GALBA

Iphicrates the Athenian used to say that it is best to have a

mercenary soldier fond of money and of pleasures, for thus he

will fight the more boldly, to procure the means to gratify his

desires. But most have been of opinion, that the body of an

army, as well as the natural one, when in its healthy condition,

should make no efforts apart, but in compliance with its head.

Wherefore they tell us that Paulus Aemilius, on taking command

of the forces in Macedonia, and finding them talkative and

impertinently busy, as though they were all commanders, issued

out his orders that they should have only ready hands and keen

swords, and leave the rest to him. And Plato, who can discern

no use of a good ruler or general, if his men are not on their

part obedient and conformable (the virtue of obeying, as of

ruling, being in his opinion one that does not exist without

first a noble nature, and then a philosophic education, where

the eager and active powers are allayed with the gentler and

humaner sentiments), may claim in confirmation of his doctrines

sundry mournful instances elsewhere, and, in particular, the

events that followed among the Romans upon the death of Nero, in

which plain proofs were given that nothing is more terrible than

a military force moving about in an empire upon uninstructed and

unreasoning impulses. Demades, after the death of Alexander,

compared the Macedonian army to the Cyclops after his eye was

out, seeing their many disorderly and unsteady motions. But the

calamities of the Roman government might be likened to the

motions of the giants that assailed heaven, convulsed as it was,

and distracted, and from every side recoiling, as it were, upon

itself, not so much by the ambition of those who were proclaimed

emperors, as by the covetousness and license of the soldiery,

who drove commander after commander out, like nails one upon

another.

Dionysius, in raillery, said of the Pheraean who enjoyed the

government of Thessaly only ten months, that he had been a

tragedy-king, but the Caesars' house in Rome, the Palatium,

received in a shorter space of time no less than four emperors,

passing, as it were, across the stage, and one making room for

another to enter.

This was the only satisfaction of the distressed, that they

needed not require any other justice on their oppressors, seeing

them thus murder each other, and first of all, and that most

justly, the one that ensnared them first, and taught them to

expect such happy results from a change of emperors, sullying a

good work by the pay he gave for its being done, and turning

revolt against Nero into nothing better than treason.

For, as already related, Nymphidius Sabinus, captain of the

guards, together with Tigellinus, after Nero's circumstances

were now desperate, and it was perceived that he designed to fly

into Egypt, persuaded the troops to declare Galba emperor, as if

Nero had been already gone, promising to all the court and

praetorian soldiers, as they are called, seven thousand five

hundred drachmas apiece, and to those in service abroad twelve

hundred and fifty drachmas each; so vast a sum for a largess as

it was impossible anyone could raise, but he must be infinitely

more exacting and oppressive than ever Nero was. This quickly

brought Nero to his grave, and soon after Galba too; they

murdered the first in expectation of the promised gift, and not

long after the other because they did not obtain it from him;

and then, seeking about to find someone who would purchase at

such a rate, they consumed themselves in a succession of

treacheries and rebellions before they obtained their demands.

But to give a particular relation of all that passed would

require a history in full form; I have only to notice what is

properly to my purpose, namely, what the Caesars did and

suffered.

Sulpicius Galba is owned by all to have been the richest private

person that ever came to the imperial seat. And besides the

additional honor of being of the family of the Servii, he valued

himself more especially for his relationship to Catulus, the

most eminent citizen of his time both for virtue and renown,

however he may have voluntarily yielded to others as regards

power and authority. Galba was also akin to Livia, the wife of

Augustus, by whose interest he was preferred to the consulship

by the emperor. It is said of him that he commanded the troops

well in Germany, and, being made proconsul in Libya, gained a

reputation that few ever had. But his quiet manner of living

and his sparingness in expenses and his disregard of appearance

gave him, when he became emperor, an ill-name for meanness,

being, in fact, his worn-out credit for regularity and

moderation. He was entrusted by Nero with the government of

Spain, before Nero had yet learned to be apprehensive of men of

great repute. To the opinion, moreover, entertained of his mild

natural temper, his old age added a belief that he would never

act incautiously.

There while Nero's iniquitous agents savagely and cruelly

harassed the provinces under Nero's authority, he could afford

no succor, but merely offer this only ease and consolation, that

he seemed plainly to sympathize, as a fellow-sufferer, with

those who were condemned upon suits and sold. And when lampoons

were made upon Nero and circulated and sung everywhere about, he

neither prohibited them, nor showed any indignation on behalf of

the emperor's agents, and for this was the more beloved; as also

that he was now well acquainted with them, having been in chief

power there eight years at the time when Junius Vindex, general

of the forces in Gaul, began his insurrection against Nero. And

it is reported that letters came to Galba before it fully broke

out into an open rebellion, which he neither seemed to give

credit to, nor on the other hand to take means to let Nero know,

as other officers did, sending to him the letters which came to

them, and so spoiled the design, as much as in them lay, who yet

afterwards shared in the conspiracy, and confessed they had been

treacherous to themselves as well as him. At last Vindex,

plainly declaring war, wrote to Galba, encouraging him to take

the government upon him, and give a head to this strong body,

the Gaulish provinces, which could already count a hundred

thousand men in arms, and were able to arm a yet greater number

if occasion were. Galba laid the matter before his friends,

some of whom thought it fit to wait, and see what movement there

might be and what inclinations displayed at Rome for the

revolution. But Titus Vinius, captain of his praetorian guard,

spoke thus: "Galba, what means this inquiry? To question

whether we shall continue faithful to Nero is, in itself, to

cease to be faithful. Nero is our enemy, and we must by no

means decline the help of Vindex: or else we must at once

denounce him, and march to attack him, because he wishes you to

be the governor of the Romans, rather than Nero their tyrant."

