After baking it is thrown into cold water, where it falls into powder,
and the separation of the coarse from the fine is effectually
accomplished, by a simple method used in the dry colour manufactories,
called washing over. It is done in the following manner: Three or four
tubs are connected on a line by spouts from their tops; in the first the
earth is beat and stirred, and the water, which is continually running
from the first to the last through intermediate ones, carries with it
and deposits the fine, whilst the coarse settles in the first. The
advantages to be derived from this operation are, that the two kinds
will be much fitter for their respective purposes of cleansing coarse or
fine cloth; for without baking the earth they would be unfit, as before
noticed, to incorporate so minutely with the water in its native state;
it would neither so readily fall down, nor so easily be divided into
different qualities, without the process of washing over. When fuel is
scarce for baking the earth, it is broken into pieces of the same size,
as mentioned above, and then exposed to the heat of the sun.
The various uses of fuller’s earth may be shortly explained. According
to the above method, the coarse and fine of one pit being separated, the
first is used for cloths or an inferior, and the second for those of a
superior quality. The yellow and the blue earths of Surry are of
different qualities naturally, and are like the above, obtained
artificially, and used for different purposes. The former, which is
deemed the best, is employed in fulling the kerseymeres and finer cloths
of Wiltshire and Gloucestershire, whilst the blue is principally sent
into Yorkshire for the coarser cloths. Its effects on these cloths is
owing to the affinity which alumine has for greasy substances; it unites
readily with them, and forms combinations which easily attach themselves
to different stuffs, and thereby serve the purpose of mordants in some
measure. The fullers generally apply it before they use the soap.
FULLING; for the theory of the process, see FELTING, and WOOL.
FULLING MILL. Willan and Ogle obtained a patent in 1825 for improved
fulling machinery, designed to act in a similar way to the ordinary
stocks, in which cloths are beaten, for the purpose of washing and
thickening them; but the standard and the bed of the stocks are made of
iron instead of wood as heretofore; and a steam vessel is placed under
the bed, for heating the cloths during the operation of fulling; whereby
their appearance is said to be greatly improved.
[Illustration: 480*]
_Fig._ 480*. is a section of the fulling machine or stocks; _a_, is a
cast-iron pillar, made hollow for the sake of lightness; _b_, is the bed
of the stocks, made also of iron, and polished smooth, the side of the
stock being removed to shew the interior; _c_, is the lever that carries
the beater _d_. The cloths are to be placed on the bed _b_, at bottom,
and water allowed to pass through the stock, when by the repeated blows
of the beater _d_, which is raised and let fall in the usual way, the
cloths are beaten, and become cleansed and fulled.
A part of the bed at _e_, is made hollow, for the purpose of forming a
steam box, into which steam from a boiler is introduced by a pipe with a
stop-cock. This steam heats the bed of the stock, and greatly
facilitates, as well as improves the process of cleansing and fulling
the cloths.
The smoothness of the surface of the polished metal, of which the bed of
the stock is constituted, is said to be very much preferable to the
roughness of the surface of wood of which ordinary fulling stocks are
made, as by these iron stocks less of the nap or felt of the cloth is
removed, and its appearance when finished is very much superior to
cloths fulled in ordinary stocks.
In the operation of fulling, the cloths are turned over on the bed, by
the falling of the beaters, but this turning over of the cloths will
depend in a great measure upon the form of the front or breast of the
stock. In these improved stocks therefore, there is a contrivance by
which the form of the front may be varied at pleasure, in order to suit
cloths of different qualities; _f_, is a movable curved plate,
constituting the front of the stock; its lower part is a cylindrical
rod, extending along the entire width of the bed, and being fitted into
a recess, forms a hinge joint upon which the curved plate moves; _g_, is
a rod attached to the back of the curved plate _f_, with a screw thread
upon it; this rod passes through a nut _h_, and by turning this nut, the
rod is moved backward or forward, and consequently, the position of the
curved plate altered.
The nut _h_, is a wheel with teeth, taking into two other similar
toothed wheels, one on each side of it, which are likewise the nuts of
similar rods jointed to the back of the curved plate _f_; by turning the
central wheel, therefore, which may be done by a winch, the other two
wheels are turned also, and the curved plate moved backward or forward.
At the upper part of the plate there are pins passing through curved
slots, which act as guides when the plate is moved.
The patentees state in conclusion, that steam has been employed before
for heating cloths while fulling them, they therefore do not exclusively
claim its use, except in the particular way described; the advantages
arising from the construction of iron stocks, with polished surfaces in
place of wooden ones, together with the movable curved plates described,
are in their opinion “sufficiently important to constitute a patent
right.”
FULMINATES, or _fulminating powders_. Of these explosive compounds,
there are several species; such as fulminating gold, mercury, platinum,
silver; besides the old fusible mixture of nitre, sulphur, and potash.
The only kind at all interesting in a manufacturing point of view is the
fulminate of mercury, now so extensively used as a priming to the caps
of percussion locks. Having published a paper in the Journal of the
Royal Institution for 1831, upon gunpowder (see GUNPOWDER), the result
of an elaborate suite of experiments, I was soon afterwards requested by
the Hon. the Board of Ordnance to make such researches as would enable
me to answer, in a satisfactory practical manner, a series of questions
upon fulminating powders, subservient to the future introduction of
percussion musquets into the British army. The following is a verbatim
copy of my report upon the subject:--
_To the Secretary of the Board of Ordnance._
“SIR,--I have the honour of informing you, for the instruction of the
Honourable the Master General and the Board of Ordnance, that the
researches on fulminating mercury, which I undertook by their desire,
have been brought to a satisfactory conclusion, after a numerous,
diversified, and somewhat hazardous series of experiments. The following
are the questions submitted to me, with their respective answers:--
_Question 1._ What proportions of mercury, with nitric acid and alcohol
of certain strengths, will yield the greatest quantity of pure fulminate
of mercury?
