For red; carmine dissolved in a solution of salt of tartar.
For blue; indigo dissolved in sulphuric acid, diluted and neutralized in
part by Spanish whitening.
For bright yellow; a solution of turmeric in spirit of wine. Cream of
tartar brightens all these colours.
For violet; archil, and a blue bath.
For lilac; archil.
Some petals are made of velvet, and are coloured merely by the
application of the finger dipped in the dye.
FLUATES, more properly _fluorides_ (Eng. and Fr.; _Flusssäure_, Germ.);
compounds of fluorine and the metals; as fluor spar, for example, which
consists of fluorine and calcium.
FLUOR SPAR. (_Chaux fluatée_, Fr.; _Spath fluor_, Germ.) This mineral
often exhibits a variety of vivid colours. It crystallizes in the cubic
system; with regular octahedral and tetrahedral cleavages; spec. grav.
3·1 to 3·2; scratches calc spar, but is scratched by a steel point;
usually phosphorescent with heat; fusible at the blowpipe into an opaque
bead; acted on by the acids, with disengagement of a vapour which
corrodes glass; its solution affords precipitates with the oxalates, but
not with ammonia. Its constituents are, fluorine, 48·13; calcium, 51·87
in 100.
Fluor spar occurs subordinate to metallic veins; as to those of lead, in
Derbyshire; of tin, in Saxony and Bohemia; but it is found also in
masses or veins, either in crystalline rocks, associated with quartz,
heavy spar, &c., as in Auvergne, Forez, Vosges, Norberg in Sweden;
Norway; Petersburg; near Hall; Gourock, in Scotland, &c.; or among
secondary limestones, slates, and sandstones, in Derbyshire, Cumberland,
Cornwall, and New Jersey. It exists also in the amygdaloids of Scotland,
and in the volcanic products of Monte Somma at Vesuvius. The variously
coloured specimens, called Derbyshire spar, are worked upon the turning
lathe into vases and other ornamental objects.
FLUX, (Eng. and Fr.; _Fluss_, Germ.) signifies any substance capable of
promoting the fusion of earths or metallic ores by heat. White flux is
the residuum of the deflagration in a red hot crucible, of a mixture of
two parts of nitre, and one of cream of tartar. It is in fact merely a
carbonate of potash. Black flux is obtained when equal parts of nitre
and tartar are deflagrated. It owes its colour to the carbonaceous
matter of the tartaric acid, which remains unconsumed; the quantity of
nitre being too small for that purpose. The presence of the charcoal
renders this preparation a convenient flux for reducing calcined or
oxidized ores to the metallic state. Limestone, fluor-spar, borax, and
several earthy or metallic oxides are employed as fluxes in metallurgy.
FLY POWDER; the black coloured powder obtained by the spontaneous
oxidizement of metallic arsenic in the air.
FODDER; is the name of a weight by which lead and some other metals are
sold in this country. It varies in its amount in different parts of the
kingdom; being in Northumberland estimated at 21 cwts., and in other
counties 22, 23 or even more cwts.
FONDUS; is the name given by the French to a particular style of calico
printing resembling the rainbow, in which the colours are graduated or
melted (_fondus_) into one another, as in the prismatic spectrum. See
PAPER HANGINGS, for a description of the process.
FORGE; (Eng. and Fr.; _Feuer_, Germ.) is the name either of the furnace,
where wrought iron is hammered and fashioned with the aid of heat, or
the great workshop where iron is made malleable. The former is called a
smith’s forge, the latter a shingling mill. See IRON.
[Illustration: 466]
_Fig._ 466. represents a portable truck forge of a very commodious
construction. A is the cylindric leather bellows, pressed down by a
helical spring, and worked by means of the handle at B, which moves the
horizontal shaft C, with its two attached semicircular levers and
chains. D, is the pipe which conducts the blast to the nozzle at E. The
hearth may be covered with a thin fire-tile or with cinders. F is a vice
fixed to the strong rectangular frame. This apparatus answers all the
ordinary purposes of a smith’s forge; and is peculiarly adapted to
ships, and to the execution of engineering jobs upon railways, or in the
country. The height is 2 feet 6 inches; the length is 2 feet 9 inches;
the width 2 feet. Weight about 2 cwt.
FORMIATES; are compounds of formic acid, with the salifiable bases. Many
of them are susceptible of crystallization.
FORMIC ACID; (_Acide Formique_, Fr.; _Ameisensäure_, Germ.) exists in
the bodies of wood ants, associated with the malic or acid of apples.
