[1] Including 22,289 of the engineer branch providing the locomotion
of modern ships--just as seamen from 1805-1858 provided it for ships
of the past.
MARINETTE, a city and the county-seat of Marinette county, Wisconsin,
U.S.A., 162 m. N. of Milwaukee, on the W. shore of Green Bay, at the
mouth of the Menominee River. Pop. (1890), 11,523; (1900), 16,195, of
whom 5542 were foreign-born; (1905), 15,354; (1910), 14,610. It is
served directly by the Wisconsin & Michigan, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St
Paul, and the Chicago & North-Western railways, and by several steamboat
lines connecting with lake ports; and is connected by ferry with
Frankfort, Michigan (served by the Ann Arbor railroad). The city has a
fine harbour and a considerable commerce in iron and lumber products.
Five bridges connect Marinette with Menominee, Michigan, on the other
side of the river. Marinette has a Federal building; the Stephenson
public library, founded by Senator Isaac Stephenson (b. 1829), a local
"lumber king"; a county agricultural school and training school for
rural teachers, and three public parks. The Northern Chautauqua Assembly
holds its annual summer session in Chautauqua Park, on the shore of
Green Bay. The growth of Marinette began with the development of the
neighbouring pine forests; and the manufacture of lumber and lumber
products has always been its principal industry. The water-power of the
Menominee River is largely utilized for the manufacture of paper and
flour. Other manufactures are boxes, furniture and woodware, boats,
boilers and agricultural machinery. In 1905 the factory products were
valued at $3,633,399. The first white settlement was made here on the
site of a Menominee Indian village in 1830, and the city was named in
honour of the daughter of an Indian chief, Marinette (Jacobs), whose
name was a composite of Marie and Antoinette. A city charter was granted
in 1887.
MARINI (or MARINO), GIAMBATTISTA (1560-1625), Italian poet, was born at
Naples on the 18th of October 1569. After a somewhat disreputable youth,
during which he became known for his _Canzone de' baci_, he secured the
powerful patronage of Cardinal Aldobrandini, whom he accompanied from
Rome to Ravenna and Turin. An edition of his poems, _La Lira_, was
published at Venice in 1602-1614. His ungoverned pen and disordered life
compelled him to leave Turin and take refuge from 1615 to 1622 in Paris,
where he was favourably recognized by Marie de' Medici. There his long
poem _Adone_ was published in 1623. He died at Naples on the 25th of
March 1625. The licence, extravagance and conceits of Marini, the chief
of the school of "Secentisti" (see ITALY: _Literature_), were
characteristic of a period of literary decadence.
See M. Menghini, _G. B. Marini_ (Rome, 1888).
MARINO, a town of Italy, in the province of Rome, 15 m. S.E. of it by
rail, and also accessible by electric tramway. Pop. (1901), 7307. It is
picturesquely situated on a spur of the Alban Hills, 1165 ft. above sea
level, and occupies the site of the ancient Castrimoenium, a
_municipium_ of no great importance, though the surrounding district,
which now produces much wine, is full of remains of ancient villas. The
origin of the name is uncertain; perhaps it is derived from the medieval
_Morena_ (itself derived from the Latin _Murena_, from one of the Roman
owners of the district), a name originally given to the lower ground
between the 9th and 11th mile of the Via Latina. In the early 13th
century it belonged to the Frangipani family, but passed into the hands
of the Orsini in 1266. In 1378 a battle took place here between the
partisans of Urban VI. and those of the anti-pope Clement VII. of Geneva
(the Orsini having taken the side of the latter), who were, however,
defeated; and in 1399 Marino was apparently under the Papacy. In 1408 it
passed to the Colonna family, to whom it still belongs. There are some
remains of the medieval fortifications.
See G. Tomassetti, _La Via latina nel medio evo_ (Rome, 1886), p. 96
seq.; T. Ashby, in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, vol. iv.
(1907). (T. As.)
MARINUS, the name of two popes. MARINUS I., sometimes called Martin II.,
pope from 882 to 884, was the son of a Tuscan priest, and entered the
church at an early age, becoming a deacon about 862. Three successive
popes sent him as legate to Constantinople, his mission in each case
having reference to the controversy excited by Photius (q.v.); and
having become an archdeacon and a bishop, he also negotiated on behalf
of pope John VIII. with the emperor Charles the Fat. About the end of
December 882 he succeeded John VIII. as pope, but his election did not
pass unchallenged either in eastern or in western Europe. However,
having secured his position, Marinus restored Formosus, cardinal-bishop
of Porto, and anathematized Photius. This pope was on friendly terms
with the English king, Alfred the Great. He died in May 884, and was
succeeded by Adrian III.