_Answer._ One hundred parts, by weight, of mercury, must be dissolved
with a gentle heat, in 1000 parts (also by weight) of nitric acid, spec.
gr. 1·4; and this solution, at the temperature of about 130° Fahr. must
be poured into 830 parts by weight of alcohol, spec. gr. 0·830.--_Note._
830 parts of such alcohol, by weight, constitute 1000 by measure; and
1000 parts of such nitric acid, by weight, constitute 740 by measure.
Hence, in round numbers, one ounce weight of quicksilver must be
dissolved in 7-1/2 oz. measures of the above designated nitric acid, and
the resulting solution must be poured into 10 oz. measures of the said
alcohol.
_Question 2._ What is the most economical and safe process for
conducting the manipulation, either as regards the loss of nitrous gas
and residuum, or as respects danger to the operator; also, what is the
readiest and safest mode of mixing the fulminate intimately with its due
proportions of common gunpowder.
_Answer._ The mercury should be dissolved in the acid in a glass retort,
the beak of which is loosely inserted into a large balloon or bottle of
glass or earthenware, whereby the offensive fumes of the nitrous gas
disengaged during the solution, are, in a considerable measure,
condensed into liquid acid, which should be returned into the retort. As
soon as the mercury is all dissolved, and the solution has acquired the
prescribed temperature of about 130°, it should be slowly poured,
through a glass or porcelain funnel, into the alcohol contained in a
glass matrass or bottle capable of holding fully 6 times the bulk of the
mixed liquids. In a few minutes bubbles of gas will proceed from the
bottom of the liquid; these will gradually increase in number and
magnitude till a general fermentative commotion, of a very active kind,
is generated, and the mixture assumes a somewhat frothy appearance. A
white voluminous gas now issues from the orifice of the matrass, which
is very combustible, and must be suffered to escape freely into the air,
at a distance from any flame. These fumes consist of an ethereous gas,
holding mercury in suspension or combination. I have made many
experiments with the view of condensing this gas, or, at least, the
mercury, but with manifest disadvantage to the perfection of the process
of producing fulminate. When the said gas is transmitted, through a
glass tube, into a watery solution of carbonate of soda, a little oxide
of mercury is, no doubt, recovered; but the pressure on the fermentative
mixture, though slight, necessary to the displacement of the soda
solution, seems to obstruct or impair the generation of the fulminate;
this effect is chiefly injurious towards the end of the operation when
the gaseous fumes are strongly impregnated with nitrous gas. When this
is not allowed freely to come off, a portion of subnitrate or nitrate of
mercury is apt to be formed, to the injury of the general process and
the product.
As soon as the effervescence and concomitant emission of gas are
observed to cease, the contents of the matrass should be turned out upon
a paper double filter, fitted into a glass or porcelain funnel, and
washed by the affusion of cold water till the drainings no longer redden
litmus paper. The powder adhering to the matrass should be washed out
and thrown on the filter by the help of a little water. Whenever the
filter is thoroughly drained, it is to be lifted out of the funnel, and
opened out on plated copper or stone ware, heated to 212° Fahr. by steam
or hot water. The fulminate being thus dried, is to be put up in paper
parcels of about 100 grains each; the whole of which may be afterwards
packed away in a tight box, or a bottle with a cork stopper. The
excellence of the fulminate may be ascertained, by the following
characters. It consists of brownish-gray small crystals which sparkle in
the sun, are transparent when applied to a slip of glass with a drop of
water, and viewed by transmitted light. These minute spangles are
entirely soluble in 130 times their weight of boiling water; that is to
say, an imperial pint of boiling water will dissolve 67 grs. of pure
fulminate. Whatever remains indicates impurity. From that solution
beautiful pearly spangles of fulminate fall down as the liquid cools.
It may now be proper to show within what nice and narrow limits the best
proportions of the ingredients used in making the fulminate of mercury
lie. The following are selected from among many experiments instituted
to determine that point, as well as the most economical process.
1. According to the formula given by the celebrated chemist Berzelius,
in the 4th vol. of his “Traité de Chimie,” recently published (p. 383.),
the mercury should be dissolved in 12 times its weight of nitric acid
sp. gr. 1·375; and alcohol of sp. gr. 0·850, amounting to 16·3 times the
weight of the mercury, should be poured at intervals into the nitric
solution. The mixture is then to be heated till effervescence with the
characteristic cloud of gas appears. On the action becoming violent,
alcohol is to be poured in from time to time to repress it, till
additional 16·3 parts have been employed.
On this process I may remark, that it is expensive, troublesome,
dangerous, and unproductive of genuine pure fulminate. One fifth more
nitric acid is expended very nearly than what is necessary, and almost
four times the weight of alcohol which is beneficial. Of alcohol at
0·83, 8·3 parts by weight are sufficient; whereas Berzelius prescribes
nearly 4 times this quantity in weight, though the alcohol is somewhat
weaker, being of sp. gr. 0·850. By using such an excess of alcohol, much
of the fulminate is apt to be revived into globules of quicksilver at
the end of the process, as I showed in my paper on this subject
published in the Journal of the Royal Institution two years ago. There
is no little hazard in pouring the alcohol into the nitric solution; for
at each effusion an explosive blast takes place, whereas by pouring the
solution into the alcohol, as originally enjoined by the Hon. Mr.
Howard, the inventor of the process, no danger whatever is incurred. 100
parts of mercury treated in the way recommended by Berzelius afforded me
only 112 parts of fulminate, instead of the 130 obtained by my much more
economical and safe proportions and process from the same weight of
quicksilver.
2. If 10 parts of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1·375 be used for dissolving 1
of quicksilver, and if 14 parts of alcohol of sp. gr. 0·85 be thereafter
mixed with the solution, the product of such proportions will either be
not granular, and therefore not fulminating, or it will be partially
granular and partially pulverulent, being a mixture of fulminate and
subnitrate of mercury ill adapted for priming detonating caps. Instead
of 130 parts of genuine fulminate, as I do obtain, probably not more
than 10 parts of powder will be produced, and that of indifferent
quality. In fact, whenever the ethereous fermentation is defective, or
not vigorous, little true fulminate is generated; but much of the
mercury remains in the acidulated alcoholic liquid.
