0·900 to 0·953. Candles have been made of it in Moldavia,

which give a tolerable light. It occurs at the foot of the Carpathians

near Slanik, beneath a bed of bituminous slate-clay, in masses of from

80 to 100 pounds weight. Layers of brown amber are found in the

neighbourhood. It is associated with variegated sandstone, rock salt,

and beds of coal (lignite?). It is analogous to _hatchetine_. Something

similar has been discovered in a _trouble_ at Urpeth colliery, near

Newcastle, 60 fathoms beneath the surface. _Ozocerite_ consists of

different hydro-carburetted compounds associated together; the whole

being composed, ultimately, of--hydrogen 14, carbon 86, very nearly.

[Illustration: 1159]

WEAVING (_Tissage_, Fr.; _Weberei_, Germ.); is performed by the

implement called _loom_ in English, _métier à tisser_ in French, and

_weberstuhl_ in German. The process of warping must always precede

weaving. Its object is to arrange all the longitudinal threads, which

are to form the chain of the web, alongside of each other in one

parallel plane. Such a number of bobbins, filled with yarn, must

therefore be taken as will furnish the quantity required for the length

of the intended piece of cloth. One-sixth of that number of bobbins is

usually mounted at once in the warp mill, being set loosely in a

horizontal direction upon wire skewers, or spindles, in a square frame,

so that they may revolve, and give off the yarn freely. The warper sits

at A, _fig._ 1159., and causes the reel B to revolve, by turning round

with his hand the wheel C, with the endless rope or band D. The bobbins

filled with yarn are placed in the frame E. There is a sliding piece at

F, called the _heck_ box, which rises and falls by the coiling and

uncoiling of the cord G, round the central shaft of the reef H. By this

simple contrivance, the band of warp-yarns is wound spirally, from top

to bottom, upon the reel. I, I, I, are wooden pins which separate the

different bands. Most warping mills are of a prismatic form; having

twelve, eighteen, or more sides. The reel is commonly about six feet in

diameter, and seven feet in height, so as to serve for measuring exactly

upon its periphery the total length of the warp. All the threads from

the frame E, pass through the heck F, which consists of a series of

finely-polished hard-tempered steel pins, with a small hole at the upper

part of each, to receive and guide one thread. The heck is divided into

two parts, either of which may be lifted by a small handle below, while

their eyes are placed alternately. Hence, when one of them is raised a

little, a vacuity is formed between the two bands of the warp; but when

the other is raised, the vacuity is reversed. In this way, the lease is

produced at each end of the warp, and it is preserved by appropriate

wooden pegs. The lease being carefully tied up, affords a guide to the

weaver for inserting his lease-rods. The warping mill is turned

alternately from right to left, and from left to right, till a

sufficient number of yarns are coiled round it to form the breadth that

is wanted; the warper’s principal care being to tie immediately every

thread as it breaks, otherwise deficiencies would be occasioned in the

chain, injurious to the appearance of the web, or productive of much

annoyance to the weaver.

[Illustration: 1160]

The simplest and probably the most antient of looms, now to be seen in

action, is that of the Hindu tanty, shown in _fig._ 1160. It consists of

two bamboo rollers; one for the warp, and another for the woven cloth;

with a pair of heddles, for parting the warp, to permit the weft to be

drawn across between its upper and under threads. The shuttle is a

slender rod, like a large netting needle, rather longer than the web is

broad, and is made use of as a batten or lay, to strike home or condense

each successive thread of weft, against the closed fabric. The Hindu

carries this simple implement, with his water pitcher, rice pot, and

hooka, to the foot of any tree which can afford him a comfortable shade;

he there digs a large hole, to receive his legs, along with the treddles

or lower part of the harness; he next extends his warp, by fastening his

two bamboo rollers, at a proper distance from each other, with pins,

into the sward; he attaches the heddles to a convenient branch of the

tree overhead; inserts his great toes into two loops under the geer, to

serve him for treddles; lastly, he sheds the warp, draws through the

weft, and beats it close up to the web with his rod-shuttle or batten.

[Illustration: 1161]

The European loom is represented in its plainest state, as it has

existed for several centuries, in _fig._ 1161. A is the warp-beam, round

which the chain, has been wound; B represents the flat rods, usually

three in number, which pass across between its threads, to preserve the

lease, or the plane of decussation for the weft; C shows the heddles or

healds, consisting of twines looped in the middle, through which loops,

the warp yarns are drawn, one half through the front heddle, and the

other through the back one; by moving which, the decussation is readily

effected. The yarns then pass through the dents of the REED under D,

which is set in a movable swing-frame E, called the lathe, lay, and also

batten, because it _beats_ home the weft to the web. The lay is freely

suspended to a cross-bar F, attached by rulers, called the _swords_, to

the top of the lateral standards of the loom, so as to oscillate upon

it. The weaver, sitting on the bench G, presses down one of the treddles

at H, with one of his feet, whereby he raises the corresponding heddle,

but sinks the alternate one; thus sheds the warp, by lifting and

depressing each alternate thread, through a little space, and opens a

pathway or race-course for the shuttle to traverse the middle of the

warp, upon its two friction rollers M, M. For this purpose, he lays hold

of the picking-peg in his right hand, and, with a smart jerk of his

wrist, drives the fly-shuttle swiftly from one side of the loom to the

other, between the shed warp yarns. The shoot of weft being thereby left

behind from the shuttle pirn or cop, the weaver brings home, by pulling,

the lay with its reed towards him by his left hand, with such force as

the closeness of the texture requires. The web, as thus woven, is wound

up by turning round the cloth beam I, furnished with a ratchet-wheel,

which takes into a holding tooth. The plan of throwing the shuttle by

the picking-peg and cord, is a great improvement upon the old way of

throwing it by hand. It was contrived exactly a century ago, by John

Kay, of Bury in Lancashire, but then resident in Colchester, and was

called the fly-shuttle, from its speed, as it enabled the weaver to make

double the quantity of narrow cloth, and much more broad cloth, in the

same time.

The cloth is kept distended, during the operation of weaving, by means

of two pieces of hard wood, called a templet, furnished with sharp iron

points in their ends, which take hold of the opposite selvages or lists

of the web. The warp and web are kept longitudinally stretched by a

weighted cord, which passes round the warp-beam, and which tends

continually to draw back the cloth from its beam, where it is held fast

by the ratchet tooth. See FUSTIAN, JACQUARD LOOM, REED, and TEXTILE

FABRICS.

[Illustration: 1162 1163 1164]

The greater part of plain weaving, and much even of the figured, is now

performed by the power loom, called _métier mécanique à tisser_, in

French. _Fig._ 1162. represents the cast-iron power loom of Sharp and

Roberts. A, A´, are the two side uprights, or standards, on the front of

the loom. D, is the great arch of cast iron, which binds the two sides

together. E, is the front cross-beam, terminating in the forks _e_, _e_;

whose ends are bolted to the opposite standards A, A´, so as to bind

the framework most firmly together. G´, is the breast beam, of wood,

nearly square; its upper surface is sloped a little towards the front,

and its edge rounded off, for the web to slide smoothly over it, in its

progress to the cloth beam. The beam is supported at its end upon

brackets, and is secured by the bolts _g´_, _g´_. H, is the cloth beam,

a wooden cylinder, mounted with iron gudgeons at its ends, that on the

right hand being prolonged to carry the toothed winding wheel H´. _k´_

is a pinion in geer with H´. H´´, is a ratchet wheel, mounted upon the

same shaft _h´´´_, as the pinion _h´_. _h´_, is the click of the ratchet

wheel H´´. _k´´´_, is a long bolt fixed to the frame, serving as a shaft

to the ratchet wheel H´´, and the pinion _h´_. I, is the front

heddle-leaf, and I´, the back one. J, J, J´, J´, jacks or pulleys and

straps, for raising and depressing the leaves of the heddles. J´´, is

the iron shaft which carries the jacks or system of pulleys J, J, J´,

J´. K, a strong wooden ruler, connecting the front heddle with its

treddle. L, L´, the front and rear marches or treddle-pieces, for

depressing the heddle leaves alternately, by the intervention of the

rods _k_, (and _k´_, hid behind _k_). M, M, are the two swords (swing

bars) of the lay or batten. N, is the upper cross-bar of the lay, made

of wood, and supported upon the squares of the levers _n_, _n´_, to

which it is firmly bolted. N´, is the lay-cap, which is placed higher or

lower, according to the breadth of the reed; it is the part of the lay

which the hand-loom weaver seizes with his hand, in order to swing it

towards him. _n´_, is the reed contained between the bar N, and the

lay-cap N´. O, O, are two rods of iron, perfectly round and straight,

mounted near the ends of the batten-bar N, which serve as guides to the

drivers or peckers _o_, _o_, which impel the shuttle. These are made of

buffalo hide, and should slide freely on their guide-rods. O´, O´, are

the fronts of the shuttle-boxes; they have a slight inclination

backwards. P, is the back of them. See _figs._ 1163. and 1164. O´´, O´´

are iron plates, forming the bottoms of the shuttle-boxes. _p_, small

pegs or pins, planted in the posterior faces P (_fig._ 1164.) of the

boxes, round which the levers P´ turn. These levers are sunk in the

substance of the faces P, turn round pegs _p_, being pressed from

without inwards, by the springs _p´_. P´´, _fig._ 1162. (to the right of

K,) is the whip or lever, (and Q´´, its centre of motion, corresponding

to the right arm and elbow of the weaver,) which serves to throw the

shuttle, by means of the pecking-cord _p´´_, attached at its other end

to the drivers _o_, _o_.

On the axis of Q´´, a kind of eccentric or heart wheel is mounted, to

whose concave part, the middle of the double band or strap _r_, being

attached, receives impulsion; its two ends are attached to the heads of

the bolts _r´_, which carry the stirrups _r´´_, that may be adjusted at

any suitable height, by set screws.