MARINUS II., sometimes called Martin III., pope from 942 to 946, was
merely the puppet of Alberic (d. 954), prince and senator of the Romans.
He died in May 946, and was succeeded by Agapetus II.
MARINUS, neo-Platonist philosopher, was born in Palestine and was early
converted to the old Greek religion. He came to Athens at a time when,
with the exception of Proclus, there was a great dearth of eminent men
in the neo-Platonic school. It was for this reason rather than for any
striking ability of his own that he succeeded to the headship of the
school on the death of Proclus. During this period the professors of the
old Greek religion suffered severe persecution at the hands of the
Christians and Marinus was compelled to seek refuge at Epidaurus. His
chief work was a biography of Proclus, which is extant. It was first
published with the works of Marcus Antoninus in 1559; it was republished
separately by Fabricius at Hamburg in 1700, and re-edited in 1814 by
Boissonade with emendations and notes. Other philosophical works are
attributed to him, including commentaries on Aristotle and on the
_Philebus_. It is said that he destroyed the latter because Isidore, his
successor, expressed disapproval of it.
MARINUS OF TYRE, geographer and mathematician, the founder of
mathematical geography, flourished in the 2nd century A.D. He lived
before Ptolemy, who acknowledges his great obligations to him. His chief
merits were that he assigned to each place its proper latitude and
longitude, and introduced improvements in the construction of his maps.
He also carefully studied the works of his predecessors and the diaries
of travellers. His geographical treatise is lost.
See A. Forbiger, _Handbuch der alten Geographie_, vol. i. (1842); E.
H. Bunbury, _Hist. of Ancient Geography_ (1879), ii. p. 519; and
especially E. H. Berger, _Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde
der Griechen_ (1903).
MARIO, GIUSEPPE, COUNT OF CANDIA (1810-1883), Italian singer, the most
famous tenor of the 19th century, son of General di Candia, was born at
Cagliari in 1810. His career as a singer was the result of accidental
circumstances. While serving as an officer in the Sardinian army he was
imprisoned at Cagliari for some trifling offence. When his period of
confinement was over, he resigned his commission. His resignation was
refused, and he fled to Paris. There his success as an amateur vocalist
produced an offer of an engagement at the Opera. He studied singing for
two years under M. Ponchard and Signor Bordogni, and made his début in
1838 as the hero of Meyerheer's _Robert le Diable_. His success was
immediate and complete, but he did not stay long at the Opera. In 1839
he joined the company of the Théâtre Italien, which then included
Malibran, Sontag, Persiani and Grisi, Rubini, Tamburini and Lablache.
His first appearance here was made in the character of Nemorino in
Donizetti's _Elisir d'Amore_. He sang in London for the first time in
the same year. His success in Italian opera far surpassed that which he
had won in French, and in a short time he acquired a European
reputation. He had a handsome face and a graceful figure, and his voice,
though less powerful than that of Rubini or that of Tamberlik, had a
velvety softness and richness which have never been equalled. Experience
gave him ease as an actor, but he never excelled in tragic parts. He was
an ideal stage lover, and he retained the grace and charm of youth long
after his voice had begun to show signs of decay. He created very few
new parts, that of Ernesto in _Don Pasquale_ (1843) being perhaps the
only one deserving of mention. Among the most successful of his other
parts were Otello in Rossini's opera of that name, Gennaro in _Lucrezia
Borgia_, Alamviva in _Il Barbiere di Siviglia_, Fernando in _La
Favorita_, and Manrico in _Il Trovatore_. Mario made occasional
appearances in oratorio singing at the Birmingham Festival of 1849 and
at the Hereford Festival of 1855, and undertook various concert tours in
the United Kingdom, but his name is principally associated with triumphs
in the theatre. In 1856 he married Giulia Grisi, the famous soprano, by
whom he had five daughters. Mario bade farewell to the stage in 1871. He
died at Rome in reduced circumstances on the 11th of December 1883.
MARION, FRANCIS (1732-1795), American soldier, was born in 1732,
probably at Winyah, near Georgetown, South Carolina, of Huguenot
ancestry. In 1759 he settled on Pond Bluff plantation near Eutaw
Springs, in St John's parish, Berkeley county. In 1761 he served as a
lieutenant under William Moultrie in a campaign against the Cherokees.