3. If the alcohol be poured in successive portions, and of proper
strength (sp. gr. 0·83) into a proper nitric solution of mercury, the
explosive action which accompanies each effusion dissipates much of the
alcohol, and probably impairs the acid, so that the subsequent ethereous
fermentation is defective, and little good fulminate is formed. From 100
parts of mercury submitted to this treatment, I obtained in one
experiment carefully made, only 51 parts of a powder, which was
impalpable, had a cream colour, and was not explosive either by heat or
percussion.
4. When, with 100 parts of mercury, 800 of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1·375
are employed with 650 of alcohol of sp. gr. 846, no fulminate whatever
is generated.
5. When with the proper proportions of mercury, acid, and alcohol, the
process is advanced into a proper energy of fermentative commotion, if
the matrass be immersed in cold water so as materially to repress that
action, the process will be impaired, and will turn out ultimately
defective both as to the quantity and quality of the fulminate. It is
therefore evident that a certain energy or vivacity of etherization is
essential to the full success of this curious process, and that any
thing which checks it, or obstructs its taking place, is injurious and
to be avoided.
When my proportions are observed in making fulminating mercury, somewhat
less than one fourth of the nitric acid used in making the solution
remains in the alcoholic mixture along with the fulminate. When other
proportions are taken, much more acid remains. This acid is not
recoverable to any useful or economical purpose, nor is the alcohol that
is associated with it. Many distillations with various reagents have led
me to this practical conclusion. In fact, when the process is most
complete, as described in the first paragraph, the alcohol is entirely
and profitably employed in etherization, and generating fulminic acid.
I have made a series of analytical experiments on the pure fulminate of
mercury, with the view of determining its composition, the quantity of
quicksilver present in it, and consequently the loss of mercury in the
operation. I have stated that my maximum product of fulminate from 100
grs. of quicksilver is 130 grs. Occasionally from slight differences in
the temperature of the mixture, or the ambient atmosphere, 2 grs. less
may be obtained.
A. I dissolved 130 grs. with a gentle heat in muriatic acid contained in
a small matrass, adding a few drops of the nitric to quicken the
solution. On evaporating it to dryness, with much care to avoid
volatilization of the salt, I obtained 125 grs. of corrosive sublimate
or bi-chloride of mercury. But 125 grs. of this bi-chloride contain only
91·1 grs. of quicksilver. Therefore, by this experiment, 130 grs. of
fulminate contain no more than 91·1 of mercury, indicating an exhalation
of 8·9 parts in the form of fumes, or a retention in the residuary
liquid of some of these 8·9 parts, out of the 100 originally employed.
B. In another experiment for analysis, 130 grs. dissolved as above, were
thrown down by carbonate of soda. 95 grs. of black oxide of mercury were
obtained, which are equivalent to 91·2 grs. of quicksilver; affording a
confirmation of the preceding result.
C. 130 grs. of fulminate were dissolved in strong muriatic acid, and the
solution was decomposed by crystals of proto-muriate of tin at a boiling
temperature. The mercury was precipitated in globules to such amount as
to verify the two preceding experiments.
Regarding fulminate of mercury as a bi-cyanate, that is, as a compound
of one atom or one equivalent prime of deutoxide of mercury, and two
primes of cyanic acid, we shall find its theoretical composition to be
as follows, hydrogen being the radix, or 1.
2 Primes of Cyanic or fulminic Acid = 34 × 2 = 68 24
1 Deutoxide of Mercury = 216 76
--- ---
284 100
As these 284 parts of fulminate contain 200 of quicksilver, so 142 parts
of fulminate will contain 100 of quicksilver. Whence it appears, that
when only 130 parts of fulminate can be obtained in practice from 100 of
quicksilver, 8-1/2 parts of quicksilver out of the 100 are unproductive,
that is, are expended in the etherized gas, or left in the residuary
acidulous liquid. By the above experimental and theoretical analysis,
91·5 parts of quicksilver enter into the composition of 130 parts of
true crystalline fulminate. The complete accordance here exhibited
between theory and practice removes every shadow of doubt as to the
accuracy of the statements. 100 parts of fulminate consist of--
Mercury } 70·4 } Peroxide 76·0
Oxygen } 5·6 }
Fulminic acid 24
-----
100·0
_Question 3._ May the gas or vapour produced by the inflammation of the
fulminate of mercury, when combined with a portion of gunpowder, be
considered in its nature corrosive of iron or brass?
_Answer._ I have suggested to Mr. Lovell, of Waltham Abbey works, that
the fulminate may be probably diluted most advantageously with spirit
varnish made of a proper consistence by dissolving sandarach in alcohol.
When well mixed with this varnish, a small drop of the mixture will
suffice for priming each copper cap or disc; and as the spirit
evaporates immediately, the fulminate will be fixed to the copper beyond
the risk of shaking or washing away. On the Continent, tincture of
benjamin is used for the same purpose; but as that balsamic resin leaves
in combustion a voluminous coal, which sandarach does not, the latter,
which is the main constituent of spirit varnish, seems better adapted
for this purpose. It is sufficiently combustible, and may be yet made by
a due proportion, to soften the violence of the explosive mercury on the
nipple of the touch-hole. Fulminate prepared by my formula has no
corrosive influence whatsoever on iron or steel; and, therefore, if such
a medium of applying it, as I have now taken leave to suggest, should be
found to answer, all fears on the score of corrosion may for ever be set
at rest.
_Question 4._ How far is the mixture (of fulminate and gunpowder) liable
to be affected by the moisture of the atmosphere, or by the intrusion of
water; and will such an accident affect its inflammability when dried
again?
_Answer._ Well made fulminate, mixed with gunpowder and moistened,
undergoes no change, nor is it apt to get deteriorated by keeping any
length of time in a damp climate or a hazy atmosphere. Immersion in
water would be apt to wash the nitre out of the pulverine; but this
result would be prevented if the match or priming mixture were liquefied
or brought to the pasty consistence not with water, but spirit varnish.
Such detonating caps would be indestructible, and might be alternately
moistened and dried without injury.