Thereupon Galba, by an edict, appointed a day when he would

receive manumissions, and general rumor and talk beforehand

about his purpose brought together a great crowd of men so ready

for a change, that he scarcely appeared, stepping up to the

tribunal, but they with one consent saluted him emperor. That

title he refused at present to take upon him; but after he had a

while inveighed against Nero, and bemoaned the loss of the more

conspicuous of those that had been destroyed by him, he offered

himself and service to his country, not by the titles of Caesar

or emperor, but as the lieutenant of the Roman senate and

people.

Now that Vindex did wisely in inviting Galba to the empire, Nero

himself bore testimony; who, though he seemed to despise Vindex

and altogether to slight the Gauls and their concerns, yet when

he heard of Galba (as by chance he had just bathed and sat down

to his morning meal), at this news he overturned the table. But

the senate having voted Galba an enemy, presently, to make his

jest, and likewise to personate a confidence among his friends,

"This is a very happy opportunity," he said, "for me, who sadly

want such a booty as that of the Gauls, which must all fall in

as lawful prize; and Galba's estate I can use or sell at once,

he being now an open enemy." And accordingly he had Galba's

property exposed to sale, which when Galba heard of; he

sequestered all that was Nero's in Spain, and found far readier

bidders.

Many now began to revolt from Nero, and pretty nearly all

adhered to Galba; only Clodius Macer in Africa, and Virginius

Rufus, commander of the German forces in Gaul, followed counsel

of their own; yet these two were not of one and the same advice,

for Clodius, being sensible of the rapines and murders to which

he had been led by cruelty and covetousness, was in perplexity,

and felt it was not safe for him either to retain or quit his

command. But Virginius, who had the command of the strongest

legions, by whom he was many repeated times saluted emperor and

pressed to take the title upon him, declared that he neither

would assume that honor himself, nor see it given to any other

than whom the senate should elect.

These things at first did not a little disturb Galba, but when

presently Virginius and Vindex were in a manner forced by their

armies, having got the reins, as it were, out of their hands, to

a great encounter and battle, in which Vindex, having seen

twenty thousand of the Gauls destroyed, died by his own hand,

and when the report straight spread abroad, that all desired

Virginius, after this great victory, to take the empire upon

him, or else they would return to Nero again, Galba, in great

alarm at this, wrote to Virginius, exhorting him to join with

him for the preservation of the empire and the liberty of the

Romans, and so retiring with his friends into Clunia, a town in

Spain, he passed away his time, rather repenting his former

rashness, and wishing for his wonted ease and privacy, than

setting about what was fit to be done.

It was now summer, when on a sudden, a little before dusk, comes

a freedman, Icelus by name, having arrived in seven days from

Rome; and being informed where Galba was reposing himself in

private, he went straight on, and pushing by the servants of the

chamber, opened the door and entered the room, and told him,

that Nero being yet alive but not appearing, first the army, and

then the people and senate, declared Galba emperor; not long

after, it was reported that Nero was dead; "but I," said he,

"not giving credit to common fame, went myself to the body and

saw him lying dead, and only then set out to bring you word."

This news at once made Galba great again, and a crowd of people

came hastening to the door, all very confident of the truth of

his tidings, though the speed of the man was almost incredible.

Two days after came Titus Vinius with sundry others from the

camp, who gave an account in detail of the orders of the senate,

and for this service was considerably advanced. On the

freedman, Galba conferred the honor of the gold ring, and

Icelus, as he had been before, now taking the name of Marcianus,

held the first place of the freedmen.