In 1775 he was a member of the South Carolina Provincial Congress; and
on the 21st of June was commissioned captain in the 2nd South Carolina
regiment under W. Moultrie, with whom he served in June 1776 in the
defence of Fort Sullivan (Fort Moultrie), in Charleston Harbor. In
September 1776 the Continental Congress commissioned him a
lieutenant-colonel. In the autumn of 1779 he took part in the siege of
Savannah, and early in 1780, under General Benjamin Lincoln, was engaged
in drilling militia. After the capture of Charleston (May 12,1780) and
the defeats of General Isaac Huger at Monk's Corner (Berkeley county,
South Carolina) and Lieut.-Colonel Abraham Buford at the Waxhaws (near
the North Carolina line, in what is now Lancaster county), Marion
organized a small troop--which usually consisted of between 20 and 70
men--the only force then opposing the British in the state. Governor
John Rutledge made him a brigadier-general of state troops, and in
August 1780 Marion took command of the scanty militia, ill equipped and
ill fed. With this force he was identified for almost all the remainder
of the war in a partisan warfare in which he showed himself a singularly
able leader of irregular troops. On the 20th of August he captured 150
Maryland prisoners, and about a score of their British guard; and in
September and October repeatedly surprised larger bodies of Loyalists or
British regulars. Colonel Banastre Tarleton, sent out to capture him,
despaired of finding the "old swamp fox," who eluded him by following
swamp paths. When General Nathanael Greene took command in the south,
Marion and Colonel Henry Lee were ordered in January 1781 to attack
Georgetown, but they were unsuccessful. In April, however, they took
Fort Watson and in May Fort Motte, and they succeeded in breaking
communications between the British posts in the Carolinas. On the 31st
of August Marion rescued a small American force hemmed in by Major C.
Fraser with 500 British; and for this he received the thanks of
Congress. He commanded the right wing under General Greene at Eutaw
Springs. In 1782, during his absence as state senator at Jacksonborough,
his brigade deteriorated and there was a conspiracy to turn him over to
the British. In June of the same year he put down a Loyalist uprising on
the banks of the Pedee river; and in August he left his brigade and
returned to his plantation. He served several terms in the state Senate,
and in 1784, in recognition of his services, was made commander of Fort
Johnson, practically a courtesy title with a salary of £500 per annum.
He died on his estate on the 27th of February 1795. Marion was small,
slight and sickly-looking. As a soldier he was quick, watchful,
resourceful and calm, the greatest of partisan leaders in the bitter
struggle in the Carolinas.
See the _Life_ (New York, 1844) by W. G. Simms; Edward McCrady, _South
Carolina in the Revolution_ (New York, 1901-1902); and a careful study
of Marion's ancestry and early life by "R. Y." in vols. i. and ii. of
the _Southern and Western Monthly Magazine and Review_ (Charleston,
1845).
MARION, HENRI FRANÇOIS (1846-1896), French philosopher and
educationalist, was born at Saint-Parize-en-Viry (Nièvre) on the 9th of
September 1846. He studied at Nevers, and at the École Normale, where he
graduated in 1868. After occupying several minor positions, he returned
to Paris in 1875 as professor of the Lycée Henri IV., and in 1880 he
became _docteur-ès-lettres_. In the same year he was elected a member of
the Council of Public Instruction, and devoted himself to improving the
scheme of French education, especially in girls' schools. He was largely
instrumental in the foundation of _écoles normales_ in provincial towns,
and himself gave courses of lectures on psychology and practical ethics
in their early days. He died in Paris on the 5th of April 1896.
His chief philosophical works were an edition of the _Théodicée_ of
Leibnitz (1874), a monograph on Locke (1878), _Devoirs et droits de
l'homme_ (1880), _Glissonius utrum Leibnitio de natura substantiae
cogitanti quidquam tribuerit_ (1880); _De La solidarité morale_ (4th
ed., 1893). His lectures at Fontenoy have been published in two
volumes entitled _Leçons de psychologie appliquée à l'éducation_, and
_Leçons de morale_; those delivered at the Sorbonne are collected in
_L'Éducation dans l'université_ (1892).
MARION, a city and the county-seat of Grant county, Indiana, U.S.A.,
about 60 m. N.E. of Indianapolis, on the Mississinewa River. Pop.
(1910), 19,359. It is served by the Chicago, Cincinnati & Louisville,
the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Pittsburgh,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Toledo, St Louis & Western
railways, and by interurban electric lines connecting with Indianapolis,
Muncie, Fort Wayne, Kokomo and many other towns and cities. The city is
the seat of the Marion Normal College and Business University, and has a
Carnegie library. Marion lies in a good farming country and in the
centre of the state's natural gas region. Among the manufactures are
glass, stoves, iron bedsteads, foundry and machine-shop products, steel,
planing-mill products, paper and pulp, and leather. The total value of
the factory products in 1905 was $4,290,166, the value of the glass
product alone being $1,042,057, or 24.3% of the total. Marion was
settled in 1832, and was named in honour of General Francis Marion.