_Question 5._ Is it at all probable that the composition would be
rendered more inflammable or dangerous of use, by the heat of tropical
climates?
_Answer._ No elevation of temperature of an atmospheric kind, compatible
with human existence, could cause spontaneous combustion of the
fulminating mercury, or the detonating matches made with it. In fact,
its explosive temperature is so high as 367° of Fahrenheit’s scale, and
no inferior heat will cause its detonation.
_Question 6._ Is the mercurial vapour or gas arising from the ignition
of a great number of primers, and combined with the smoke of gunpowder
in a confined space (as in the case of troops in close bodies, squares,
casemates, &c.) likely in its nature to be found prejudicial to human
health?
_Answer._ I have exploded in rapid succession of portions, 100 grains of
fulminate of mercury (equivalent to 300 or 400 primers), in a close
chamber of small dimensions, without experiencing the slightest
inconvenience at the period, or afterwards, though my head was
surrounded by the vapours all the time of the operation. These vapours
are, in fact, so heavy that they subside almost immediately. When the
fulminate mixed with pulverine is exploded in the primers by condensed
masses of troops, the mercury will cause no injury to their health, nor
one 100th part of the deleterious impression on weak lungs which the
gases of exploded gunpowder might by possibility inflict. These gases
are all, _theoretically_ speaking, noxious to respiration; such as
carbonic acid gas, azote, carburetted hydrogen, and sulphuretted
hydrogen, a deadly gas. Yet the soldier who should betray any fear of
gunpowder smoke would be an object of just ridicule.”
In the following September, I executed for the Board of Ordnance a set
of experiments complementary to those of the memoir, with the view of
ascertaining the best manner of protecting the fulminate when applied to
the copper caps, from being detached by carriage, or altered by keeping.
The following were my results and conclusions.
1. Fulminate of mercury moistened upon copper is speedily decomposed by
the superior affinity of the copper over mercury, for oxygen and
fulminic acid. Dryness is, therefore, essential to the preservation of
the fulminate; and hence charcoal, which is apt to become moist, should
not be introduced into percussion caps destined for distant service.
2. An alcoholic solution of sandarach, commonly called spirit varnish,
acts powerfully on copper, with the production of a green efflorescence,
which decomposes fulminate of mercury. Indeed, sandarach can decompose
the salts of copper. It is therefore ill adapted for attaching the
fulminate to copper caps.
3. An alcoholic solution of shell-lac acts on copper, though more feebly
than the sandarach.
4. A solution of mastic in spirits of turpentine, whether alone or mixed
with fulminate, has no action whatever on bright copper, but protects it
from being tarnished. Such a varnish is very cheap, dries readily,
adheres strongly, screens the fulminate from damp, and does not impair
or counteract its detonating powers. This, therefore, is in my opinion
the fittest medium for attaching the fulminate, and for softening the
force of its impulsion in any degree proportional to the thickness of
the varnish.”
Fulminate of mercury is obtained in white grains, or short needles, of a
silky lustre, which become gray upon exposure to light, and detonate
either by a blow or at a heat under 370° F.; with the disengagement of
azote, carbonic acid, as also of aqueous and mercurial vapours; to the
sudden formation of which gaseous products the report is due. It
detonates even in a moist condition; and when dry it explodes readily
when struck between two pieces of iron, less so between iron and bronze,
with more difficulty between marble and glass, or between two surfaces
of marble or glass. It is hardly possible to explode it by a blow with
iron upon lead; and impossible by striking it with iron upon wood. It
fulminates easily when rubbed between two wooden surfaces; less so
between two of marble, two of iron, or one of iron against one of wood
or marble. The larger its crystals, the more apt they are to explode. By
damping it with 5 per cent. of water, it becomes less fulminating; the
part of it struck still explodes with a proper blow, but will not kindle
the adjoining portion. Though moistened with 30 per cent. of water, it
will occasionally explode by trituration between a wooden muller and a
marble slab, but only to a small extent, and never with any danger to
the operator. When an ounce of it, laid upon the bottom of a cask, is
kindled, it strikes a round hole down through it, as if it had been
exposed to a four-pound shot, without splintering the wood. If a train
of fulminate of mercury be spread upon a piece of paper, covered with
some loose gunpowder, in exploding the former the latter will not be
kindled, but merely scattered. When gunpowder, however, is packed in a
cartridge, or otherwise, it may be certainly kindled by a percussion cap
of the fulminate, and more completely than by a priming of gunpowder.
8-1/2 parts of gunpowder exploded by a percussion cap, have an equal
projectile force as 10 exploded by a flint lock. If we add to this
economy in the charge of the barrel, the saving of the powder for
priming, the advantage in military service of the percussion system will
become conspicuous.
The French calculate that 1 kilogramme of mercury will furnish 1-1/4
kil. (2-1/2 lbs. nearly) of fulminate, which will be sufficient to
charge 40,000 percussion caps. For this purpose they grind the
crystalline salt along with 30 per cent. of water upon a marble table
with a wooden muller; mixing with every 10 parts of the fulminate 6 of
gunpowder. A consistent dough is thus obtained, which, being dried in
the air, is ready for introducing into the bottoms of the copper caps.
One quarter of a grain of the fulminate is said to be fully sufficient
for one priming.
Mr. Lovell, of the Royal Manufactory of Arms, has lately executed a
series of experiments upon priming powders. His trials, which occupied
nearly 18 months, were made for the purpose of ascertaining what is the
advantage in point of _force_ obtained by using percussion primes. He
had anticipated some extra energy would be imparted to the charge of
powder in the barrel, because he had repeatedly proved that a good
strong cap, exploded by itself on the nipple of the musquet, (without
any charge of gunpowder), will exert sufficient force upon the air
within the barrel to blow a candle out at a distance of 12 feet from the
muzzle. He concluded also that stopping the escape of fluid from the
vent, as is done by the cap, would have some effect, but he attributed
most to the quickness and energy with which the powder of the charge is
ignited by the vivid stream of flame, generated by the percussion prime.