But at Rome, Nymphidius Sabinus, not gently and little by

little, but at once, and without exception, engrossed all power

to himself; Galba, being an old man (seventy-three years of

age), would scarcely, he thought, live long enough to be carried

in a litter to Rome; and the troops in the city were from old

time attached to him, and now bound by the vastness of the

promised gift, for which they regarded him as their benefactor,

and Galba as their debtor. Thus presuming on his interest, he

straightway commanded Tigellinus, who was in joint commission

with himself, to lay down his sword; and giving entertainments,

he invited the former consuls and commanders, making use of

Galba's name for the invitation; but at the same time prepared

many in the camp to propose that a request should be sent to

Galba that he should appoint Nymphidius sole prefect for life

without a colleague. And the modes which the senate took to

show him honor and increase his power, styling him their

benefactor, and attending daily at his gates, and giving him the

compliment of heading with his own name and confirming all their

acts, carried him on to a yet greater degree of arrogance, so

that in a short time he became an object, not only of dislike,

but of terror, to those that sought his favor. When the consuls

themselves had dispatched their couriers with the decrees of the

senate to the emperor, together with the sealed diplomas, which

the authorities in all the towns where horses or carriages are

changed, look at and on that certificate hasten the couriers

forward with all their means, he was highly displeased that his

seal had not been used, and none of his soldiers employed on the

errand. Nay, he even deliberated what course to take with the

consuls themselves, but upon their submission and apology he was

at last pacified. To gratify the people, he did not interfere

with their beating to death any that fell into their hands of

Nero's party. Amongst others, Spiclus, the gladiator, was

killed in the forum by being thrown under Nero's statues, which

they dragged about the place over his body. Aponius, one of

those who had been concerned in accusations, they knocked to the

ground, and drove carts loaded with stones over him. And many

others they tore in pieces, some of them no way guilty, insomuch

that Mauriscus, a person of great account and character, told

the senate that he feared, in a short time, they might wish for

Nero again.

Nymphidius, now advancing towards the consummation of his hopes,

did not refuse to let it be said that he was the son of Caius

Caesar, Tiberius's successor; who, it is told, was well

acquainted with his mother in his early youth, a woman indeed

handsome enough, the off-spring of Callistus, one of Caesar's

freedmen, and a certain seamstress. But it is plain that

Caius's familiarity with his mother was of too late date to give

him any pretensions, and it was suspected he might, if he

pleased, claim a father in Martianus, the gladiator, whom his

mother, Nymphidia, took a passion for, being a famous man in his

way, whom also he much more resembled. However, though he

certainly owned Nymphidia for his mother, he ascribed meantime

the downfall of Nero to himself alone, and thought he was not

sufficiently rewarded with the honors and riches he enjoyed,

(nay, though to all was added the company of Sporus, whom he

immediately sent for while Nero's body was yet burning on the

pile, and treated as his consort, with the name of Poppaea,) but

he must also aspire to the empire. And at Rome he had friends

who took measures for him secretly, as well as some women and

some members of the senate also, who worked underhand to assist

him. And into Spain he dispatched one of his friends, named

Gellianus, to view the posture of affairs.

But all things succeeded well with Galba after Nero's death;

only Virginius Rufus, still standing doubtful, gave him some

anxiety, lest he should listen to the suggestions of some who

encouraged him to take the government upon him, having, at

present, besides the command of a large and warlike army, the

new honors of the defeat of Vindex and the subjugation of one

considerable part of the Roman empire, namely, the entire Gaul,

which had seemed shaking about upon the verge of open revolt.

Nor had any man indeed a greater name and reputation than

Virginius, who had taken a part of so much consequence in the

deliverance of the empire at once from a cruel tyranny and a

Gallic war. But he, standing to his first resolves, reserved to

the senate the power of electing an emperor. Yet when it was

now manifest that Nero was dead, the soldiers pressed him hard

to it, and one of the tribunes, entering his tent with his drawn

sword, bade him either take the government or that. But after

Fabius Valens, having the command of one legion, had first sworn

fealty to Galba, and letters from Rome came with tidings of the

resolves of the senate, at last with much ado he persuaded the

army to declare Galba emperor. And when Flaccus Hordeonius came

by Galba's commission as his successor, he handed over to him

his forces, and went himself to meet Galba on his way, and

having met him, turned back to attend him; in all which no

apparent displeasure nor yet honor was shown him. Galba's

feelings of respect for him prevented the former; the latter was

checked by the envy of his friends, and particularly of Titus

Vinius, who, acting in the desire of hindering Virginius's

promotion, unwittingly aided his happy genius in rescuing him

from those hazards and hardships which other commanders were

involved in, and securing him the safe enjoyment of a quiet life

and peaceable old age.

Near Narbo, a city in Gaul, the deputation of the senate met

Galba, and, after they had delivered their compliments, begged

him to make what haste he could to appear to the people, that

impatiently expected him. He discoursed with them courteously

and unassumingly, and in his entertainment, though Nymphidius

had sent him royal furniture and attendance of Nero's, he put

all aside, and made use of nothing but his own, for which he

was well spoken of, as one who had a great mind, and was

superior to little vanities. But in a short time, Vinius, by

declaring to him that these noble, unpompous, citizen-like ways

were a mere affectation of popularity and a petty bashfulness at

assuming his proper greatness, induced him to make use of Nero's

supplies, and in his entertainments not to be afraid of a regal

sumptuosity. And in more than one way the old man let it

gradually appear that he had put himself under Vinius's

disposal.

Vinius was a person of an excessive covetousness, and not quite

free from blame in respect to women. For being a young man,

newly entered into the service under Calvisius Sabinus, upon his

first campaign, he brought his commander's wife, a licentious

woman, in a soldier's dress, by night into the camp, and was

found with her in the very general's quarters, the principia, as

the Romans call them. For which insolence Caius Caesar cast him

into prison, from whence he was fortunately delivered by Caius's

death. Afterwards, being invited by Claudius Caesar to supper,

he privily conveyed away a silver cup, which Caesar hearing of,

invited him again the next day, and gave order to his servants

to set before him no silver plate, but only earthen ware. And

this offense, through the comic mildness of Caesar's reprimand,

was treated rather as a subject of jest than as a crime. But

the acts to which now, when Galba was in his hands and his power

was so extensive, his covetous temper led him were the causes,

in part, and in part the provocation, of tragical and fatal

mischiefs.