S (see the left-hand side of _fig._ 1162.), is the moving shaft, of

wrought iron, resting on the two ends of the frame, S´ (see the

right-hand side), is a toothed wheel, mounted exteriorly to the frame,

upon the end of the shaft S. S´´ (near S´), are two equal elbows, in the

same direction, and in the same plane, as the shaft S, opposite to the

swords M, M, of the lay.

Z, is the loose, and Z´, the fast pulley, or riggers, which receive

motion from the steam-shaft of the factory, Z´´, a small fly-wheel, to

regulate the movements of the main shaft of the loom.

T, is the shaft of the eccentric tappets, cams, or wipers, which press

the treddle levers alternately up and down; on its right end is mounted

T´, a toothed wheel in geer with the wheel S´, of one half its diameter.

T´´, is a cleft clamping collar, which serves to support the shaft T.

U, is a lever, which turns round the bolt _u_, as well as the click

_h´´_. U´, is the click of traction, for turning round the cloth beam,

jointed to the upper extremity of the lever U; its tooth _u´_, catches

in the teeth of the ratchet wheel H´´. _u´´_, is a long slender rod,

fixed to one of the swords of the lay M, serving to push the lower end

of the lever U, when the lay retires towards the heddle leaves.

X, is a wrought-iron shaft, extending from the one shuttle-box to the

other, supported at its ends by the bearings _x_, _x_.

Y, is a bearing, affixed exteriorly to the frame, against which the

spring bar Z, rests, near its top, but is fixed to the frame at its

bottom. The spring falls into a notch in the bar Y, and is thereby held

at a distance from the upright A, as long as the band is upon the loose

pulley _z´_; but when the spring bar is disengaged, it falls towards A,

and carries the band upon the fast pulley _z_, so as to put the loom in

geer with the steam-shaft of the factory.

Weaving, by this powerful machine, consists of four operations: 1. to

shed the warp by means of the heddle leaves, actuated by the tappet

wheels upon the axis Q´, the rods _k_, _k´_, the cross-bar E, and the

eyes of the heddle leaves I, I´; 2. to throw the shuttle (see _fig._

1161.), by means of the whip lever P´´, the driver cord _p_, and the

pecker _o_; 3. to drive home the weft by the batten N, N´; 4. to unwind

the chain from the warp beam, and to draw it progressively forwards, and

wind the finished web upon the cloth beam H, by the click and toothed

wheel mechanism at the right-hand side of the frame. For more minute

details, the reader may consult _The Cotton Manufacture of Great

Britain_, vol. ii. p. 291.

WEFT (_Trame_, Fr.; _Eintrag_, Germ.); is the name of the yarns or

threads which run from selvage to selvage in a web.

WELD (_Vouëde_, Fr.; _Wau_, _Gelbkraut_, Germ.); is an annual herbaceous

plant, which grows all over Europe, called by botanists _Reseda

luteola_. The stems and the leaves dye yellow; and among the dyes of

organic nature, they rank next to the Persian berry for the beauty and

fastness of colour. The whole plant is cropped when in seed, at which

period its dyeing power is greatest; and after being simply dried, is

brought into the market.

Chevreul has discovered a yellow colouring principle in weld, which he

has called _luteoline_. It may be sublimed, and thus obtained in long

needle-form, transparent yellow crystals. Luteoline is but sparingly

soluble in water; but it nevertheless dyes alumed silk and wool of a

fine jonquil colour. It is soluble in alcohol and ether; it combines

with acids, and especially with bases.

When weld is to be employed in the dye-bath, it should be boiled for

three quarters of an hour; after which the exhausted plant is taken out,

because it occupies too much room. The decoction is rapidly decomposed

in the air, and ought therefore to be made only when it is wanted. It

produces with,

Solution of isinglass a slight turbidity.

Litmus paper a faint reddening.

Potash lye a golden yellow tint.

Solution of alum a faint yellow.

Protoxide salts of tin a rich yellow }

Acetate of lead ditto } precipitation.

Salts of copper a dirty yellow-brown }

Sulphate of red oxide of iron a brown, passing into olive.

A lack is made from decoction of weld with alum, precipitated by

carbonate of soda or potassa. See YELLOW DYE.

WELDING (_Souder_, Fr.; _Schweissen_, Germ.); is the property which

pieces of wrought iron possess, when heated to whiteness, of uniting

intimately and permanently under the hammer, into one body, without any

appearance of junction. The welding temperature is usually estimated at

from 60° to 90° of Wedgewood. When a skilful blacksmith is about to

perform the welding operation, he watches minutely the effect of the

heat in his forge-fire upon the two iron bars; and if he perceives them

beginning to burn, he pulls them out, rolls them in sand, which forms a

glassy silicate of iron upon the surface, so as to prevent further

oxidizement; and then laying the one properly upon the other, he

incorporates them by his right-hand hammer, being assisted by another

workman, who strikes the metal at the same time with a heavy

forge-hammer.

_Platinum_ is not susceptible of being welded, as many chemical authors

have erroneously asserted.

Mr. T. H. Russell, of Handsworth, near Birmingham, obtained a patent, in

May, 1836, for manufacturing welded iron tubes, by drawing or passing

the skelp, or fillet of sheet iron, five feet long, between dies or

holes, formed by a pair of grooved rollers, placed with their sides

contiguous; for which process, he does not previously turn up the skelp

from end to end, but he does this so as to bring the edges together at

the time when the welding is performed. He draws the skelp through two

or more pairs of the above pincers or dies, each of less dimension than

the preceding. In making tubes of an inch of internal diameter, a skelp

four inches and a half broad is employed. The twin rollers revolve on

vertical axes, which may be made to approach each other to give

pressure; and they are kept cool by a stream of water, while the skelp,

ignited to the welding heat, is passed between them. They are affixed at

about a foot in front of the mouth of the furnace, on a draw-bench;

there being a suitable stop within a few inches of the rollers, against

which the workman may place a pair of pincers, having a bell-mouthed

hole or die, for welding and shaping the tube. In the first passage

between the rollers, a circular revolving plate of iron is let down

vertically between them, to prevent the edges of the skelp from

overlapping, or even meeting. The welding is performed at the last

passage.

WELLS, ARTESIAN. See also ARTESIAN WELLS. The following account of a

successful operation of this kind, lately performed at Mortlake, in

Surrey, deserves to be recorded. The spot at which this undertaking was

begun, is within 100 feet of the Thames. In the first instance, an

auger, seven inches in diameter, was used in penetrating 20 feet of

superficial detritus, and 200 feet of London clay. An iron tube, 8

inches in diameter, was then driven into the opening, to dam out the

land-springs and the percolation from the river. A 4-inch auger was next

introduced through the iron tube, and the boring was continued until,

the London clay having been perforated to the depth of 240 feet, the

sands of the plastic clay were reached, and water of the softest and

purest nature was obtained; but the supply was not sufficient, and it

did not reach the surface. The work was proceeded with accordingly; and

after 55 feet of alternating beds of sand and clay had been penetrated,

the chalk was touched upon. A second tube, 4-1/2 inches in diameter, was

then driven into the chalk, to stop out the water of the plastic sands;

and through this tube an auger, 3-1/2 inches in diameter, was

introduced, and worked down through 35 feet of hard chalk, abounding

with flints. To this succeeded a bed of soft chalk, into which the

instrument suddenly penetrated to the depth of 15 feet. On the auger

being withdrawn, water gradually rose to the surface, and overflowed.

The expense of the work did not exceed 300_l._ The general summary of

the strata penetrated is as follows:--Gravel, 20 feet; London clay, 250;

plastic sands and clays, 55; hard chalk with flints, 35; soft chalk, 15;

= 375 feet.

WHALEBONE (_Baleine_, Fr.; _Fischbeine_, Germ.); is the name of the

horny laminæ, consisting of fibres laid lengthwise, found in the mouth

of the whale, which, by the fringes upon their edges, enable the animal

to allow the water to flow out, as through rows of teeth (which it

wants), from between its capacious jaws, but to catch and detain the

minute creatures upon which it feeds. The fibres of whalebone have

little lateral cohesion, as they are not transversely decussated, and

may, therefore, be readily detached in the form of long filaments or

bristles. The _blades_, or scythe-shaped plates, are externally compact,

smooth, and susceptible of a good polish. They are connected, in a

parallel series, by what is called the _gum_ of the animal, and are

arranged along each side of its mouth, to the number of about 300. The

length of the longest _blade_, which is usually found near the middle of

the series, is the gauge adopted by the fishermen to designate the size

of the fish. The greatest length hitherto known has been 15 feet, but it

rarely exceeds 12 or 13. The breadth, at the root end, is from 10 to 12

inches; and the average thickness, from four to five tenths of an inch.

The series, viewed altogether in the mouth of the whale, resemble, in

general form, the roof of a house. They are cleansed and softened before

cutting, by boiling for two hours in a long copper.

[Illustration: 1165]

Whalebone, as brought from Greenland, is commonly divided into portable

junks or pieces, comprising ten or twelve blades in each; but it is

occasionally subdivided into separate blades, the gum and the hairy

fringes having been removed by the sailors during the voyage. The price

of whalebone fluctuates from 50_l._ to 150_l._ per ton. The blade is cut

into parallel prismatic slips, as follows:--It is clamped horizontally,

with its edge up and down, in the large wooden vice of a carpenter’s

bench, and is then planed by the following tool: _fig._ 1165. A, B, are

its two handles; C, D, is an iron plate, with a guide-notch E; F, is a

semicircular knife, screwed firmly at each end to the ends of the iron

plate C, D, having its cutting edge adjusted in a plane, so much lower

than the bottom of the notch E, as the thickness of the whalebone slip

is intended to be; for different thicknesses, the knife may be set by

the screws at different levels, but always in a plane parallel to the

lower guide surface of the plate C, D. The workman, taking hold of the

handles A, B, applies the notch of the tool at the end of the whalebone

blade furthest from him, and with his two hands pulls it steadily along,

so as to shave off a slice in the direction of the fibres; being careful

to cut none of them across. These prismatic slips are then dried, and

planed level upon their other two surfaces. The fibrous matter detached

in this operation, is used, instead of hair, for stuffing mattresses.