The trials were made from one and the same barrel, having a percussion
lock on one side and a flint lock on the other. The balls were fired
against Austen’s recoiling target, a very delicate _plegometer_,
beginning with a charge of 150 grains (the present musquet charge), and
descending by 10 grains at a time (firing 30 rounds with each weight),
down to 50 grains. The machine marked the decrease of force at each
reduction in the charge very satisfactorily, and the result of the whole
average was that 8·84 parts of gunpowder fired by percussion are equal
to 10 parts fired by the flint.
To find out what sort of liberties might be taken with fulminate of
mercury in handling it, he placed 3 grains on an anvil, putting the end
of a steel punch gently on the top of it, and while so placed he covered
the fulminate over with a drachm of dry gunpowder. He then ignited the
fulminate by a blow on the punch with the hammer, but not a grain of the
gunpowder was lighted, though it was blown about in all directions. He
then placed a train of fulminate as thick as a quill, and about 3 feet
long, on a table, and covered it over entirely with gunpowder except
about an inch at one end; this he lighted with a hot iron, when the
whole train went off without blazing a grain of the gunpowder, which he
swept together and blew up afterwards with a match. He then took a tin
box containing 500 copper caps, made a hole in the top of the box, and
through this hole ignited one of the caps in the middle, by means of the
punch and hammer on the outside; only two other caps besides the one
struck exploded; no injury was sustained by the remainder, except being
discoloured. This he tried repeatedly, and always with the same kind of
result, never more than 3 or 4 caps exploding. He then made a steel
rammer red hot, and passed it through the hole in the box right in
amongst the caps, but it only ignited them where the hot iron came in
actual contact with the priming composition; when, however, he placed a
few grains of gunpowder loose among the caps, the hot iron lighted this,
and produced a flame that blew off the whole of them.
The same thing has been tried at Woolwich, where large packages of
percussion caps (some thousands) have been fired at with musquet balls,
and only a few of the caps actually hit by the ball exploded; but when
any cartridges were connected with the packages, the whole, caps and all
were blown up. The flame of the fulminate is therefore hazardous, but
being so very ethereal, it requires for making primes, an admixture of
some combustible matter, as a little gunpowder, to condense or modify
the flame.
FULMINIC ACID; (_Acide fulminique_, Fr.; _Knallsäure_, Germ.) is the
explosive constituent of the fulminating mercury of Howard, and the
fulminating silver of Brugnatelli, being generated by the reaction of
alcohol and the acid nitrates of these metals. It is a remarkable
chemical fact, that fulminic acid has exactly the same composition as
cyanic acid; though the salts of the latter possess no detonating
property, and afford, in their decomposition by an oxygen acid, ammonia
with carbonic acid; while those of the former afford ammonia and prussic
acid. All attempts to insulate fulminic acid have proved unsuccessful,
as it explodes with the slightest decomposing force. It consists, by
weight, of 2 primes of carbon, 1 of azote, and 1 of oxygen; or of two
volumes of carbonic acid, and one of azote. When two different bodies,
like the above, have the same composition, they are said to be
_isomeric_.
FUMIGATION, is the employment of fumes or vapours to purify articles of
apparel, and goods or apartments supposed to be imbued with some
infectious or contagious poison or fumes. The vapours of vinegar, the
fumes of burning sulphur, explosion of gunpowder, have been long
prescribed and practised, but they have in all probability little or no
efficacy. The diffusion of such powerful agents as chlorine gas,
muriatic acid gas, or nitric acid vapour, should alone be trusted to for
the destruction of morbific effluvia.
FUR; see PELTRY.
[Illustration: 481]
FURNACE OF ASSAY. Under ASSAY, I have referred to a furnace constructed
by Messrs. Anfrye and d’Arcet, which gives some peculiar facilities and
economy to the ancient process by fire. It had originally a small pair
of bellows attached to it, for raising the heat rapidly to the proper
vitrifying pitch. The furnace, 17-1/2 inches high, and 7-1/2 inches
wide, made of pottery or fine clay, is represented _fig._ 481.,
supported upon a table, having a pair of bellows beneath it. The
laboratory is at _b_, the blow-pipe of the bellows at _d_, with a
stop-cock, and the dome is surmounted by a chimney _a_, _c_, in whose
lower part there is an opening with a sliding door, for the introduction
of the charcoal fuel. The furnace is formed in three pieces; a dome, a
body, and an ash-pit. A pair of tongs, a stoking hook, and cupel, are
seen to the right hand, and the plan of the stone-ware grate, pierced
with conical holes, and a poker, are seen to the left. This grate suits
the furnace represented under ASSAY. The following are comparative
experiments made by means of this furnace:
+--------+---------+---------+-----------+--------------+-----------+
|Numbers.| Silver | Lead | Time of | Standards. | Charcoal |
| |employed.|employed.| Assay. | | used. |
+--------+---------+---------+-----------+--------------+-----------+
| 1 |1 Grain. |4 Grains.|12 minutes.|947 millièmes.|173 Grains.|
| 2 | -- | -- |11 |950 | 86 |
| 3 | -- | -- |13 |949 | 93 |
| 4 | -- | -- |10 |949 | 60 |
+--------+---------+---------+-----------+--------------+-----------+
Each assay was therefore performed at an average in 11-1/2 minutes, and
not much more than a quarter of a pound of charcoal was used. An
experiment of verification in the ordinary assay furnace showed the
standard to be 949 thousandths.
This furnace becomes a very convenient one for melting small quantities
of metals in analyses, by removing the muffle, and closing the several
apertures with their appropriate stoppers. A small pedestal may be then
set in the middle of the grate, to support a crucible, which may be
introduced through the opening _h_. Coak may also be used as fuel,
either by itself or mixed with charcoal. For descriptions of various
furnaces, see ASSAY; BEER; COPPER; EVAPORATION; IRON; METALLURGY; ORES;
SILVER; TIN; &c.
FUSIBILITY. That property by which solids assume the fluid state.
Some chemists have asserted that fusion is simply a solution in caloric;
but this opinion includes too many yet undecided questions, to be
hastily adopted.
_Fusibility of Metals, as given by M. Thenard._
Centigr.