Nymphidius became very uneasy upon the return out of Spain of

Gellianus, whom he had sent to pry into Galba's actions,

understanding that Cornelius Laco was appointed commander of the

court guards, and that Vinius was the great favorite, and that

Gellianus had not been able so much as to come nigh, much less

have any opportunity to offer any words in private, so narrowly

had he been watched and observed. Nymphidius, therefore, called

together the officers of the troops, and declared to them that

Galba of himself was a good, well-meaning old man, but did not

act by his own counsel, and was ill-guided by Vinius and Laco;

and lest, before they were aware, they should engross the

authority Tigellinus had with the troops, he proposed to them to

send deputies from the camp, acquainting him that if he pleased

to remove only these two from his counsel and presence, he would

be much more welcome to all at his arrival. Wherein when he saw

he did not prevail (it seeming absurd and unmannerly to give

rules to an old commander what friends to retain or displace, as

if he had been a youth newly taking the reins of authority into

his hands), adopting another course, he wrote himself to Galba

letters in alarming terms, one while as if the city were

unsettled, and had not yet recovered its tranquillity; then that

Clodius Macer withheld the corn-ships from Africa; that the

legions in Germany began to be mutinous, and that he heard the

like of those in Syria and Judaea. But Galba not minding him

much nor giving credit to his stories, he resolved to make his

attempt beforehand, though Clodius Celsus, a native of Antioch,

a person of sense, and friendly and faithful to Nymphidius, told

him he was wrong, saying he did not believe one single street in

Rome would ever give him the title of Caesar. Nevertheless many

also derided Galba, amongst the rest Mithridates of Pontus,

saying, that as soon as this wrinkled, bald-headed man should be

seen publicly at Rome, they would think it an utter disgrace

ever to have had such a Caesar.

At last it was resolved, about midnight, to bring Nymphidius

into the camp, and declare him emperor. But Antonius Honoratus,

who was first among the tribunes, summoning together in the

evening those under his command, charged himself and them

severely with their many and unreasonable turns and alterations,

made without any purpose or regard to merit, simply as if some

evil genius hurried them from one treason to another. "What

though Nero's miscarriages," said he, "gave some color to your

former acts, can you say you have any plea for betraying Galba

in the death of a mother, the blood of a wife, or the

degradation of the imperial power upon the stage and amongst

players? Neither did we desert Nero for all this, until

Nymphidius had persuaded us that he had first left us and fled

into Egypt. Shall we, therefore, send Galba after, to appease

Nero's shade, and, for the sake of making the son of Nymphidia

emperor, take off one of Livia's family, as we have already the

son of Agrippina? Rather, doing justice on him, let us revenge

Nero's death, and show ourselves true and faithful by preserving

Galba."

The tribune having ended his harangue, the soldiers assented,

and encouraged all they met with to persist in their fidelity to

the emperor, and, indeed, brought over the greatest part. But

presently hearing a great shout, Nymphidius, imagining, as some

say, that the soldiers called for him, or hastening to be in

time to check any opposition and gain the doubtful, came on with

many lights, carrying in his hand a speech in writing, made by

Cingonius Varro, which he had got by heart, to deliver to the

soldiers. But seeing the gates of the camp shut up, and large

numbers standing armed about the walls, he began to be afraid.

Yet drawing nearer, he demanded what they meant, and by whose

orders they were then in arms; but hearing a general

acclamation, all with one consent crying out that Galba was

their emperor, advancing towards them, he joined in the cry, and

likewise commanded those that followed him to do the same. The

guard notwithstanding permitted him to enter the camp only with

a few, where he was presently struck with a dart, which

Septimius, being before him, received on his shield; others,

however, assaulted him with their naked swords, and on his

flying, pursued him into a soldier's cabin, where they slew him.

And dragging his body thence, they placed a railing about it,

and exposed it next day to public view. When Galba heard of

the end which Nymphidius had thus come to, he commanded that all

his confederates who had not at once killed themselves should

immediately be dispatched; amongst whom were Cingonius, who made

his oration, and Mithridates, formerly mentioned. It was,

however, regarded as arbitrary and illegal, and though it might

be just, yet by no means popular, to take off men of their rank

and quality without a hearing. For everyone expected another

scheme of government, being deceived, as is usual, by the first

plausible pretenses; and the death of Petronius Turpilianus, who

was of consular dignity, and had remained faithful to Nero, was

yet more keenly resented. Indeed, the taking off of Macer in

Africa by Trebonius, and Fonteius by Valens in Germany, had a

fair pretense, they being dreaded as armed commanders, having

their soldiers at their bidding; but why refuse Turpilianus, an

old man and unarmed, permission to try to clear himself, if any

part of the moderation and equity at first promised were really

to come to a performance? Such were the comments to which these

actions exposed him. When he came within five and twenty

furlongs or thereabouts of the city, he happened to light on a

disorderly rabble of the seamen, who beset him as he passed.