From its flexibility, strength, elasticity, and lightness, whalebone is

employed for many purposes: for ribs to umbrellas or parasols; for

stiffening stays; for the framework of hats, &c. When heated by steam,

or a sand-bath, it softens, and may be bent or moulded, like horn, into

various shapes, which it retains, if cooled under compression. In this

way, snuff-boxes, and knobs of walking-sticks, may be made from the

thicker parts of the blade. The surface is polished at first with ground

pumice-stone, felt, and water; and finished with dry quicklime,

spontaneously slaked, and sifted.

WHEAT. (_Triticum vulgare_, Linn.; _Froment_, Fr.; _Waizen_, Germ.) See

BREAD, GLUTEN, and STARCH.

WHEEL CARRIAGES. Though this manufacture belongs most properly to a

treatise upon mechanical engineering, I shall endeavour to describe the

parts of a carriage, so as to enable gentlemen to judge of its make and

relative merits. The external form may vary with every freak of fashion;

but the general structure of a vehicle, as to lightness, elegance, and

strength, may be judged of from the following figure and description.

[Illustration: 1166]

_Fig._ 1166. shows the body of a chariot, hung upon an iron carriage,

with iron wheels, axletrees, and boxes; the latter, by a simple

contrivance, is close at the out-head, by which means the oil cannot

escape; and the fastening of the wheel being at the in-head, as will be

explained afterwards, gives great security, and prevents the possibility

of the wheel being taken off by any other carriage running against it.

[Illustration: 1167 1168]

_Fig._ 1167. shows the arm of an axletree, turned perfectly true, with

two collars in the solid, as seen at G and H. The parts from G to B are

made cylindrical. At K is a screw nail, the purpose of which will be

explained in _fig._ 1171.

_Fig._ 1168. is the longitudinal section of a metal nave, which also

forms the bush, for the better fitting of which to the axletree, it is

bored out of the solid, and made quite air-tight upon the pin; and for

retaining the oil, it is left close at the out-head D.

[Illustration: 1169 1170]

_Fig._ 1169. represents a collet, made of metal, turned perfectly true,

the least diameter of which is made the same with that part of the

axletree M, _fig._ 1167., and its greatest diameter the same with that

of the solid collar G, _fig._ 1167. This collet is made with a joint at

S, and opens at _p_. Two grooves are represented at _qq_, _qq_, which

are seen at the same letters in _fig._ 1170., as also the dovetail _r_,

in both figures.

_Fig._ 1170. is an edge view of the collet, _fig._ 1169.

[Illustration: 1171]

_Fig._ 1171. is a longitudinal section of an axletree arm, nave or bush,

and fastening. A, B, is the arm of the axletree, bored up the centre

from B to E. C, C, D, the nave, which answers also for the bush. P, S,

the collet (see _figs._ 1169. and 1170.), put into its place. _q_, _q_,

two steel pins, passing through the in-head of the bush, and filling up

the grooves in the collet. W, W, a caped hoop, sufficiently broad to

cover the ends of said pins, and made fast to the bush by screws. This

hoop, when so fastened to the bush, prevents the possibility of the pins

_q_, _q_, from getting out of their places. _u_, _u_, is a leather

washer, interposed betwixt the in-head of the bush and the larger solid

collar of the axletree, to prevent the escape of oil at the in-head. K,

is a screw, the head of which is near the letter K, in _fig._ 1167. This

screw being undone, and oil poured into the hole, it flows down the bore

in the centre of the axletree arm, and fills the space B, left by the

arm being about one inch shorter than the bore of the bush, and the

screw, being afterwards replaced, keeps all tight. In putting on the

wheel, a little oil ought to be put into the space betwixt the collet

P, S, and the larger collar. The collar P, S, being movable round the

axletree arm, and being made fast to the bush by means of the two pins

_q_, _q_, revolves along with the bush, acting against the solid collar

G, of the arm, and keeps the wheel fast to the axletree, until by

removing the caped hoop W, W, and driving out the pins _q_, _q_, the

collet becomes disengaged from the bush.

The dovetail, seen upon the collet at _r_, _fig._ 1170., has a

corresponding groove cut in the bush, to receive it, in consequence of

which the wheel must of necessity be put on so that the collet and pins

fit exactly. These wheels very rarely require to be taken off, and they

will run a thousand miles without requiring fresh oiling.

The spokes of the wheel, made of malleable iron, are screwed into the

bush or nave at C, C, _figs._ 1168. 1171., all round. The felloes,

composed merely of two bars of iron, bent into a circle edgeways, are

put on, the one on the front, the other on the back, of the spokes,

which have shoulders on both sides to support the felloes, and all three

are attached together by rivets through them. The space between the two

iron rings forming the felloes, should be filled up with light wood, the

tire then put on, and fastened to the felloes by bolts and glands

clasping both felloes.

This is a carriage without a mortise or tenon, or wooden joint of any

kind. It is, at an average, one-seventh lighter than any of those built

on the ordinary construction.

The design of Mr. W. Mason’s patent invention, of 1827, is to give any

required pressure to the ends of what are called mail axletrees, in

order to prevent their shaking in the boxes of the wheels. This object

is effected by the introduction of leather collars in certain parts of

the box, and by a contrivance, in which the outer cap is screwed up, so

as to bear against the end of the axletree with any degree of tightness,

and is held in that situation, without the possibility of turning round,

or allowing the axletree to become loose.

[Illustration: 1172 1173]

_Fig._ 1172. shows the section of the box of a wheel, with the end of

the axletree secured in it. The general form of the box, and of the

axle, is the same as other mail axles, there being recesses in the box

for the reception of oil. At the end of the axle, a cap _a_, is

inserted, with a leather collar enclosed in it, bearing against the end

of the axle; which cap, when screwed up sufficiently tight, is held in

that situation by a pin or screw passed through the cap _a_, into the

end of the iron box; a representation of this end of the iron box being

shown at _fig._ 1173.

In the cap _a_, there is also a groove for conducting the oil to the

interior of the box, with a screw at the opening, to prevent it running

out as the wheel goes round.

The particular claims of improvement are, the leather collar against the

end of the axle; the pin going through one of the holes in the end of

the box, to fix it; and the channel for conducting the oil.

Mr. Mason’s patent, of August, 1830, applies also to the boxes and axles

of that construction of carriage wheels which are fitted with the so

called mail-boxes; but part of the invention applies to other axles.

[Illustration: 1174 1175 1176]

_Fig._ 1174. represents the nave of a wheel, with the box for the axle

within it, both shown in section longitudinally; _fig._ 1175. is a

section of the axle, taken in the same direction; and _fig._ 1176.

represents the screw cap and oil-box, which attaches to the outer

extremity of the axle-box. Supposing the parts were put together, that

is, the axle inserted into the box, then the intention of the different

parts will be perceived.

The cylindrical recess _a_, in the box of the nave, is designed to fit

the cylindrical part of the axle _b_; and the conical part _c_, of the

axle, to shoulder up against a corresponding conical cavity in the box,

with a washer of leather to prevent its shaking. A collar _d_, formed by

a metallic ring, fits loosely upon a cylindrical part of the axle, and

is kept there by a flange or rim, fixed behind the cone _c_. Several

strong pins _f_, _f_, are cast into the back part of the box; which

pins, when the wheel is attached, pass through corresponding holes in

the collar _d_; and nuts being screwed on to the ends of the pins _f_,

behind the collar, keep the wheel securely attached to the axle. The

screw-cap _g_, is then inserted into the recess _h_, at the outer part

of the box, its conical end and small tube _i_, passing into the recess

_k_, in the end of the axle.

The parts being thus connected, the oil contained within the cap _g_,

will flow through the small tube _i_, in its end, into the recess or

cylindrical channel _l_, within the axle, and will thence pass through a

small hole in the side of the axle, into the cylindrical recess _a_, of

the box; and then lodging in the groove and other cavities within the

box, will lubricate the axle as the wheel goes round. There is also a

small groove cut on the outside of the axle, for conducting the oil, in

order that it may be more equally distributed over the surface and the

bearings. This construction of the box and axle, as far as the

lubrication goes, may be applied to the axles of wheels in general; but

that part of the invention which is designed to give greater security in

the attachment of the wheel to the carriage, applies particularly to

mail axles.

[Illustration: 1177 1178 1179 1180 1181]

Mr. William Mason’s patent invention for wheel carriages, of August,

1831, will be understood by reference to the annexed figures. _Fig._

1177. is a plan showing the fore-axletree bed _a_, _a_, of a

four-wheeled carriage, to which the axletrees _b_, _b_, are jointed at

each end; _fig._ 1178. is an enlarged plan; and _fig._ 1179. an

elevation, or side view of one end of the said fore-axletree bed, having

a Collinge’s axletree jointed to the axletree bed, by means of the

cylindrical pin or bolt _c_, which passes through and turns in a

cylindrical hole _d_, formed at the end of the axletree bed, shown also

in the plan view, _fig._ 1180., and section, _fig._ 1181.

[Illustration: 1182 1183 1184]

The axletree _b_, is firmly united with the upper end _e_, of the pin or

bolt _c_; and to the lower end of it, which is squared, the guide piece

_f_, is also fitted, and secured by the screw _g_, and cap or nut _h_,

seen in _fig._ 1179., and in section in _fig._ 1182. There are leather

washers _i_, _i_, let into recesses made to receive them in the parts

_a_, _b_, and _f_, the intent of which is to prevent the oil from

escaping that is introduced through the central perpendicular hole seen

in _fig._ 1182., which hole is closed by means of a screw inserted into

it. The oil is diffused, or spread over the surface of the cylinder _c_,

by means of a side branch leading from the bottom of the hole into a

groove formed around the cylinder, and also by means of two longitudinal

gaps or cavities made within the hole, as shown in _figs._ 1180. and

1181. The guide piece _f_, is affixed at right angles with the axletree

_b_, as shown in _fig._ 1178., and turns freely and steadily in the

cylindrical hole _d_, made to receive one end of the iron fore-axletree

bed _a_. In like manner, the opposite fore axletree _b_, _fig._ 1177.,

is jointed to the other end of the iron fore-axletree bed. The outer

ends of the guide pieces _f_, _f_, are jointed to the splinter-bar _n_,

_fig._ 1181, as follows:--_Fig._ 1183. is a plan, and _fig._ 1184. a

section of the joint _o_, in _fig._ 1177., shown on an enlarged scale; a

cylindrical pin or bolt _c_, is firmly secured in the splinter-bar, and

round the lower part of the said pin or bolt the guide piece _f_, turns,

and is made fast in its place by the screw _g_, and screwed nut _h_.