The artificial formation of this animal secretion, is one of the most
remarkable triumphs of modern chemistry. If 10 parts of tartaric acid,
14 of black oxide of manganese, 15 of concentrated sulphuric acid, and
from 20 to 30 of water be mixed and distilled in a retort, formic acid
will be the liquid product; while carbonic acid will be disengaged. It
may also be generated from other mixtures. This acid is transparent and
colourless, of a pungent sour smell, a strongly acid taste, of specific
gravity 1·1168 at 60° F., and may be re-distilled without suffering any
change. It contains in its most concentrated form 19-3/4 per cent. of
water. The dry acid, as it exists in the _formiates_, is composed of
32·54 carbon, 2·68 hydrogen, and 64·78 oxygen; or of two volumes
carbonic oxide gas, and one volume of vapour of water. It reduces the
oxides of mercury and silver to the metallic state. It has not hitherto
been applied to any use in the arts.
FORMULÆ, CHEMICAL, are symbols representing the different substances,
simple and compound.
+-------------------------+--------------------+---------+--------+
| Name. | Formula. | Oxygen |Hydrogen|
| | | = 100. | = 1. |
+-------------------------+--------------------+---------+--------+
|Oxygen |O | 100·000 | 16·026 |
|Hydrogen |H | 6·2398| 1·000 |
| |2H | 12·4796| 2·000 |
|Nitrogen |N | 88·518 | 14·186 |
| |2N | 177·086 | 28·372 |
|Phosphorus |P | 196·155 | 31·436 |
| |2P | 392·310 | 68·872 |
|Chlorine |Cl | 221·325 | 35·470 |
| |2Cl | 442·650 | 70·940 |
|Iodine |I | 768·781 |123·206 |
| |2I |1537·562 |246·412 |
|Carbon |C | 76·437 | 12·250 |
| |2C | 152·875 | 24·500 |
|Boron |B | 135·983 | 21·793 |
| |2B | 271·966 | 43·586 |
|Silicon |Si | 277·478 | 44·469 |
|Selenium |Se | 494·582 | 79·263 |
|Arsenic |As | 470·042 | 75·329 |
| |2As | 940·084 |150·659 |
|Chromium |Cr | 351·819 | 56·383 |
| |2Cr | 703·638 |112·766 |
|Molybdenum |Mo | 598·525 | 95·920 |
|Tungstenium |Tu or W |1183·200 |189·621 |
|Antimony |Sb | 806·452 |129·243 |
| |2Sb |1612·904 |258·486 |
|Tellurium |Te | 806·452 |129·243 |
|Tantalum |Ta |1153·715 |184·896 |
| |2Ta |2307·430 |369·792 |
|Titanium |Ti | 389·092 | 62·356 |
|Gold (aurum) |Au |1243·013 |199·207 |
| |2Au |2486·026 |398·415 |
|Platina |Pt |1215·220 |194·753 |
|Rhodium |R | 750·680 |120·305 |
| |2R |1501·360 |240·610 |
|Palladium |Pd | 714·618 |114·526 |
|Silver (argentum) |Ag |1351·607 |216·611 |
|Mercury (hydrargyrus) |Hg |1265·822 |202·863 |
| |2Hg |2531·645 |405·725 |
|Copper (cuprum) |Cu | 395·695 | 63·415 |
| |2Cu | 791·390 |126·829 |
|Uranium |U |2711·360 |434·527 |
| |2U |5422·720 |869·154 |
|Bismuth |Bi |1330·376 |213·208 |
| |2Bi |2660·752 |426·416 |
|Tin (stannum) |Sn | 735·294 |117·839 |
|Lead (plumbum) |Pb |1294·498 |207·458 |
| |2Pb |2588·996 |414·917 |
|Cadmium |Cd | 696·767 |111·665 |
|Zinc |Zn | 403·226 | 64·621 |
|Nickel |Ni | 369·675 | 59·245 |
|Cobalt |Co | 368·991 | 59·135 |
| |2Co | 737·982 |118·270 |
|Iron (ferrum) |Fe | 339·213 | 54·363 |
| |2Fe | 678·426 |108·725 |
|Manganese |Mn | 355·787 | 57·019 |
| |2Mn | 711·575 |114·038 |