These were they whom Nero made soldiers, forming them into a

legion. They so rudely crowded to have their commission

confirmed, that they did not let Galba either be seen or heard

by those that had come out to meet their new emperor; but

tumultuously pressed on with loud shouts to have colors to their

legion, and quarters assigned them. Galba put them off until

another time, which they interpreting as a denial, grew more

insolent and mutinous, following and crying out, some of them

with their drawn swords in their hands. Upon seeing which,

Galba commanded the horse to ride over them, when they were soon

routed, not a man standing his ground, and many of them were

slain, both there and in the pursuit; an ill omen, that Galba

should make his first entry through so much blood and among dead

bodies. And now he was looked upon with terror and alarm by any

who had entertained contempt of him at the sight of his age and

apparent infirmities.

But when he desired presently to let it appear what change would

be made from Nero's profuseness and sumptuosity in giving

presents, he much missed his aim, and fell so short of

magnificence, that he scarcely came within the limits of

decency. When Canus, who was a famous musician, played at

supper for him, he expressed his approbation, and bade the bag

be brought to him; and taking a few gold pieces, put them in

with this remark, that it was out of his own purse, and not on

the public account. He ordered the largesses which Nero had

made to actors and wrestlers and such like to be strictly

required again, allowing only the tenth part to be retained;

though it turned to very small account, most of those persons

expending their daily income as fast as they received it, being

rude, improvident livers; upon which he had further inquiry made

as to those who had bought or received from them, and called

upon these people to refund. The trouble was infinite, the

exactions being prosecuted far, touching a great number of

persons, bringing disrepute on Galba, and general hatred on

Vinius, who made the emperor appear base-minded and mean to the

world, whilst he himself was spending profusely, taking whatever

he could get, and selling to any buyer. Hesiod tells us to

drink without stinting of

The end and the beginning of the cask.

And Vinius, seeing his patron old and decaying, made the most of

what he considered to be at once the first of his fortune and

the last of it.

Thus the aged man suffered in two ways: first, through the evil

deeds which Vinius did himself, and, next, by his preventing or

bringing into disgrace those just acts which he himself

designed. Such was the punishing Nero's adherents. When he

destroyed the bad, amongst whom were Helius, Polycletus,

Petinus, and Patrobius, the people mightily applauded the act,

crying out, as they were dragged through the forum, that it was

a goodly sight, grateful to the gods themselves, adding,

however, that the gods and men alike demanded justice on

Tigellinus, the very tutor and prompter of all the tyranny.

This good man, however, had taken his measures beforehand, in

the shape of a present and a promise to Vinius. Turpilianus

could not be allowed to escape with life, though his one and

only crime had been that he had not betrayed or shown hatred to

such a ruler as Nero. But he who had made Nero what he became,

and afterwards deserted and betrayed him whom he had so

corrupted, was allowed to survive as an instance that Vinius

could do anything, and an advertisement that those that had

money to give him need despair of nothing. The people, however,

were so possessed with the desire of seeing Tigellinus dragged

to execution, that they never ceased to require it at the

theater and in the race-course, till they were checked by an

edict from the emperor himself, announcing that Tigellinus could

not live long, being wasted with a consumption, and requesting

them not to seek to make his government appear cruel and

tyrannical. So the dissatisfied populace were laughed at, and

Tigellinus made a splendid feast, and sacrificed in thanksgiving

for his deliverance: and after supper, Vinius, rising from the

emperor's table, went to revel with Tigellinus, taking his

daughter, a widow, with him; to whom Tigellinus presented his

compliments, with a gift of twenty-five myriads of money, and

bade the superintendent of his concubines take off a rich

necklace from her own neck and tie it about hers, the value of

it being estimated at fifteen myriads.

After this, even reasonable acts were censured; as, for example,

the treatment of the Gauls who had been in the conspiracy with

Vindex. For people looked upon their abatement of tribute and

admission to citizenship as a piece, not of clemency on the part

of Galba, but of money-making on that of Vinius. And thus the

mass of the people began to look with dislike upon the

government. The soldiers were kept on a while in expectation of

the promised donative, supposing that if they did not receive

the full, yet they should have at least as much as Nero gave

them. But when Galba, on hearing they began to complain,

declared greatly, and like a general, that he was used to enlist

and not to buy his soldiers, when they heard of this, they

conceived an implacable hatred against him; for he did not seem

to defraud them merely himself in their present expectations,

but to give an ill precedent, and instruct his successors to do

the like. This heart-burning, however, was as yet at Rome a

thing undeclared, and a certain respect for Galba's personal

presence somewhat retarded their motions, and took off their

edge, and their having no obvious occasion for beginning a

revolution curbed and kept under, more or less, their

resentments. But those forces that had been formerly under

Virginius, and now were under Flaccus in Germany, valuing

themselves much upon the battle they had fought with Vindex, and

finding now no advantage of it, grew very refractory and

intractable towards their officers: and Flaccus they wholly

disregarded, being incapacitated in body by unintermitted gout,

and, besides, a man of little experience in affairs. So at one

of their festivals, when it was customary for the officers of

the army to wish all health and happiness to the emperor, the

common soldiers began to murmur loudly, and on their officers

persisting in the ceremony, responded with the words, "If he

deserves it."