1. Fusible below a Mercury -39°
red heat. Potassium +58° } Gay Lussac and Thenard.
Sodium 90 }
Tin 210 } Newton.
Bismuth 256 }
Lead 260 Biot.
Tellurium A little less fusible than lead.--
Klaproth.
Arsenic Undetermined.
Zinc 370° Brongniart.
Antimony A little below a red heat.
Cadmium Stromeyer.
Pyrometer of Wedgewood.
2. Infusible below Silver 20° Kennedy.
a red heat. Copper 27 } Wedgewood.
Gold 32 }
Cobalt A little less difficult to melt than
iron.
Iron {130 Wedgewood.
{158 Sir G. M’Kenzie.
Manganese 160 Guyton.
Nickel As manganese.--Richter.
Palladium }
Molybdenum } Nearly infusible; and to be obtained
Uranium } at a forge heat only in small
Tungsten } buttons.
Chromium }
Titanium }
Cerium }
Osmium } Infusible at the forge furnace.
Iridium } Fusible at the oxyhydrogen blowpipe.
Rhodium } See BLOWPIPE.
Platinum }
Columbium }
FUSIBLE METAL. See ALLOY.
FUSTET. (_Fustec_, Fr.) The wood of the _rhus cotinus_, a fugitive
yellow dye.
FUSTIAN, is a species of coarse thick tweelled cotton, and is generally
dyed of an olive, leaden, or other dark colour. Besides the common
fustian, which is known by the name of pillow (probably pilaw), the
cotton stuffs called corduroy, velverett, velveteen, thicksett, used for
men’s wearing apparel, belong to the same fabric. The commonest kind is
merely a tweel of four, or sometimes five leaves, of a very close stout
texture, and very narrow, seldom exceeding 17 or 18 inches in breadth.
It is cut from the loom in half pieces, or ends as they are usually
termed, about 35 yards long, and after undergoing the subsequent
operations of dyeing, dressing, and folding, is ready for the market.
The draught and cording of common fustian is very simple, being
generally a regular or unbroken tweel of four or five leaves. Below are
specimens of a few different kinds, selected from those most general in
Lancashire.
The number of leaves of heddles are represented by the lines across the
paper, and the _cording_ by the cyphers in the little squares, those
which raise every leaf being distinguished by these marks, and those
which sink them left blank, as more particularly explained in the
article TEXTILE FABRIC.
Of velvet, there are properly only two kinds, that with a plain, and
that with a tweeled, or, as it is here called, a Genoa ground, or back.
When the material is silk, it is called velvet, when cotton, velveteen;
and this is the sole difference. In the same way a common tweeled cloth,
when composed of silk is called satin; when of cotton, fustian or jean;
of woollen, plaiding, serge, or kerseymere; and in the linen trade is
distinguished by a variety of names according to the quality or
fineness, or the place where the article is manufactured.
No. 1.--Pillow Fustian. No. 2.--Plain Velveret.
-+-+-+-+-+------------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+--------------
|0| | | | 4 5 1 § | |0| | | | 3 1
-+-+-+-+-+------------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+--------------
| |0| | | 3 6 2 § |0| | | | | 5
-+-+-+-+-+------------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+--------------
| | |0| | 6 2 3 § |0| | |0|0| 0 2
-+-+-+-+-+------------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+--------------
| | | |0| 5 1 4 § | | | |0| | 6 4
-+-+-+-+-+------------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+--------------
2 4 3 1 4 6 2 3 1
5
Of the above, each contains four leaves of heddles or healds; that
represented by No. 1. is wrought by four treddles, and that which is
distinguished by No. 2. by five; the succession of inserting the threads
of warp into the heddles will be discovered by the figures between the
lines, and the order in which the treddles are to be successively
pressed down by the figures below.
No. 3.--Double Jean. No. 4.--Plain Thicksett.
-+-+-+-+-+----------------------+-+-+-+-+-+----------------
|0| | |0| 1 § | |0| | | | 8
-+-+-+-+-+----------------------+-+-+-+-+-+----------------
|0| |0| | 2 § | |0|0|0| | 6 4
-+-+-+-+-+----------------------+-+-+-+-+-+----------------
| |0|0| | 3 § | | | |0| | 5 2
-+-+-+-+-+----------------------+-+-+-+-+-+----------------
| |0| |0| 4 § |0| | |0|0| 7 3 1
-+-+-+-+-+----------------------+-+-+-+-+-+----------------
4 2 3 1 4 6 2 3 1
5 7
These, like the former, are wrought with leaves. No. 3. requires four,
and No. 4. five treddles. The succession of inserting the threads of
warp, and of working the treddles, are marked by the respective numbers
between and under the lines, as in the former example. Both are fabrics
of cloth in very general use and estimation as low priced articles.
No. 5.--Best Thicksett. No. 6.--Velvet Tuft.
-+-+-+-+-+-+------------------+-+-+-+-+-+---------------------
|0| | |0|0| 3 1 § | |0| | | | 5 3 1
-+-+-+-+-+-+------------------+-+-+-+-+-+---------------------
| | | | |0| 5 § | |0|0| | | 4 2
-+-+-+-+-+-+------------------+-+-+-+-+-+---------------------
| |0| | | | 2 § |0| | |0|0| 4 2
-+-+-+-+-+-+------------------+-+-+-+-+-+---------------------
| |0|0| | | 6 4 § | | | |0| | 5 3 1
-+-+-+-+-+-+------------------+-+-+-+-+-+---------------------
6 4 2 3 1 6 4 2 3 1
5
These are further specimens of what may be, and is, executed with four
leaves, and in both examples five treddles are used. With two other
specimens we shall conclude our examples of this description of work,
and shall then add a very few specimens of the more extensive kinds.
No. 7.--Cord and Velveret. No. 8.--Thicksett Cord.