[Illustration: 1185 1186 1187 1188 1189 1190]

Oil is conveyed to the lower part of the cylindrical pin _c_, in a

similar manner to that already described, and two leather washers are

likewise furnished, to prevent its escape. The connecting joint at the

opposite end of the splinter-bar _n_, is constructed in a similar

manner. The futchel or socket _p_, _p_, for the pole of the carriage,

must also be jointed to the middle of the fore-axletree bed and

splinter-bar, in a similar manner. The swingletrees _q_, _q_, _fig._

1177., are likewise jointed in the same way to the splinter-bar. _Fig._

1185. is a side view of these parts. The fore wheels of the carriage,

_fig._ 1177., are furnished with cast-iron boxes, as usual. The dotted

lines show the action of the pole _p_, _p_, upon the splinter-bar _n_,

and as communicated through the latter to the guide pieces _f_, _f_,

connected with the axletrees _b_, _b_, so as to lock the wheels _r_,

_r_, as shown in that figure.

The axletree may be incased in the woodwork of the fore-bed of the

carriage, as usual, and as shown by dotted lines in the back end view

thereof, _fig._ 1186.; and the framing _s_, _fig._ 1187., may be affixed

firmly upon the said woodwork, in any fit and proper manner, as well as

the fore-springs _t_, _t_, shown in _figs._ 1186. and 1187., and

likewise in the side view, _fig._ 1188. In certain cases it may be

desirable to fix the cylindrical pin or bolt _c_, firmly in the

splinter-bar _n_, in the manner shown in _figs._ 1189. and 1190.; the

swingletrees _q_, _q_, and guide pieces _f_, _f_, turning freely above

and below upon the said pin or bolt, and secured in their places thereon

by screws and screwed nuts, oil being also supplied through holes formed

in both ends of the said pin or bolt, and leather washers provided, as

in the above-described instances.

Mr. Gibbs, engineer, and Mr. Chaplin, coach-maker, obtained a patent, in

1832, for the construction of a four-wheeled carriage which shall be

enabled to turn within a small compass, by throwing the axles of all the

four wheels simultaneously into different positions. They effect this

object by mounting each wheel upon a separate jointed axle, and by

connecting the free ends of the four axles by jointed rods or chains,

with the pole and splinter-bar in front of the carriage.

[Illustration: 1191 1192 1193]

To fix the ends of the spokes of wheels to the felloe or rim, with

greater security than had been effected by previous methods, is the

object of a contrivance for which William Howard obtained a patent, in

February, 1830. _Fig._ 1191. shows a portion of a wheel constructed on

this new method; _a_, is the nave, of wood; _b_, _b_, _b_, wooden

spokes, inserted into the nave in the usual way; _c_, _c_, is the rim or

felloe, intended to be formed by one entire circle of wrought iron; _d_,

and _e_, _e_, are the shoes or blocks, of cast iron, for receiving the

ends of the spokes, which are secured by bolts to the rim on the inner

circumference. The cap of the block _d_, is removed, for the purpose of

showing the internal form of the block; _e_, _e_, have their caps fixed

on, as they would appear when the spokes are fitted in. One of the caps

or shoes is shown detached, upon a larger scale, at _fig._ 1192., by

which it will be perceived that the end of the spoke is introduced into

the shoe on the side. It is proposed that the end of the spoke shall not

reach quite to the end of the recess formed in the block, and that it

shall be made tight by a wedge driven in. The wedge piece is to be of

wood, as _fig._ 1193., with a small slip of iron within it; and a hole

is perforated in the back of the block or shoe, for the wedge to be

driven through. When this is done, the ends of the spokes become

confined and tight; and the projecting extremities of the wedges being

cut off, the caps are then attached on the face of the block, as at _e_,

_e_, by pins riveted at their ends, which secures the spokes, and

renders it impossible for them to be loosened by the vibrations as the

wheel passes over the ground. One important use of the wedges, is to

correct the eccentric figure of the wheel, which may be readily forced

out in any part that may be out of the true form, by driving the wedge

up further; and this, it is considered, will be a very important

advantage, as the nearer a wheel can be brought to a true circle, the

easier it will run upon the road. The periphery of the wheel is to be

protected by a tire, which may be put on in pieces, and bolted through

the felloe; or it may be made in one ring, and attached, while hot, in

the usual way.

Mr. Reedhead’s patent improvements in the construction of carriages, are

represented in the following figures. They were specified in July, 1833.

[Illustration: 1194 1195 1196 1197]

_Fig._ 1194. is a plan or horizontal view of the fore part of a

carriage, intended to be drawn by horses, showing the fore wheels in

their position when running in a straight course; _fig._ 1195. is a

similar view, showing the wheels as locked, when in the act of turning;

_fig._ 1196. is a front end elevation of the same; _fig._ 1197. is a

section taken through the centre of the fore axletree; and _fig._ 1198.

is a side elevation of the general appearance of a stage-coach, with the

improvements appended: _a_, _a_, are two splinter-bars, with their

roller-bolts, for connecting the traces of the harness; these

splinter-bars are attached, by the bent irons _b_, _b_, to two short

axletrees or axle-boxes _c_, _c_, which carry the axles of the fore

wheels _d_, _d_, and turn upon vertical pins or bolts _e_, _e_, passed

through the fore axletree _f_, the splinter-bars and axle-boxes being

mounted so as to move parallel to each other, the latter partaking of

any motion given to the splinter-bars by the horses in drawing the

carriage forward, and thereby producing the locking of the wheels, as

shown _fig._ 1195.; and in order that the two wheels, and their axles

and axle-boxes, together with the splinter-bars _a_, _a_, may move

simultaneously, the latter are connected by pivots to the end of the

links or levers _g_, _g_, which are attached to the arms _i_, _i_, which

receive the pole of the coach by a hinge-joint or pin _h_; the arms _i_,

_i_, turning on a vertical fulcrum-pin _k_, passed through the main

axletree, _f_, as the pole is moved from one side to the other.

[Illustration: 1198 1199 1200]

The axles _o_, _o_, are firmly fixed into the naves of the wheels, as

represented in the side view of a wheel detached, at _fig._ 1200., the

axles being mounted so as to revolve within their boxes in the following

manner:--The axle-boxes, which answer the purpose of short axletrees,

are formed of iron, and consist of one main or bottom plate _l_, seen

best in _figs._ 1200. and 1199.; upon this bottom plate is formed the

chamber _m_, _m_, carrying the two anti-friction rollers _n_, _n_, which

turn on short axles passed through the sides and partition at the upper

part of the chambers. These anti-friction rollers bear upon the

cylindrical parts of the axle _o_, of each wheel, and support the weight

of the coach; _p_, is a bearing firmly secured in the axle-box to the

plate _l_, for the end of the axle _o_, to run in, the axle being

confined in its proper situation by a collar and screw-nut on its end;

_e_, is the vertical pin or bolt before mentioned, upon which the

axle-bar turns when the wheels are locking, which bolt is enlarged

within the box, and has an eye for the axle to pass through, being

firmly secured to the plate _l_, and also to the sides of the box.

_Fig._ 1200. is a plan or horizontal view of an axle and its box,

belonging to one of the fore wheels; a piece _q_, is fixed to the under

side of the main axletree, which supports the ends of the plates _l_,

and thereby relieves the pins _e_, _e_, of the strain they would

otherwise have to withstand. The axles of the hind wheels are mounted

upon similar plates _l_, _l_, with bearings and chambers with

anti-friction rollers; but as these are not required to lock, the plates

_l_, _l_, are fixed on to the under side of the hind axletree by

screw-nuts; there are small openings or doors, which can be removed for

the purpose of unscrewing the nuts and collars of the bearings _p_, when

the wheel is required to be taken off the carriage, when the axle can be

withdrawn from the boxes. If it should be thought necessary, other

chambers with friction rollers, may be placed on the under side of the

plate _l_, to bear up the end of the axles, and relieve the bearing _p_.

In order to stop or impede the progress of a carriage in passing down

hills, there is a grooved friction or brake wheel _t_, fixed, by clamps

or otherwise, on to the spokes of one of the hind wheels; _u_, is a

brake-band or spring, of metal, encircling the friction wheel, one end

of which band is fixed into the standard _v_, upon the hind axletree,

and the other end connected by a joint to the shorter end of the lever

_w_, which has its fulcrum in the standard _v_; this lever extends up to

the hind seat of the coach, as shown in _fig._ 1198., and is intended to

be under the command of the guard or passengers of the coach, and when

descending a hill, or on occasion of the horses running away, the longer

end of the lever is to be depressed, which will raise the shorter end,

and, consequently, bring the band or spring _u_, in contact with the

surface of the friction wheel, and thereby retard its revolution, and

prevent the coach travelling too fast; or, instead of attaching the

friction brake to the hind wheel, as represented in _fig._ 1198., it may

be adapted to the fore wheels, and the end of the lever brought up to

the side of the foot-board, or under it, and within command of the

coachman, the standard which carries the fulcrum being made to move upon

a pivot, to accommodate the locking of the wheels. It will be observed,

that by these improved constructions of the carriage, and mode of

locking the patentee is enabled to use much larger fore wheels than in

common, and that the splinter-bars will always be in the position of

right angles with the track or way of the horses in drawing the

carriage, by which they are much relieved, and always pull in a direct

and equal manner.