When some similar insolence was committed by the legions under

Vitellius, frequent letters with the information came to Galba

from his agents; and taking alarm at this, and fearing that he

might be despised not only for his old age, but also for want of

issue, he determined to adopt some young man of distinction, and

declare him his successor. There was at this time in the city

Marcus Otho, a person of fair extraction, but from his childhood

one of the few most debauched, voluptuous, and luxurious livers

in Rome. And as Homer gives Paris in several places the title

of "fair Helen's love," making a woman's name the glory and

addition to his, as if he had nothing else to distinguish him,

so Otho was renowned in Rome for nothing more than his marriage

with Poppaea, whom Nero had a passion for when she was

Crispinus's wife. But being as yet respectful to his own wife,

and standing in awe of his mother, he engaged Otho underhand to

solicit her. For Nero lived familiarly with Otho, whose

prodigality won his favor, and he was well pleased when he took

the freedom to jest upon him as mean and penurious. Thus when

Nero one day perfumed himself with some rich essence and favored

Otho with a sprinkle of it, he, entertaining Nero next day,

ordered gold and silver pipes to disperse the like on a sudden

freely, like water, throughout the room. As to Poppaea, he was

beforehand with Nero, and first seducing her himself, then, with

the hope of Nero's favor, he prevailed with her to part with her

husband, and brought her to his own house as his wife, and was

not content afterwards to have a share in her, but grudged to

have Nero for a claimant, Poppaea herself, they say, being

rather pleased than otherwise with this jealousy; she sometimes

excluded Nero, even when Otho was not present, either to prevent

his getting tired with her, or, as some say, not liking the

prospect of an imperial marriage, though willing enough to have

the emperor as her lover. So that Otho ran the risk of his

life, and strange it was he escaped, when Nero, for this very

marriage, killed his wife and sister. But he was beholden to

Seneca's friendship, by whose persuasions and entreaty Nero was

prevailed with to dispatch him as praetor into Lusitania, on the

shores of the Ocean; where he behaved himself very agreeably and

indulgently to those he had to govern, well knowing this command

was but to color and disguise his banishment.

When Galba revolted from Nero, Otho was the first governor of

any of the provinces that came over to him, bringing all the

gold and silver he possessed in the shape of cups and tables, to

be coined into money, and also what servants he had fitly

qualified to wait upon a prince. In all other points, too, he

was faithful to him, and gave him sufficient proof that he was

inferior to none in managing public business. And he so far

ingratiated himself, that he rode in the same carriage with him

during the whole journey, several days together. And in this

journey and familiar companionship, he won over Vinius also,

both by his conversation and presents, but especially by

conceding to him the first place, securing the second, by his

interest, for himself. And he had the advantage of him in

avoiding all odium and jealousy, assisting all petitioners,

without asking for any reward, and appearing courteous and of

easy access towards all, especially to the military men, for

many of whom he obtained commands, some immediately from the

emperor, others by Vinius's means, and by the assistance of the

two favorite freedmen, Icelus and Asiaticus, these being the

men in chief power in the court. As often as he entertained

Galba, he gave the cohort on duty, in addition to their pay, a

piece of gold for every man there, upon pretense of respect to

the emperor, while really he undermined him, and stole away his

popularity with the soldiers.

So Galba consulting about a successor, Vinius introduced Otho,

yet not even this gratis, but upon promise that he would marry

his daughter, if Galba should make him his adopted son and

successor to the empire. But Galba, in all his actions, showed

clearly that he preferred the public good before his own private

interest, not aiming so much to pleasure himself as to advantage

the Romans by his selection. Indeed he does not seem to have

been so much as inclined to make choice of Otho, had it been but

to inherit his own private fortune, knowing his extravagant and

luxurious character, and that he was already plunged in debt

five thousand myriads deep. So he listened to Vinius, and made

no reply, but mildly suspended his determination. Only he

appointed himself consul, and Vinius his colleague, and it was

the general expectation that he would declare his successor at

the beginning of the new year. And the soldiers desired nothing

more than that Otho should be the person.