-+-+-+-+-+-+-----------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+-----------------
| |0| | | | 3 1 3 1 §|0| | |0|0| 5 3 1
-+-+-+-+-+-+-----------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+-----------------
| |0|0| | | 5 7 5 §| |0| | | | 4 2
-+-+-+-+-+-+-----------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+-----------------
|0| | |0|0|6 8 2 §| | | | | | 9 7
-+-+-+-+-+-+-----------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+-----------------
| | | |0| | 4 2 6 4 §| |0|0| | | 10 8 6
-+-+-+-+-+-+-----------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+-----------------
4 2 3 1 5 4 3 2 1
6 5
In these the succession of drawing and working are marked like the
former. The next are examples of patterns wrought with six leaves. No.
9. has eight, and No. 10. five heddles.
No. 9.--Double Corduroy. No. 10.--Genoa Thicksett.
-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+-+-----------------+-+-+--+-+-+--------------
| | | |0| |0 | |0| 1 § | | | |0|0| 1
-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+-+-----------------+-+-+--+-+-+--------------
| |0| | | |0 | | | 2 § | | | 0| |0| 2
-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+-+-----------------+-+-+--+-+-+--------------
|0|0|0|0|0 | | | | 3 § |0| | 0|0| | 3
-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+-+-----------------+-+-+--+-+-+--------------
| | | |0| |0 | | | 4 § | |0| |0|0| 4
-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+-+-----------------+-+-+--+-+-+--------------
| |0| | | | | 0| | 5 § |0| | 0| |0| 5
-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+-+-----------------+-+-+--+-+-+--------------
| |0| |0| | | | | 6 § | |0| |0| | 6
-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+-+-----------------+-+-+--+-+-+--------------
2 4 6 8 10 12 3 1 4 2 5 3 1
7 5 8 6 11 9 7
11 9 1 2 10
In both these the warp is inserted into the heddles the same way. The
difference is entirely in the application of the cords, and in the
succession of pressing down the treddles. We now give four specimens of
the flushed and cut work, known by the name of velveteen. They are also
upon six leaves, and the difference is solely in the cording and in the
treading.
No. 11. Queen’s Velveteens. No. 12.
-+-+--+--+-+-+--+-----------------+--+--+--+-+-+-+-------------
| | 0| |0|0| | 1 § | | | |0| |0| 1
-+-+--+--+-+-+--+-----------------+--+--+--+-+-+-+-------------
| | | 0| |0| | 2 § | | | 0| |0|0| 2
-+-+--+--+-+-+--+-----------------+--+--+--+-+-+-+-------------
| | | 0|0| | | 3 § | | | |0|0| | 3
-+-+--+--+-+-+--+-----------------+--+--+--+-+-+-+-------------
| | | |0|0| 0| 4 § | | 0| |0| |0| 4
-+-+--+--+-+-+--+-----------------+--+--+--+-+-+-+-------------
| | | 0| |0| | 5 § | | | | |0|0| 5
-+-+--+--+-+-+--+-----------------+--+--+--+-+-+-+-------------
|0| | 0|0| | | 6 § | 0| | |0|0| | 6
-+-+--+--+-+-+--+-----------------+--+--+--+-+-+-+-------------
1 2 12 8 4 2 2 4 3 1
5 7 6 6 8 7 5
9 11 10 10 12 11 9
No. 13.--Plain Velveteen. No. 14.--Genoa Velveteen.
-+-+-+-+-+-+-----------------+--+-+-+--+--+-+-------------
| | | | |0| 1 § | | |0| 0| |0| 1
-+-+-+-+-+-+-----------------+--+-+-+--+--+-+-------------
|0| | |0| | 2 § | |0|0| | | | 2
-+-+-+-+-+-+-----------------+--+-+-+--+--+-+-------------
| | | | |0| 3 § | 0|0| | 0| | | 3
-+-+-+-+-+-+-----------------+--+-+-+--+--+-+-------------
| | |0|0| | 4 § | | |0| 0| | | 4
-+-+-+-+-+-+-----------------+--+-+-+--+--+-+-------------
| | | | |0| 5 § | |0|0| | 0| | 5
-+-+-+-+-+-+-----------------+--+-+-+--+--+-+-------------
| |0| |0| | 6 § | |0| | 0| | | 6
-+-+-+-+-+-+-----------------+--+-+-+--+--+-+-------------
1 3 2 4 8 2 4 8 12 3 1
5 7 6 6 7 5
10 11 9
The additional varieties of figure which might be given are almost
endless, but the limits of this article will not admit a further detail.
Those already given are the articles in most general use. The varieties
of fancy may be indulged to great extent, but it is universally found,
that the most simple patterns in every department of ornamental weaving,
are those which attract attention and command purchasers. We shall
therefore only add two examples of king’s cord or corduroy, two of Genoa
and common velvet, and two more of jean. These will be found below.
No. 15.--King’s Cord. No. 16.--Dutch Cord.
-+-+-+-+-+-+-+---------------------+-+-+-+-+-+------------------
| | | | |0|0| 1 § | | |0| | | 4 1
-+-+-+-+-+-+-+---------------------+-+-+-+-+-+------------------
| | |0| | |0| 2 § | |0| | |0| 5 2
-+-+-+-+-+-+-+---------------------+-+-+-+-+-+------------------
| | |0|0| | | 7 3 § |0| | |0| | 6 3
-+-+-+-+-+-+-+---------------------+-+-+-+-+-+------------------
| | | |0|0| | 8 4 § | |0|0| | | 7
-+-+-+-+-+-+-+---------------------+-+-+-+-+-+------------------
| |0| | |0|0| 5 § |0| |0| |0| 8
-+-+-+-+-+-+-+---------------------+-+-+-+-+-+------------------
|0| |0| | | | 6 § |0|0| |0|0| 9
-+-+-+-+-+-+-+---------------------+-+-+-+-+-+------------------
1 3 8 6 4 2 6 4 2 3 1
5 7 5
No. 17.--Genoa Velvet. No. 18.--Plain Velvet.