A manifest defect in all four-wheeled carriages, involving vast

superfluous friction, is the small size of the front wheels; a defect

which has existed ever since Walter Rippon made “the first hollow

_turning_ coach with pillars and arches for her majesty Queen Mary,

being then her servant,” until the railroad era, when our engineers

remedied the defect by equalizing the wheels, at the expense of another

defect--sacrificing the power of turning, and thus producing

great lateral friction; whence a train of evil consequences

result:--necessarily increased strength, and consequently increased

weight of the carriages; increased power and weight of the engine to

draw them, and overcome the friction; and, of course, increased strength

of rails, and greater solidity of railway.

These defects are at last remedied by an invention patented by Mr.

William Adams, author of a work entitled “English Pleasure Carriages.”

Instead of placing the perch-bolt, or turning centre, as is commonly

done, over the front axle, he places it at a convenient distance

_between_ the front and hind axles; so that when turning the carriage

the front wheels, instead of turning _beneath_ the body, as is common,

turn outside of it, and the driver’s seat turns with them; thus giving

him a perfect command over his horses in all positions, instead of the

usual dangerous plan, which renders a driver liable to be pulled off his

box by a restive horse, when in the act of turning. A carriage

constructed on Mr. Adams’ plan may also be driven round a corner at full

speed, without any risk of overturning, as the weight is equally poised

on the axles in all positions. It is well known that the oversetting of

stage coaches usually takes place when turning a corner, the momentum

urging the vehicle in a right line, while the horses are pulling at an

angle. By the new arrangement the front wheels may be made equal to the

hind ones, or of any desirable height, and at the same time the body may

be kept as low as may be thought convenient, even almost close to the

ground, if desired. Thus two important objects, hitherto deemed

incompatible, are combined--high wheels and a low centre of gravity.

These carriages are therefore essentially safety carriages, while the

friction is reduced to a minimum. The principle, in its various

modifications, is applicable to every variety of carriage, both those of

the simply useful kind, and those where beauty of form and colour are

prime requisites.

Another most important part of Mr. Adams’ invention, is his new mode of

spring suspension; applying the principle of the bow and string, for the

first time, to obviate the effects of concussion in wheel carriages. All

the springs hitherto in use for wheel carriages, have been friction

springs, composed of long sliding surfaces, uncertain in their action,

and liable to quick destruction by rust. But Mr. Adams’ springs are

essentially elastic, being formed of single plates abutting endways, so

that all friction is removed, and they can be hermetically sealed within

paint to prevent their corrosion. He has various modes of applying the

bow, either single or double, above or below the axle; but one most

important feature is, that the axle being attached to the flexible cords

or braces, the concussion which affects the wheels, either laterally,

vertically, or in the line of progress, is perfectly intercepted,

without the unpleasant oscillation experienced in carriages where the

same purpose is accomplished by the use of the curved or C spring. Mr.

Adams’ brace being, at the same time, a non-conductor of sound, the

rattling of the wheels does not annoy the rider as in ordinary

carriages. His springs are equally applicable to vehicles with two and

four wheels.

The advantages of these carriages may be thus summed up:--A great

diminution of the total weight; a diminution of resistance in draught

equal to about one third; increase of safety to the riders; increased

durability of the vehicle; absence of noise and vibration; absence of

oscillation.

To these qualities, so desirable to all, and especially those of

delicate nervous temperament, may be added--greater economy, both in the

first cost and maintenance.

The _whirling_ public so blindly follows fashionable caprice in the

choice of a carriage, as to have hitherto paid too little attention to

this fundamental improvement; but many intelligent individuals have

fully verified its practical reality. Having inspected various forms of

two-wheeled and four-wheeled carriages, in the patentee’s premises in

Drury Lane, I feel justified in recommending them as being constructed

on the soundest mechanical principles; and have no doubt, that if reason

be allowed to decide upon their merits, they will ere long be

universally preferred by all who seek for easy-moving, safe, and

comfortable vehicles.

WHETSLATE, is a massive mineral of a greenish-gray colour; feebly

glimmering; fracture, slaty or splintery; fragments tabular; translucent

on the edges; feels rather greasy; and has a spec. grav. of 2·722. It

occurs in beds, in primitive and transition slates. Very fine varieties

of whetslate are brought from Turkey, called _honestones_, which are in

much esteem for sharpening steel instruments.

WHEY (_Petit lait_, Fr.; _Molken_, Germ.); is the greenish-gray liquor

which exudes from the curd of milk. Scheele states, that when a pound of

milk is mixed with a spoonful of proof spirit, and allowed to become

sour, the whey filtered off, at the end of a month or a little more, is

a good vinegar, devoid of lactic acid.

WHISKEY; is dilute alcohol, distilled from the fermented worts of malt

or grains.

WHITE LEAD, _Carbonate of lead, or Ceruse_. (_Blanc de plomb_, Fr.;

_Bleiweiss_, Germ.) This preparation is the only one in general use for

painting wood and the plaster walls of apartments white. It mixes well

with oil, without having its bright colour impaired, spreads easily

under the brush, and gives a uniform coat to wood, stone, metal, &c. It

is employed either alone, or with other pigments, to serve as their

basis, and to give them body. This article has been long manufactured

with much success at Klagenfurth in Carinthia, and its mode of

preparation has been lately described with precision by Marcel de

Serres. The great white-lead establishments at Krems, whence, though

incorrectly, the terms _white of Kremnitz_ became current on the

continent, have been abandoned.

1. The lead comes from Bleyberg; it is very pure, and particularly free

from contamination with iron, a point essential to the beauty of its

factitious carbonate. It is melted in ordinary pots of cast iron, and

cast into sheets of varying thickness, according to the pleasure of the

manufacturer. These sheets are made by pouring the melted lead upon an

iron plate placed over the boiler; and whenever the surface of the metal

begins to consolidate, the plate is slightly sloped to one side, so as

to run off the still liquid metal, and leave a lead sheet of the desired

thinness. It is then lifted off like a sheet of paper; and as the iron

plate is cooled in water, several hundred weight of lead can be readily

cast in a day. In certain white-lead works these sheets are one

twenty-fourth of an inch thick; in others, half that quantity; in some,

one of these sheets takes up the whole width of the conversion-box; in

others, four sheets are employed. It is of consequence not to smooth

down the faces of the leaden sheets; because a rough surface presents

more points of contact, and is more readily attacked by acid vapours,

than a polished one.

2. These plates are now placed so as to expose an extensive surface to

the acid fumes, by folding each other over a square slip of wood. Being

suspended by their middle, like a sheet of paper, they are arranged in

wooden boxes, from 4-1/2 to 5 feet long, 12 to 14 inches broad, and from

9 to 11 inches deep. The boxes are very substantially constructed; their

joints being mortised; and whatever nails are used, being carefully

covered. Their bottom is made tight with a coat of pitch about an inch

thick. The mouths of the boxes are luted over with paper, in the works

where fermenting horsedung is employed as the means of procuring heat,

to prevent the sulphuretted and phosphuretted hydrogen from injuring the

purity of the white lead. In Carinthia it was formerly the practice, as

also in Holland, to form the lead sheets into spiral rolls, and to place

them so coiled up in the chests; but this plan is not to be recommended,

because these rolls present obviously less surface to the action of the

vapours, are apt to fall down into the liquid at the bottom, and thus to

impair the whiteness of the lead. The lower edges of the sheets are

suspended about two inches and a half from the bottom of the box; and

they must not touch either one another or its sides, for fear of

obstructing the vapours in the first case, or of injuring the colour in

the second. Before introducing the lead, a peculiar acid liquor is put

into the box, which differs in different works. In some, the proportions

are four quarts of vinegar, with four quarts of wine-lees; and in

others, a mixture is made of 20 pounds of wine-lees, with 8-1/2 pounds

of vinegar, and a pound of carbonate of potash. It is evident that in

the manufactories where no carbonate of potash is employed in the

mixture, and no dung for heating the boxes, it is not necessary to lute

them.

3. The mixture being poured into the boxes, and the sheets of lead

suspended within them, they are carried into a stove-room, to receive

the requisite heat for raising round the lead the corrosive vapours, and

thus converting it into carbonate. This apartment is heated generally by

stoves, is about 9 feet high, 30 feet long, and 24 feet wide, or of such

a size as to receive about 90 boxes. It has only one door.

The heat should never be raised above 86° Fahr.; and it is usually kept

up for 15 days, in which time the operation is, for the most part,

completed. If the heat be too high, and the vapours too copious, the

carbonic acid escapes in a great measure, and the metallic lead, less

acted upon, affords a much smaller product.

When the process is well managed, as much carbonate of lead is obtained,

as there was employed of metal; or, for 300 pounds of lead, 300 of

ceruse are procured, besides a certain quantity of metal after the

crusts are removed, which is returned to the melting-pot. The mixture

introduced into the boxes serves only once; and if carbonate of potash

has been used, the residuary matter is sold to the hatters.

4. When the preceding operation is supposed to be complete, the sheets,

being removed from the boxes, are found to have grown a quarter of an

inch thick, though previously not above a twelfth of that thickness. A

few pretty large crystals of acetate of lead are sometimes observed on

their edges. The plates are now shaken smartly, to cause the crust of

carbonate of lead formed on their surfaces to fall off. This carbonate

is put into large cisterns, and washed very clean. The cistern is of

wood, most commonly of a square shape, and divided into from seven to

nine compartments. These are of equal capacity, but unequal height, so

that the liquid may be made to overflow from one to the other. Thereby,

if the first chest is too full, it decants its excess into the second,

and so on in succession. See RINSING MACHINE.

The water poured into the first chest, passes successively into the

others, a slight agitation being meanwhile kept up, and there deposits

the white lead diffused in it proportionally, so that the deposit of the

last compartment is the finest and lightest. After this washing, the

white lead receives another, in large vats, where it is always kept

under water. It is lastly lifted out in the state of a liquid paste,

with wooden spoons, and laid on drying-tables to prepare it for the

market.