|Cerium |Ce | 574·718 | 92·105 |
| |2Ce |1149·436 |184·210 |
|Zirconium |Zr | 420·238 | 67·348 |
| |2Zr | 840·476 |134·696 |
|Yttrium |Y | 401·840 | 64·395 |
|Beryllium (glucinum) |Be | 331·479 | 53·123 |
| |2Be | 662·958 |106·247 |
|Aluminum |Al | 171·167 | 27·431 |
| |2Al | 342·234 | 54·863 |
|Magnesium |Mg | 158·353 | 25·378 |
|Calcium |Ca | 256·019 | 41·030 |
|Strontium |Sr | 547·285 | 87·709 |
|Baryum |Ba | 856·88 |137·325 |
|Lithium |L | 127·757 | 20·474 |
|Natrium (sodium) |Na | 290·897 | 46·620 |
| |2Na | 581·794 | 93·239 |
|Kalium (potassium) |K | 489·916 | 78·515 |
|Ammonia |2N2H³ | 214·474 | 34·372 |
|Cyanogen |2NC | 329·911 | 52·872 |
|Sulphuretted hydrogen |2HS | 213·644 | 34·239 |
|Hydrochloric acid |2HCl | 455·129 | 72·940 |
|Hydrocyanic acid |2HNC | 342·390 | 54·872 |
| |. | | |
|Water |2H | 112·479 | 18·026 |
| |. | | |
|Protoxide of nitrogen |2N | 277·036 | 44·398 |
| |. | | |
|Deutoxide of nitrogen |N | 188·518 | 30·212 |
| |... | | |
|Nitrous acid |2N | 477·036 | 76·449 |
| |..... | | |
|Nitric acid | 2N | 677·036 |108·503 |
| |. | | |
|Hyposulphurous acid |S | 301·165 | 48·265 |
| |.. | | |
|Sulphurous acid |S | 401·165 | 64·291 |
| |..... | | |
|Hyposulphuric acid | 2S | 902·330 |144·609 |
| |... | | |
|Sulphuric acid | S | 501·165 | 80·317 |
| |..... | | |
|Phosphoric acid | 2P | 892·310 |143·003 |
| |..... | | |
|Chloric acid | 2Cl | 942·650 |151·071 |
| |...... | | |
|Perchloric acid | 2Cl |1042·650 |167·097 |
| |..... | | |
|Iodic acid | 2I |2037·562 |326·543 |
| |.. | | |
|Carbonic acid |C | 276·437 | 44·302 |
| |... | | |
|Oxalic acid |2C | 452·875 | 72·578 |
| |...... | | |
|Boracic acid | 2B | 871·966 |139·743 |
| |... | | |
|Silicic acid |Si | 577·478 | 92·548 |
| |.. | | |
|Selenic acid |Se | 694·582 |111·315 |
| |..... | | |
|Arsenic acid | 2As |1440·084 |230·790 |
| |... | | |
|Protoxide of chrome |2Cr |1003·638 |160·840 |
| |... | | |
|Chromic acid |Cr | 651·819 |104·462 |
| |... | | |
|Molybdic acid |Mo | 898·525 |143·999 |
| |... | | |
|Tungstic, or wolfram acid| W |1483·200 |237·700 |
| |... | | |
|Oxide of antimony |2Sb |1912·904 |306·565 |
| |.. | | |
|Antimonious acid |Sb |1006·452 |161·296 |
| |.... | | |
| |2Sb |2012·904 |322·591 |
| |..... | | |
|Antimonic acid |2Sb |2112·904 |338·617 |
| |.. | | |
|Oxide of tellurium |Te |1006·452 |161·296 |
| |... | | |
|Tantalic acid |2Ta |2607·430 |417·871 |
| |.. | | |
|Titanic acid |Ti | 589·092 | 94·409 |
| | . | | |
|Protoxide of gold |2Au |2586·026 |414·441 |
| |... | | |
|Peroxide of gold |2Au |2786·026 |446·493 |
| |.. | | |
|Oxide of platina |Pt |1415·220 |226·086 |
| |... | | |
|Oxide of rhodium |2R |1801·360 |228·689 |
| |. | | |
|Oxide of palladium |Pd | 814·618 |130·552 |
| |. | | |
|Oxide of silver |Ag |1451·607 |232·637 |
| | . | | |
|Protoxide of mercury |2Hg |2631·645 |421·752 |
| |. | | |
|Peroxide of mercury |Hg |1365·822 |218·889 |
| | . | | |
|Protoxide of copper |2Cu | 801·390 |142·856 |
| |. | | |
|Peroxide of copper |Cu | 495·695 | 79·441 |
| |. | | |
|Protoxide of uranium |U |2811·360 |450·553 |
| |... | | |