-+--+-+-+--+--+-+-----------------+-+-+-+-+-+-------------
| | |0| | |0| 1 § | | | | | | 1
-+--+-+-+--+--+-+-----------------+-+-+-+-+-+-------------
| |0|0| 0| | | 2 § | | | | | | 2
-+--+-+-+--+--+-+-----------------+-+-+-+-+-+-------------
| 0|0| | | | | 3 § | | | | | | 3
-+--+-+-+--+--+-+-----------------+-+-+-+-+-+-------------
| | |0| 0| | | 4 § | | | | | | 4
-+--+-+-+--+--+-+-----------------+-+-+-+-+-+-------------
| |0| | 0| | | 5 § | | | | | | 5
-+--+-+-+--+--+-+-----------------+-+-+-+-+-+-------------
| |0| | 0| | | 6 § | | | | | | 6
-+--+-+-+--+--+-+-----------------+-+-+-+-+-+-------------
2 4 8 12 3 1 1 3 4 2 8
6 7 5 7 5
10 11 9
After the fustian cloth is taken from the loom-beam, it is carried to
the cutter, who rips up the surface-threads of weft, and produces
thereby a hairy-looking stuff.
Preparatory to its being cut, the cloth is spread evenly upon a table
about six feet long, upon each end of which a roller mounted with a
ratchet-wheel is fixed; the one to give off, and the other to wind up
the piece, in the above six-feet lengths.
The knife is a steel rod about two feet long, and three-eighths of an
inch square, having a square handle at the one end; the other end is
tapered away to a blade, as thin as paper. To prevent this point from
turning downwards and injuring the cloth, its under side is covered by a
guide which serves to stiffen it, as well as to prevent its lower edge
from cutting the fustian.
The operative (male or female) grasps the handle in the right hand, and
insinuating the projecting point of the guide under the weft, pushes the
knife smartly forward through the whole length of six feet, with a
certain dexterous movement of the shoulder and right side, balancing the
body meanwhile, like a fencer, upon the left foot. This process is
repeated upon every adhesive line of the weft.
The next process to which fustians are exposed is steeping in hot water,
to take out the dressing paste. They are then dried, reeled, and brushed
by a machine, &c. From twenty to thirty pieces, each eighty yards long,
may be brushed in an hour. The breadth of the cloth is twenty inches.
The maceration is performed by immersing the bundled pieces in tanks of
water, heated by waste steam; and the washing by means of a reel or
winch, kept revolving rapidly under the action of a stream of cold
water, for an hour or longer.
After being thus ripped up, it is taken to the brushing or teazling
machine, to make it shaggy.
This consists of a series of wooden rollers, turning freely upon iron
axles, and covered with tin-plate, rough with the burs of punched holes;
and blocks of wood, whose concave under surfaces are covered with
card-cloth or card-brushes, and which are made to traverse backwards and
forwards in the direction of the axes of the revolving rollers, during
the passage of the cloth over them.
After they are brushed in the machine, the goods are singed by passing
their cut surface over a cylinder of iron, laid in a horizontal
direction, and kept red hot by a flue. See SINGEING. They are now
brushed again by the machine, and once more passed over the singeing
surface. The brushing and singeing are repeated a third or even
occasionally a fourth time, till the cord acquires a smooth polished
appearance.
The goods are next steeped, washed, and bleached, by immersion in
solution of chloride of lime. They are then dyed by appropriate chemical
means. After which they are padded (imbued by the padding machine of the
calico printers) with a solution of glue, and passed over steam
cylinders to stiffen them.
Smooth fustians, when cropped or shorn before dyeing, are called
moleskins; but when shorn after being dyed, are called beaverteen, they
are both tweeled fabrics. Cantoon is a fustian with a fine cord visible
upon the one side, and a satiny surface of yarns running at right angles
to the cords upon the other side. The satiny side is sometimes smoothed
by singeing. The stuff is strong, and has a very fine aspect. Its price
is one shilling and sixpence a yard.
Common plain fustian, of a brown or drab colour, with satin top, is sold
as low as sevenpence a yard.
A fustian, with a small cord running in an oblique direction, has a very
agreeable appearance. It is called diagonal. Moleskin shorn, of a very
strong texture, and a drab dyed tint, is sold at 20_d_. per yard.
The weight of 90 yards of the narrow velveteen, in the green or
undressed state, is about 24 pounds. The goods made for the German,
Italian, and Russian markets are lighter, on account of the peculiarity
in the mode of levying the import duty in these countries.
Velveteens as they come from the loom, are sold wholesale by weight, and
average a price of 20_d._ per pound. They are usually woven with yarns
of Upland and Brazil cotton wool, spun together for the warp; or,
sometimes, New Orleans alone. The weft is usually Uplands, sometimes
mixed with East India cotton wools.
Trowser velveteens are woven 19 inches wide, if they are to be cut up;
if not, they are woven 30 inches, and called beaverteen.
Cutting or cropping fustians by hand is a very laborious and delicate
operation. The invention of an improved apparatus for effecting the same
end with automatic precision and despatch, was therefore an object of no
little interest to this peculiar manufacture of Manchester. An ingenious
machine, apparently well calculated for this purpose, was made the
subject of a patent by Messrs. William Wells and George Scholefield, of
Salford in November, 1834.
FUSTIC. (_Bois jaune_, Fr.; _Gelbholz_, Germ.) The _old_ fustic of the
English dyer, as the article fustet is their _yellow_ fustic. It is the
wood of the Morus tinctoria. It is light, not hard, and pale yellow with
orange veins; it contains two colouring matters, one resinous, and
another soluble in water. The latter resembles weld, but it has more of
an orange cast, and is not so lively.
Its decoctions in water are brightened by the addition of a little glue,
and more by curdled milk. This wood is rich in colour, and imparts
permanent dyes to woollen stuffs, when aided by proper mordants. It
unites well with the blue of the indigo vat, and Saxon blue, in
producing green of various shades. Alum, tartar, and solution of tin,
render its colour more vivid; sea salt and sulphate of iron deepen its
hue. From 5 to 6 parts of old fustic are sufficient to give a lemon
colour to 16 parts of cloth. The colour of weld is however purer and
less inclining to orange; but that of fustic is less affected by acids
than any other yellow dye. This wood is often employed with sulphate of
iron in producing olive and brownish tints, which agree well with its
dull yellow. For the same reason it is much used for dark greens.