The white lead of the last compartment is of the first quality, and is

called on the continent silver white. It is employed in fine painting.

When white lead is mixed in equal quantities with ground sulphate of

barytes, it is known in France and Germany by the name of Venice white.

Another quality, adulterated with double its weight of sulphate of

barytes, is styled Hamburgh white; and a fourth, having three parts of

sulphate to one of white lead, gets the name of Dutch white. When the

sulphate of barytes is very white, like that of the Tyrol, these

mixtures are reckoned preferable for certain kinds of painting, as the

barytes communicates opacity to the colour, and protects the lead from

being speedily darkened by sulphureous smoke or vapours.

The high reputation of the white lead of Krems was by no means due to

the barytes, for the first and whitest quality was mere carbonate of

lead. The freedom from silver of the lead of Villach, a very rare

circumstance, is one cause of the superiority of its carbonate; as well

as the skilful and laborious manner in which it is washed, and separated

from any adhering particle of metal or sulphuret.

In England, lead is converted into carbonate in the following way.--The

metal is cast into the form of a network grating, in moulds about 15

inches long, and 4 or 5 broad. Several rows of these are placed over

cylindrical glazed earthen pots, about 4 or 5 inches in diameter,

containing some treacle-vinegar, which are then covered with straw;

above these pots another range is piled, and so in succession, to a

convenient height. The whole are imbedded in spent bark from the

tan-pit, brought into a fermenting state by being mixed with some bark

used in a previous process. The pots are left undisturbed under the

influence of a fermenting temperature for eight or nine weeks. In the

course of this time the lead gratings become, generally speaking,

converted throughout into a solid carbonate, which when removed is

levigated in a proper mill, and elutriated with abundance of pure water.

The plan of inserting coils of sheet lead into earthenware pipkins

containing vinegar, and imbedding the pile of pipkins in fermenting

horsedung and litter, is now little used; because the coil is not

uniformly acted on by the acid vapours, and the sulphuretted hydrogen

evolved from the dung is apt to darken the white lead.

In the above processes, the conversion of lead into carbonate, seems to

be effected by keeping the metal immersed in a warm, humid atmosphere,

loaded with carbonic and acetic acids; and hence a pure vinegar does not

answer well; but one which is susceptible, by its spontaneous

decomposition in these circumstances, of yielding carbonic acid. Such

are tartar, wine-lees, molasses, &c.

Another process has lately been practised to a considerable extent in

France, though it does not afford a white lead equal in body and opacity

to the products of the preceding operations. M. Thenard first

established the principle, and MM. Brechoz and Leseur contrived the

arrangements of this new method, which was subsequently executed on a

great scale by MM. Roard and Brechoz.

A subacetate of lead is formed by digesting a cold solution of

uncrystallized acetate, over litharge, with frequent agitation. It is

said that 65 pounds of purified pyrolignous acid, of specific gravity

1·056, require, for making a neutral acetate, 58 pounds of litharge; and

hence, to form the subacetate, three times that quantity of base, or 174

pounds, must be used. The compound is diluted with water, as soon as it

is formed, and being decanted off quite limpid, is exposed to a current

of carbonic acid gas, which, uniting with the two extra proportions of

oxide of lead in the subacetate, precipitates them in the form of a

white carbonate, while the liquid becomes a faintly acidulous acetate.

The carbonic acid may be extricated from chalk, or other compounds, or

generated by combustion of charcoal, as at Clichy; but in the latter

case, it must be transmitted through a solution of acetate of lead

before being admitted into the subacetate, to deprive it of any

particles of sulphuretted hydrogen. When the precipitation of the

carbonate of lead is completed, and well settled down, the supernatant

acetate is decanted off, and made to act on another dose of litharge.

The deposit being first rinsed with a little water, this washing is

added to the acetate; after which the white lead is thoroughly

elutriated. This repetition of the process may be indefinitely made; but

there is always a small loss of acetate, which must be repaired, either

directly or by adding some vinegar.

In order to obtain the finest white lead by the process with earthen

pots containing vinegar buried in fermenting tan, and covered by a

grating of lead, the metal should be so thin as to be entirely

convertible into carbonate; for whenever any of it remains, it is apt to

give a gray tint to the product: if the temperature of the fermenting

mass is less than 90° Fahr., some particles of the metal will resist the

action of the vinegar, and degrade the colour; and if it exceeds 122°,

the white verges into yellow, in consequence of some carbonaceous

compound being developed from the principles of the acetic acid. The

dung and tan have been generally supposed to act in this process by

supplying carbonic acid, the result of their fermentation; but it is now

said that this explanation is inexact, because the best white lead can

be obtained by the entire exclusion of air from the pots in which the

carbonation of the metal is carried on. We are thence led to conclude

that the lead is oxidized at the expense of the oxygen of the vinegar,

and carbonated by the agency of its oxygen and carbon; the hydrogen of

the acid being left to associate itself with the remaining oxygen and

carbon, so as to constitute an ethereous compound: thus, supposing the

three atoms of oxygen to form, with one of lead and one of carbon, an

atom of carbonate, then the remaining three atoms of carbon and three of

hydrogen would compose olefiant gas.

It is customary on the continent to mould the white lead into conical

loaves, before sending them into the market. This is done by stuffing

well-drained white lead into unglazed earthen pots, of the requisite

size and shape, and drying it to a solid mass, by exposing these pots in

stove-rooms. The moulds being now inverted on tables, discharge their

contents, which then receive a final desiccation; and are afterwards put

up in pale-blue paper, to set off the white colour by contrast. Nothing

in all the white-lead process is so injurious as this pot operation; a

useless step, fortunately unknown in Great Britain. Neither greasing the

skin, nor wearing thick gloves, can protect the operators from the

diseases induced by the poisonous action of the white lead; and hence

they must be soon sent off to some other department of the work.

It has been supposed that the differences observed between the ceruse of

Clichy and the common kinds, depend on the greater compactness of the

particles of the latter, produced by their slower aggregation; as also,

according to M. Robiquet, on the former containing considerably less

carbonic acid. See _infrà_.

[Illustration: 1201]

Mr. Ham proposed, in a patent dated June, 1826, to produce white lead

with the aid of the following apparatus, _a_, _a_, (_fig._ 1201.) are

the side-walls of a stove-room, constructed of bricks; _b_, is the floor

of bricks laid in Roman cement; _c_, _c_, are the side-plates, between

which and the walls, a quantity of refuse tanner’s bark, or other

suitable vegetable matter, is to be introduced. The same material is to

be put also into the lower part at _d_ (upon a false bottom of grating?)

The tan should rise to a considerable height, and have a series of

strips of sheet lead _e_, _e_, _e_, placed upon it, which are kept apart

by blocks or some other convenient means, with a space open at one end

of the plates, for the passage of the vapours; but above the upper

plates, boards are placed, and covered with tan, to confine them there.

In the lower part of the chamber, coils of steam-pipe _f_, _f_, are laid

in different directions to distribute heat; _g_, is a funnel-pipe, to

conduct vinegar into the lower part of the vessel; and _h_, is a cock to

draw it off, when the operation is suspended. The acid vapours raised by

the heat, pass up through the spent bark, and on coming into contact

with the sheets of lead, corrode them. The quantity of acid liquor

should not be in excess; a point to be ascertained by means of the small

tube _i_, at top, which is intended for testing it by the tongue. _k_,

is a tube for inserting a thermometer, to watch the temperature, which

should not exceed 170° Fahr. I am not aware of what success has attended

this patented arrangement. The heat prescribed is far too great.

A magnificent factory has been recently erected at West Bromwich, near

Birmingham, to work a patent lately granted to Messrs. Gossage and

Benson, for making white lead by mixing a small quantity of acetate of

lead in solution with slightly damped litharge, contained in a long

stone trough, and passing over the surface of the trough currents of hot

carbonic acid, while its contents are powerfully stirred up by a

travelling-wheel mechanism. The product is afterwards ground and

elutriated, as usual. The carbonic acid gas is produced from the

combustion of coke. I am told that 40 tons of excellent white lead are

made weekly by these chemico-mechanical operations.

Messrs. Button and Dyer obtained a patent about a year and a half ago,

for making white lead by transmitting a current of purified carbonic

acid gas, from the combustion of coke, through a mixture of litharge and

nitrate of lead, diffused and dissolved in water, which is kept in

constant agitation and ebullition by steam introduced through a

perforated coil of pipes at the bottom of the tub. The carbonate of lead

is formed here upon the principle of Thenard’s old process with the

subacetate; for the nitrate of lead forms with the litharge a

subnitrate, which is forthwith transformed into carbonate and neutral

nitrate, by the agency of the carbonic acid gas. I have discovered that

all sorts of white lead produced by precipitation from a liquid, are in

a semi-crystalline condition; appear, therefore, semi-transparent, when

viewed in the microscope; and do not cover so well as white lead made by

the process of vinegar and tan, in which the lead has remained always

solid during its transition from the blue to the white state; and hence

consists of opaque particles.

A patent was obtained, in December, 1833, by John Baptiste Constantine

Torassa, and others, for making white lead by agitating the granulated

metal, or shot, in trays or barrels, along with water, and exposing the

mixture of lead-dust and water to the air, to be oxidized and

carbonated. It is said that upwards of 100,000_l._ have been expended at

Chelsea, by a joint stock company, in a factory constructed for

executing the preceding most operose and defective process; which has

been, many years ago, tried without success in Germany. I am convinced

that the whole of these recent projects for preparing white lead, are

inferior in economy, and quality of produce, to the old Dutch process,

which may be so arranged as to convert sheets of blue lead thoroughly

into the best white lead, within the space of 12 days, at less expense

of labour than by any other plan.