But the forces in Germany broke out into their mutiny whilst he

was yet deliberating, and anticipated his design. All the

soldiers in general felt much resentment against Galba for not

having given them their expected largess but these troops made a

pretense of a more particular concern, that Virginius Rufus was

cast off dishonorably, and that the Gauls who had fought with

them were well rewarded, while those who had refused to take

part with Vindex were punished; and Galba's thanks seemed all to

be for him, to whose memory he had done honor after his death

with public solemnities as though he had been made emperor by

his means only. Whilst these discourses passed openly

throughout the army, on the first day of the first month of the

year, the Calends, as they call it, of January, Flaccus

summoning them to take the usual anniversary oath of fealty to

the emperor, they overturned and pulled down Galba's statues,

and having sworn in the name of the senate and people of Rome,

departed. But the officers now feared anarchy and confusion, as

much as rebellion; and one of them came forward and said: "What

will become of us, my fellow-soldiers, if we neither set up

another general, nor retain the present one? This will be not

so much to desert from Galba as to decline all subjection and

command. It is useless to try and maintain Flaccus Hordeonius,

who is but a mere shadow and image of Galba. But Vitellius,

commander of the other Germany, is but one day's march distant,

whose father was censor and thrice consul, and in a manner

co-emperor with Claudius Caesar; and he himself has the best

proof to show of his bounty and largeness of mind, in the

poverty with which some reproach him. Him let us make choice

of, that all may see we know how to choose an emperor better

than either Spaniards or Lusitanians." Which motion whilst some

assented to, and others gainsaid, a certain standard-bearer

slipped out and carried the news to Vitellius, who was

entertaining much company by night. This, taking air, soon

passed through the troops, and Fabius Valens, who commanded one

legion, riding up next day with a large body of horse, saluted

Vitellius emperor. He had hitherto seemed to decline it,

professing a dread he had to undertake the weight of the

government; but on this day, being fortified, they say, by wine

and a plentiful noonday repast, he began to yield, and submitted

to take on him the title of Germanicus they gave him, but

desired to be excused as to that of Caesar. And immediately the

army under Flaccus also, putting away their fine and popular

oaths in the name of the senate, swore obedience to Vitellius as

emperor, to observe whatever he commanded.

Thus Vitellius was publicly proclaimed emperor in Germany; which

news coming to Galba's ear, he no longer deferred his adoption;

yet knowing that some of his friends were using their interest

for Dolabella, and the greatest number of them for Otho, neither

of whom he approved of, on a sudden, without anyone's privity,

he sent for Piso, the son of Crassus and Scribonia, whom Nero

slew, a young man in general of excellent dispositions for

virtue, but his most eminent qualities those of steadiness and

austere gravity. And so he set out to go to the camp to declare

him Caesar and successor to the empire. But at his very first

going forth, many signs appeared in the heavens, and when he

began to make a speech to the soldiers, partly extempore, and

partly reading it, the frequent claps of thunder and flashes of

lightning and the violent storm of rain that burst on both the

camp and the city were plain discoveries that the divine powers

did not look with favor or satisfaction on this act of adoption,

that would come to no good result. The soldiers, also, showed

symptoms of hidden discontent, and wore sullen looks, no

distribution of money being even now made to them. However,

those that were present and observed Piso's countenance and

voice could not but feel admiration to see him so little

overcome by so great a favor, of the magnitude of which at the

same time he seemed not at all insensible. Otho's aspect, on

the other hand, did not fail to let many marks appear of his

bitterness and anger at his disappointment; since to have been

the first man thought of for it, and to have come to the very

point of being chosen, and now to be put by, was in his feelings

a sign of the displeasure and ill-will of Galba towards him.

This filled him with fears and apprehensions, and sent him home

with a mind full of various passions, whilst he dreaded Piso,

hated Galba, and was full of wrath and indignation against

Vinius. And the Chaldeans and soothsayers about him would not

permit him to lay aside his hopes or quit his design, chiefly

Ptolemaeus, insisting much on a prediction he had made, that

Nero should not murder Otho, but he himself should die first,

and Otho succeed as emperor; for the first proving true, he

thought he could not distrust the rest. But none perhaps

stimulated him more than those that professed privately to pity

his hard fate and compassionate him for being thus ungratefully

dealt with by Galba; especially Nymphidius's and Tigellinus's

creatures, who, being now cast off and reduced to low estate,

were eager to put themselves upon him, exclaiming at the

indignity he had suffered, and provoking him to revenge himself.

Amongst these were Veturius and Barbius, the one an optio, the

other a tesserarius (these are men who have the duties of

messengers and scouts), with whom Onomastus, one of Otho's

freedmen, went to the camp, to tamper with the army, and brought

over some with money, others with fair promises, which was no

hard matter, they being already corrupted, and only wanting a

fair pretense. It had been otherwise more than the work of four

days (which elapsed between the adoption and murder) so

completely to infect them as to cause a general revolt. On the

sixth day ensuing, the eighteenth, as the Romans call it,

before the Calends of February, the murder was done. On that

day, in the morning, Galba sacrificed in the Palatium, in the

presence of his friends, when Umbricius, the priest, taking up

the entrails, and speaking not ambiguously, but in plain words,

said that there were signs of great troubles ensuing, and

dangerous snares laid for the life of the emperor. Thus Otho

had even been discovered by the finger of the god; being there

just behind Galba, hearing all that was said, and seeing what

was pointed out to them by Umbricius. His countenance changed

to every color in his fear, and he was betraying no small

discomposure, when Onomastus, his freedman, came up and

acquainted him that the master-builders had come, and were

waiting for him at home. Now that was the signal for Otho to

meet the soldiers. Pretending then that he had purchased an old

house, and was going to show the defects to those that had sold

it to him, he departed; and passing through what is called

Tiberius's house, he went on into the forum, near the spot

where a golden pillar stands, at which all the several roads

through Italy terminate.