|Peroxide of uranium |2U |5722·720 |917·132 |
| |... | | |
|Oxide of bismuth |2Bi |2960·752 |474·49 |
| |. | | |
|Protoxide of tin |Sn | 835·294 |133·866 |
| |.. | | |
|Peroxide of tin |Sn | 935·294 |149·892 |
| |. | | |
|Oxide of lead |Pb |1394·498 |223·484 |
| |... | | |
|Minium |2Pb |2888·996 |462·995 |
| |.. | | |
|Brown oxide of lead |Pb |1494·498 |239·511 |
| |. | | |
|Oxide of cadmium |Cd | 796·767 |127·691 |
| |. | | |
|Oxide of zinc |Zn | 503·226 | 80·649 |
| |. | | |
|Oxide of nickel |Ni | 469·675 | 75·271 |
| |. | | |
|Oxide of cobalt |Co | 468·991 | 75·161 |
| |... | | |
|Peroxide of cobalt |2Co |1037·982 |166·349 |
| |. | | |
|Protoxide of iron |Fe | 439·213 | 70·389 |
| |... | | |
|Peroxide of iron |2Fe | 978·426 |156·804 |
| |. | | |
|Protoxide of manganese |Mn | 455·787 | 73·045 |
| |... | | |
|Oxide of manganese |2Mn |1011·575 |162·117 |
| |.. | | |
|Peroxide of manganese |Mn | 555·787 | 89·071 |
| |..... | | |
|Manganesic acid | 2Mn |1211·575 |194·169 |
| |. | | |
|Protoxide of cerium |Ce | 674·718 |108·132 |
| |... | | |
|Oxide of cerium |2Ce |1449·436 |232·289 |
| |... | | |
|Zirconia |2Zr |1140·476 |182·775 |
| |. | | |
|Yttria |Y | 501·840 | 80·425 |
| |... | | |
|Glucina, or berryllia |2Be | 962·958 |154·325 |
| |... | | |
|Alumina |2Al | 642·334 |109·942 |
| |. | | |
|Magnesia |Mg | 258·353 | 41·404 |
| |. | | |
|Lime |Ca | 356·019 | 57·056 |
| |. | | |
|Strontia |Sr | 647·285 |103·735 |
| |. | | |
|Baryta |Ba | 956·880 |153·351 |
| |. | | |
|Lithia |L | 227·757 | 36·501 |
| |. | | |
|Natron, or soda |Na | 390·897 | 62·646 |
| |... | | |
|Peroxide of sodium |2Na | 881·794 |141·318 |
| |. | | |
|Kali, or potassa |K | 589·916 | 94·541 |
| |... | | |
|Peroxide of potassium | K | 789·916 |126·593 |
| |. ... | | |
|Sulphate of potassa |K S |1091·081 |174·859 |
| |. ... | | |
|Protosulphate of iron |Fe S | 940·378 |150·706 |
| |... ... | | |
|Persulphate of iron |2Fe S³ |2481·906 |397·754 |
|Protochloride of iron |Fe 2Cl | 781·863 |125·303 |
|Perchloride of iron |2Fe 2Cl³ |2006·376 |321·545 |
|Protochloride of mercury |2Hg 2Cl |2974·295 |476·666 |
|Perchloride of mercury |Hg 2Cl |1708·472 |273·803 |
|Ferrocyanide of iron |Fe2NC + 2K2NC |2308·778 |370·008 |
| |. ... ... ... .| | |
|Alum |K S + 2AlS³ + 24 2H|5936·406 |951·378 |
| |. ... ... ... | | |
|Felspar |K Si + 2Al Si³ |3542·162 |567·673 |
+-------------------------+--------------------+---------+--------+
FOUNDING _of metals, chiefly of Iron._ The operations of an iron foundry
consist in re-melting the pig-iron of the blast furnaces, and giving it
an endless variety of forms, by casting it in moulds of different kinds,
prepared in appropriate manners. Coke is the only kind of fuel employed
to effect the fusion of the cast iron.
The essential parts of a well-mounted iron foundry, are,
1. Magazines for pig irons of different qualities, which are to be mixed
in certain proportions, for producing castings of peculiar qualities; as
also for coal, coke, sands, clay, powdered charcoal, and cow-hair for
giving tenacity to the loam mouldings.