White lead, as obtained by precipitation from the acetate, subacetate,

and subnitrate, is a true carbonate of the metal, consisting of one

prime equivalent of lead 104, one of oxygen 8, and one of carbonic acid

22; whose sum is 134, the atomic weight of the compound; or, of lead,

77·6; oxygen, 6; carbonic acid, 16·4; in 100 parts. It has been

supposed, by some authors, that the denser and better-covering white

lead of Krems and Holland is a kind of subcarbonate, containing only 9

per cent. of carbonic acid; but this view of the subject does not accord

with my researches.

WICK (_Mèche_, Fr.; _Docht_, Germ.); is the spongy cord, usually made of

soft spun cotton threads, which by capillary action, draws up the oil in

lamps, or the melted tallow or wax in candles, in small successive

portions, to be burned. In common wax and tallow candles, the wick is

formed of parallel threads; in the stearine candles, the wick is plaited

upon the braiding machine, moistened with a very dilute sulphuric acid,

and dried, whereby as it burns, it falls to one side and consumes

without requiring to be snuffed; in the patent candles of Mr. Palmer,

one-tenth of the wick is first imbued with subnitrate of bismuth ground

up with oil, the whole is then bound round in the manner called

_gimping_; and of this wick, twice the length of the intended candle is

twisted double round a rod, like the _caduceus of Mercury_. This rod

with its coil being inserted in the axis of the candle mould, is to be

enclosed by pouring in the melted tallow; and when the tallow is set,

the rod is to be drawn out at top, leaving the wick in the candle. As

this candle is burned, the ends of the double wick stand out sideways

beyond the flame; and the bismuth attached to the cotton being acted on

by the oxygen of the atmosphere, causes the wick to be completely

consumed, and, therefore, saves the trouble of snuffing it.

WINCING-MACHINE, is the English name of the dyer’s reel, which he

suspends horizontally, by the ends of its iron axis in bearings, over

the edge of his vat, so that the line of the axis, being placed over the

middle partition in the copper, will permit the piece of cloth which is

wound upon the reel, to descend alternately into either compartment of

the bath, according as it is turned by hand to the right or the left.

For an excellent self-acting or mechanical wince, see DYEING.

WINE, is the fermented juice of the grape. In the more southern states

of Europe, the grapes, being more saccharine, afford a more abundant

production of alcohol, and stronger wines, as exemplified in the best

port, sherry, and madeira. The influence of solar heat upon the vines

may, however, be mitigated by growing them to moderate heights on level

ground, and by training them in festoons under the shelter of trees. In

the more temperate climates, such as the district of Burgundy, the finer

flavoured wines are produced; and there the vines are usually grown upon

hilly slopes fronting the south, with more or less of an easterly or

westerly direction, as on the Côte d’Or, at a distance from marshes,

forests, and rivers, whose vapours might deteriorate the air. The plains

of this district, even when possessing a similar or analogous soil, do

not produce wines of so agreeable a flavour. The influence of

temperature becomes very manifest in countries further north, where, in

consequence of a few degrees of thermometric depression, the production

of generous agreeable wine becomes impossible.

The land most favourable to the vine is light, easily permeable to

water, but somewhat retentive by its composition; with a sandy subsoil,

to allow the excess of moisture to drain readily off. Calcareous soils

produce the highly esteemed wines of the Côte d’Or; a granitic debris

forms the foundation of the lands where the Hermitage wines are grown;

siliceous soil interspersed with flints furnishes the celebrated wines

of Château-Neuf, Ferté, and La Gaude; schistose districts afford also

good wine, as that called _la Malgue_. Thus we see that lands differing

in chemical composition, but possessed of the proper physical qualities,

may produce most agreeable wines; and so also may lands of like chemical

and physical constitution produce various kinds of wine, according to

their varied exposure. As a striking example of these effects, we may

adduce the slopes of the hills which grow the wines of Montrachet. The

insulated part towards the top furnishes the wine called _Chevalier

Montrachet_, which is less esteemed, and sells at a much lower price,

than the delicious wine grown on the middle height, called _true

Montrachet_. Beneath this district, and in the surrounding plains, the

vines afford a far inferior article, called _bastard Montrachet_. The

opposite side of the hills produces very indifferent wine. Similar

differences, in a greater or less degree, are observable relatively to

the districts which grow the Pomard, Volnay, Beaune, Nuits, Vougeot,

Chambertin, Romanée, &c. Every where it is found, that the reverse side

of the hill, the summit, and the plain, although generally consisting of

like soil, afford inferior wine to the middle southern slopes.

_Amelioration of the soil._--When the vine lands are too light or too

dense, they may be modified, within certain limits, by introducing into

them either argillaceous or siliceous matter. Marl is excellent for

almost all grounds which are not previously too calcareous, being alike

useful to open dense soils, and to render porous ones more retentive.

_Manure._--For the vine, as well as all cultivated plants, a manure

supplying azotized or animal nutriment may be used with great advantage,

provided care be taken to ripen it by previous fermentation, so that it

may not, by absorption in too crude a state, impart any disagreeable

odour to the grape; as sometimes happens to the vines grown in the

vicinity of great towns, like Paris, and near Argenteuil. There is a

compost used in France, called _animalized black_, of which from 1/3 to

1/2 of a litre (old English quart) serves sufficiently to fertilize the

root of one vine, when applied every year, or two years. An excess of

manure, in rainy seasons especially, has the effect of rendering the

grapes large and insipid.

The ground is tilled at the same time as the manure is applied, towards

the month of March; the plants are then dressed, and the props are

inserted. The weakness of the plants renders this practice useful; but

in some southern districts, the stem of the vine, when supported at a

proper height, acquires after a while sufficient size and strength to

stand alone. The ends of the props or poles are either dipped in tar, or

charred, to prevent their rotting. The bottom of the stem must be

covered over with soil, after the spring rains have washed it down. The

principal husbandry of the vineyard consists in digging or ploughing to

destroy the weeds, and to expose the soil to the influence of the air,

during the months of May, June, and occasionally in August.

The vintage, in the temperate provinces, generally takes place about the

end of September; and it is always deteriorated whenever the fruit is

not ripe enough before the 15th or 20th of October; for, in this case,

not only is the must more acid, and less saccharine, but the

atmospherical temperature is apt to fall so low during the nights, as to

obstruct more or less its fermentation into wine. The grapes should be

plucked in dry weather, at the interval of a few days after they are

ripe; being usually gathered in baskets, and transported to the vats in

dorsels, sufficiently tight to prevent the juice from running out.

Whenever a layer about 14 or 15 inches thick has been spread on the

bottom of the vat, the treading operation begins, which is usually

repeated after macerating the grapes for some time, when an incipient

fermentation has softened the texture of the skin and the interior

cells. When the whole bruised grapes are collected in the vat, the

juice, by means of a slight fermentation, reacts, through the acidity

thus generated, upon the colouring-matter of the husks, and also upon

the tannin contained in the stones and the fruit-stalks. The process of

fermentation is suffered to proceed without any other precaution, except

forcing down from time to time the pellicles and pedicles floated up by

the carbonic acid to the top; but it would be less apt to become

acetous, were the mouths of the vats covered. With this view, M. Sebille

Auger introduced with success his elastic bung in the manufacture of

wine in the department of the Maine-et-Loire.

With whatever kind of apparatus the fermentation may have been

regulated, as soon as it ceases to be tumultuous, and the wine is not

sensibly saccharine or muddy, it must be racked off from the lees, by

means of a spigot, and run into the ripening tuns. The marc being then

gently squeezed in a press, affords a tolerably clear wine, which is

distributed among the tuns in equal proportions; but the liquor obtained

by stronger pressure, is reserved for the casks of inferior wine.

In the south of France the fermentation sometimes proceeds too slowly,

on account of the must being too saccharine; an accident which is best

counteracted by maintaining a temperature of about 65° or 68° F., in the

tun-room. When the must, on the other hand, is too thin, and deficient

in sugar, it must be partially concentrated by rapid boiling, before the

whole can be made to ferment into a good wine. By boiling up a part of

the must for this purpose, the excess of ferment is at the same time

destroyed. Should this concentration be inconvenient, a certain

proportion of sugar must be introduced, immediately after racking it

off.

The specific gravity of must varies with the richness and ripeness of

the grapes which afford it; being in some cases so low as 1·0627, and in

others so high as 1·1283. This happens particularly in the south of

France. In the district of the Necker in Germany, the specific gravity

varies from 1·050 to 1·090; in Heidelberg, from 1·039, to 1·091; but it

varies much in different years.

After the fermentation is complete, the vinous part consists of water,

alcohol, a colouring-matter, a peculiar aromatic principle, a little

undecomposed sugar, bitartrate and malate of potash, tartrate of lime,

muriate of soda, and tannin; the latter substances being in small

proportion.

It is known that a few green grapes are capable of spoiling a whole cask

of wine, and therefore they are always allowed to become completely

ripe, and even sometimes to undergo a species of slight fermentation,

before being plucked, which completes the development of the saccharine

principle. At other times the grapes are gathered whenever they are

ripe, but are left for a few days on wicker-floors, to sweeten, before

being pressed.

In general the whole vintage of the day is pressed in the evening, and

the resulting must is received in separate vats. At the end usually of 6

or 8 hours, if the temperature be above 50° F., and if the grapes have

not been too cold when plucked, a froth or scum is formed at the

surface, which rapidly increases in thickness. After it acquires such a

consistence as to crack in several places, it is taken off with a

skimmer, and drained; and the thin liquor is returned to the vat. A few

hours afterwards another coat of froth is formed, which is removed in

like manner, and sometimes a third may be produced. The regular vinous

fermentation now begins, characterized by air-bubbles rising up the

sides of the staves, with a peculiar whizzing as they break at the

surface. At this period all the remaining froth should be quickly

skimmed off, and the clear subjacent must, be transferred into barrels,

where it is left to ripen by a regular fermentation.

The white wines, which might be disposed to become stringy, from a

deficient supply of tannin, may be preserved from this malady by a due

addition of the footstalks of ripe grapes. The tannin, while it tends to

preserve the wines, renders them also more easy to clarify, by the

addition of white of egg, or isinglass.