Here, it is related, no more than twenty-three received and

saluted him emperor; so that, although he was not in mind as in

body enervated with soft living and effeminacy, being in his

nature bold and fearless enough in danger, nevertheless, he was

afraid to go on. But the soldiers that were present would not

suffer him to recede, but came with their drawn swords about his

chair, commanding the bearers to take him up, whom he hastened

on, saying several times over to himself, "I am a lost man."

Several persons overheard the words, who stood by wondering,

rather than alarmed, because of the small number that attempted

such an enterprise. But as they marched on through the forum,

about as many more met him, and here and there three or four at

a time joined in. Thus returning towards the camp, with their

bare swords in their hands, they saluted him as Caesar;

whereupon Martialis, the tribune in charge of the watch, who

was, they say, noways privy to it, but was simply surprised at

the unexpectedness of the thing, and afraid to refuse, permitted

him entrance. And after this, no man made any resistance; for

they that knew nothing of the design, being purposely

encompassed by the conspirators, as they were straggling here

and there, first submitted for fear, and afterwards were

persuaded into compliance. Tidings came immediately to Galba in

the Palatium, whilst the priest was still present and the

sacrifices at hand, so that persons who were most entirely

incredulous about such things, and most positive in their

neglect of them, were astonished, and began to marvel at the

divine event. A multitude of all sorts of people now began to

run together out of the forum; Vinius and Laco and some of

Galba's freedmen drew their swords and placed themselves beside

him; Piso went forth and addressed himself to the guards on duty

in the court; and Marius Celsus, a brave man, was dispatched to

the Illyrian legion, stationed in what is called the Vipsanian

chamber, to secure them.

Galba now consulting whether he should go out, Vinius dissuaded

him, but Celsus and Laco encouraged him by all means to do so,

and sharply reprimanded Vinius. But on a sudden a rumor came

hot that Otho was slain in the camp; and presently appeared one

Julius Atticus, a man of some distinction in the guards, running

up with his drawn sword, crying out that he had slain Caesar's

enemy; and pressing through the crowd that stood in his way, he

presented himself before Galba with his bloody weapon, who,

looking on him, demanded, "Who gave you your orders?" And on

his answering that it had been his duty and the obligation of

the oath he had taken, the people applauded, giving loud

acclamations, and Galba got into his chair and was carried out

to sacrifice to Jupiter, and so to show himself publicly. But

coming into the forum, there met him there, like a turn of wind,

the opposite story, that Otho had made himself master of the

camp. And as usual in a crowd of such a size, some called to

him to return back, others to move forward; some encouraged him

to be bold and fear nothing, others bade him be cautious and

distrust. And thus whilst his chair was tossed to and fro, as

it were on the waves, often tottering, there appeared first

horse, and straightaway heavy-armed foot, coming through

Paulus's court, and all with one accord crying out, "Down with

this private man." Upon this, the crowd of people set off

running, not to fly and disperse, but to possess themselves of

the colonnades and elevated places of the forum, as it might be

to get places to see a spectacle. And as soon as Atillius

Vergilio knocked down one of Galba's statues, this was taken as

the declaration of war, and they sent a discharge of darts upon

Galba's litter, and, missing their aim, came up and attacked him

nearer hand with their naked swords. No man resisted or offered

to stand up in his defense, save one only, a centurion,

Sempronius Densus, the single man among so many thousands that

the sun beheld that day act worthily of the Roman empire, who,

though he had never received any favor from Galba, yet out of

bravery and allegiance endeavored to defend the litter. First,

lifting up his switch of vine, with which the centurions correct

the soldiers when disorderly, he called aloud to the aggressors,

charging them not to touch their emperor. And when they came

upon him hand to hand, he drew his sword, and made a defense for

a long time, until at last he was cut under the knees and

brought to the ground.

Galba's chair was upset at the spot called the Lacus Curtius,

where they ran up and struck at him as he lay in his corslet.

He, however, offered his throat, bidding them "Strike, if it be

for the Romans' good." He received several wounds on his legs

and arms, and at last was struck in the throat, as most say, by

one Camurius, a soldier of the fifteenth legion. Some name

Terentius, others Lecanius; and there are others that say it was

Fabius Falulus, who, it is reported, cut off the head and

carried it away in the skirt of his coat, the baldness making it

a difficult thing to take hold of. But those that were with him

would not allow him to keep it covered up, but bade him let

everyone see the brave deed he had done; so that after a while

he stuck upon the lance the head of the aged man that had been

their grave and temperate ruler, their supreme priest and

consul, and, tossing it up in the air, ran like a bacchanal,

twirling and flourishing with it, while the blood ran down the

spear. But when they brought the head to Otho,

"Fellow-soldiers," he cried out, "this is nothing, unless you

show me Piso's too," which was presented him not long after.

The young man, retreating upon a wound received, was pursued by

one Murcus, and slain at the temple of Vesta. Titus Vinius was

also dispatched, avowing himself to have been privy to the

conspiracy against Galba by calling out that they were killing

him contrary to Otho's pleasure. However, they cut off his

head, and Laco's too, and brought them to Otho, requesting a

boon.