The white wines should be racked off as soon as the first frosts have

made them clear, and at the latest by the end of the February moon. By

thus separating the wine from the lees, we avoid, or render of little

consequence, the fermentation which takes place on the return of spring,

and which, if too brisk, would destroy all its sweetness, by decomposing

the remaining portion of sugar.

The characteristic odour possessed by all wines, in a greater or less

degree, is produced by a peculiar substance, which possesses the

characters of an essential oil. As it is not volatile, it cannot be

confounded with the aroma of wine. When large quantities of wine are

distilled, an oily substance is obtained towards the end of the

operation. This may also be procured from the wine lees which are

deposited in the casks after the fermentation has commenced. It forms

one 40,000th part of the wine; and consists of a peculiar new acid, and

ether, each of which has been called the _œnanthic_. The acid is

analogous to the fatty acids, and the ether is liquid, but insoluble in

water. The acid is perfectly white when pure, of the consistence of

butter at 60°, melts with a moderate heat, reddens litmus, and dissolves

in caustic and carbonated alkalis, as well as in alcohol and ether.

Œnanthic ether is colourless, has an extremely strong smell of wine,

which is almost intoxicating when inhaled, and a powerful disagreeable

taste. _Liebig and Pelouze._

_Sparkling wines._--In the manufacture of these, black grapes of the

first quality are usually employed, especially those gathered upon the

vine called by the French _noirien_, cultivated on the best exposures.

As it is important, however, to prevent the colouring-matter of the skin

from entering into the wine, the juice should be squeezed as gently and

rapidly as possible. The liquor obtained by a second and third pressing

is reserved for inferior wines, on account of the reddish tint which it

acquires. The marc is then mixed with the grapes of the red-wine vats.

The above nearly colourless must, is immediately poured into tuns or

casks, till about three-fourths of their capacity are filled, when

fermentation soon begins. This is allowed to continue under the control

of the elastic bung, above mentioned, for about 15 days, and then

three-fourths of the casks are filled up with wine from the rest. The

casks are now closed by a bung secured with a piece of hoop iron nailed

to two contiguous staves. The casks should be made of new wood, but not

of oak--though old white wine casks are occasionally used.

In the month of January the clear wine is racked off, and is fined by a

small quantity of isinglass dissolved in old wine of the same kind.

Forty days afterwards a second fining is required. Sometimes a third may

be useful, if the lees be considerable. In the month of May the clear

wine is drawn off into bottles, taking care to add to each of them a

small measure of what is called _liquor_, which is merely about 3 per

cent. of a syrup made by dissolving sugar-candy in white wine. The

bottles being filled, and their corks secured by packthread and wire,

they are laid on their sides, in this month, with their mouths sloping

downwards at an angle of about 20 degrees, in order that any sediment

may fall into the neck. At the end of 8 or 10 days, the inclination of

the bottles is increased, when they are slightly tapped, and placed in a

vertical position; so that after the lees are all collected in the neck,

the cork is partially removed for an instant, to allow the sediment to

be expelled by the pressure of the gas. If the wine be still muddy in

the bottles, along with a new dose of _liquor_, a small quantity of

fining should be added to each, and the bottles should be placed again

in the inverted position. At the end of two or three months, the

sediment collected over the cork, is dexterously discharged; and if the

wine be still deficient in transparency, the same process of fining must

be repeated.

Sparkling wine (_vin mousseux_), prepared as above described, is fit for

drinking usually at the end of from 18 to 30 months, according to the

state of the seasons. It is in Champagne that the lightest, most

transparent, and most highly flavoured wines, have been hitherto made.

The breakage of the bottles in these sparkling wines amounts frequently

to 30 per cent., a circumstance which adds greatly to their cost of

production.

Weak wines of bad growths ought to be consumed within 12 or 15 months

after being manufactured; and should be kept meanwhile in cool cellars.

White wines of middling strength ought to be kept in casks constantly

full, and carefully excluded from contact of air, and the racking off

should be done as quickly as possible. As the most of them are injured

by too much fermentation, this process should be so regulated as always

to leave a little sugar undecomposed. It is useful to counteract the

absorption of oxygen, and the consequent tendency to acidity, by burning

a sulphur match in the casks into which they are about to be run. This

is done by hooking the match to a bent wire, kindling and suspending it

within the cask through the bung-hole. Immediately on withdrawing the

match, the cask should be corked, if the wine be not ready for transfer.

If the burning sulphur be extinguished on plunging it into the cask, it

is a proof of the cask being unsound, and unfit for receiving the wine;

in which case it should be well cleansed, first with lime-water, then

with very dilute sulphuric acid, and lastly with boiling water.

Wine-cellars ought to be dry at bottom, floored with flags, have windows

opening to the north, be so much sunk below the level of the adjoining

ground as to possess a nearly uniform temperature in summer and winter;

and be at such a distance from a frequented highway or street as not to

suffer vibration from the motion of carriages.

Wines should be racked off in cool weather; the end of February being

the fittest time for light wines. Strong wines are not racked off till

they have stood a year or eighteen months upon the lees, to promote

their slow or insensible fermentation. A syphon well managed serves

better than a faucet to draw off wine clear from the sediment. White

wines, before being bottled, should be fined with isinglass; red wines

are usually fined with whites of eggs beat up into a froth, and mixed

with two or three times their bulk of water. But some strong wines,

which are a little harsh from excess of tannin, are fined with a little

sheep or bullock’s blood. Occasionally a small quantity of sweet glue is

used for this purpose.

_The following maladies of wines_, are certain accidental

deteriorations, to which remedies should be speedily applied.

_La-pousse_ (pushing out of the cask), is the name given to a violent

fermentative movement, which occasionally supervenes after the wine has

been run off into the casks. If these have been tightly closed, the

interior pressure may increase to such a degree as to burst the hoops,

or cause the seams of the staves or ends to open. The elastic bungs

already described, will prevent the bursting of the casks; but something

must be done to repress the fermentation, lest it should destroy the

whole of the sugar, and make the wine unpalatably harsh. One remedy is,

to transfer the wine into a cask previously fumigated with burning

sulphur; another is, to add to it about one thousandth part of sulphite

of lime; and a third, and perhaps the safest, is to introduce half a

pound of mustard-seed into each barrel. At any rate the wines should be

fined whenever the movements are allayed, to remove the floating ferment

which has been the cause of the mischief.

_Turning sour._--The production of too much acid in a wine, is a proof

of its containing originally too little alcohol, of its being exposed

too largely to the air, or to vibrations, or to too high a temperature

in the cellar. The best thing to be done in this case is, to mix it with

its bulk of a stronger wine in a less advanced state, to fine the

mixture, to bottle it, and to consume it as soon as possible, for it

will never prove a good keeping wine. This _distemper_ in wines formerly

gave rise to the very dangerous practice of adding litharge as a

sweetener; whereby a quantity of acetate or sugar of lead was formed in

the liquor, productive of the most deleterious consequences to those who

drunk of it. In France, the regulations of police, and the enlightened

_surveillance_ of the council of salubrity, have completely put down

this gross abuse. The saturation of the acid by lime and other alkaline

bases has generally a prejudicial effect, and injures more or less the

vinous flavour and taste.

_Ropiness or viscidity of wines._--The cause of this phenomenon, which

renders wine unfit for drinking, was altogether unknown, till M.

François, an apothecary of Nantes, demonstrated that it was owing to an

azotized matter, analogous to _gliadine_ (gluten); and in fact it is the

white wines, especially those which contain the least tannin, which are

subject to this malady. He also pointed out the proper remedy, in the

addition of tannin under a rather agreeable form, namely, the bruised

berries of the mountain-ash (_sorbier_), in a somewhat unripe state; of

which one pound, well stirred in, is sufficient for a barrel. After

agitation, the wine is to be left in repose for a day or two, and then

racked off. The tannin by this time will have separated the azotized

matter from the liquor, and removed the ropiness. The wine is to be

fined and bottled off.

_The taste of the cask_, which sometimes happens to wine put into casks

which had remained long empty, is best remedied by agitating the wine

for some time with a spoonful of olive oil. An essential oil, the chief

cause of the bad taste, combines with the fixed oil, and rises with it

to the surface.

According to a statement in the _Dictionnaire Technologique_, the annual

produce of a hectare of vineyard, upon the average of 113 years, in the

district of Volnay, is 1779 litres, which fetch 0·877 francs each, or

200 francs the piece of 228 litres, amounting in all to 1672 francs.

Deducting for expenses and taxes (_contributions_) 572 francs, there

remain 1100 francs of net proceeds; and as the value of the capital may

be estimated at 23,000 francs, the profit turns out to be no more than 5

per cent. The net proceeds in the growths of Beaune, Nuits, &c., does

not exceed 600 francs per hectare (2·4 acres), and therefore is

equivalent to only 2-1/2 per cent. upon the capital.

The quantity of alcohol contained in different wines, has been made the

subject of elaborate experiments by Brande and Fontenelle; but as it

must evidently vary with different seasons, the results can be received

merely as approximative. The only apparatus required for this research,

is a small still and refrigeratory, so well fitted up as to permit none

of the spirituous vapours to be dissipated. The distilled liquor should

be received in a glass tube, graduated into one hundred measures, of

such capacity as to contain the whole of the alcohol which the given

measure of wine employed is capable of yielding. In the successive

experiments, the quantity of wine used, and of spirit distilled over,

being the same in volume, the relative densities of the latter will show

at once the relative strengths of the wines. A very neat small apparatus

has been contrived for the purpose of analyzing wines in this manner, by

M. Gay Lussac. It is constructed, and sold at a moderate price, by M.

Collardeau, No. 56, Rue Faubourg St. Martin, Paris. The proportion given

by Brande (Table I.), has been reduced to the standard of absolute

alcohol by Fesser; and that by Fontenelle (Table II.), to the same

standard by Schubarth; as in the following tables:--

A Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures and Mines containing a clear exposition of their principles and practice · 第 403 / 421 题