MARION, a city and the county-seat of Marion county, Ohio, U.S.A., 44 m.
N. by W. of Columbus. Pop. (1900), 11,862, including 782 foreign-born
and 112 negroes; (1900), 18,232. Marion is served by the Pennsylvania,
the Erie, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis, and the
Hocking Valley railways, and by interurban electric railway to Columbus.
It is the trade centre of a rich farming district. Limestone is
abundant, and the city has various manufactures, including lime, foundry
and machine-shop products, agricultural implements, planing-mill
products, engines, steam shovels, dredges, pianos and silks. In 1905 the
value of factory products was $3,227,712, being 33.1% greater than in
1900. Marion was laid out in 1821, and was chartered as a city in 1890.
MARIONETTES (probably from Ital. _morio_, a fool or buffoon, but also
said to be derived from the _mariolettes_, or little figures of the
Virgin Mary), FANTOCCINI (from _fantino_, a child) or PUPPETS (Fr.
_poupée_ Lat. _pupa_, a baby or doll), the names given to figures,
generally below life-size, suspended by threads or wires and imitating
with their limbs and heads the movements of living persons.
The high antiquity of puppets appears from the fact that figures with
movable limbs have been discovered in the tombs of Egypt and among the
remains of Etruria; they were also common among the Greeks, from whom
they were imported to Rome. Plays in which the characters are
represented by puppets or by the shadows of moving figures, worked by
concealed performers who deliver the dialogue, are not only popular in
India and China, but during several centuries past maintained an
important position among the amusements of the people in most European
countries. Goethe and Lessing deemed them worthy of attention; and in
1721 Le Sage wrote plays for puppets to perform.
The earliest performances in English were drawn or founded upon Bible
narratives and the lives of the saints, in the same vein as the
"morality" plays which they succeeded. Popular subjects in the 16th
century were _The Prodigal Son_ and _Nineveh, with Jonah and the Whale_.
And in a pamphlet of 1641, describing Bartholomew Fair, we read, "Here a
knave in a fool's coat, with a trumpet sounding or a drum beating,
invites you to see his puppets. Here a rogue like a wild woodman, or in
an antic shape like an incubus, desires your company to view his
motion." In 1667 Pepys recorded how at Bartholomew Fair he found "my
Lady Castlemaine at a puppet play, Patient Grizill." Besides _The
Sorrows of Griselda_, other puppet plays of the period were _Dick
Whittington_, _The Vagaries of Merry Andrew_, and _The Humours of
Bartholomew Fair_. Powell's noted marionette show was the subject of an
article in _The Tatler_, 1709, and again in _The Spectator_, 1711. The
latter refers also to Pinkethman, a "motion-maker," in whose scenes the
divinities of Olympus ascended and descended to the strains of music. An
idea of the class of representation may be gathered from an
advertisement of Crawley, a rival of Pinkethman, which sets forth--"The
Old Creation of the World, with the addition of Noah's Flood," also
several fountains playing water during the time of the play. The best
scene represented "Noah and his family coming out of the ark, with all
the animals two by two, and all the fowls of the air seen in a prospect
sitting upon trees; likewise over the ark is the sun rising in a
gorgeous manner; moreover a multitude of angels in a double rank," the
angels ringing bells. "Likewise machines descending from above, double,
with Dives rising out of hell and Lazarus seen in Abraham's bosom;
besides several figures dancing jiggs, sarabands, and country dances,
with the merry conceits of Squire Punch and Sir John Spendall." Yates
showed a moving picture of a city, with an artificial cascade, and a
temple--with mechanical birds in which attention was called to the exact
imitation of living birds, the quick motion of the bills, just swelling
of the throat, and fluttering of the wings. The puppets were wax figures
5 ft. in stature. Toward the end of the 18th century, Flockton's show
presented five hundred figures at work at various trades. Brown's
Theatre of Arts showed at country fairs, from 1830 to 1840, the battle
of Trafalgar, Napoleon's army crossing the Alps, and the marble palace
of St Petersburg; and at a still later date Clapton's similar exhibition
presented Grace Darling rescuing the crew of the "Forfarshire" steamer
wrecked on the Fern Islands, with many ingenious moving figures of
quadrupeds, and, in particular, a swan which dipped its head into
imitation water, opened its wings, and with flexible neck preened and
trimmed its plumage. In these mechanical scenes the figures, painted
upon a flat surface and cut out, commonly of pasteboard, are slid along
grooves arranged transversely in front of the set scenery, the actions
of legs and arms being worked by wires from the hands of persons below
the stage, though sometimes use is made of clockwork. In recent days the
literature for the marionette stage has had an important literary
recruit in the person of the Belgian author Maurice Maeterlinck.
Marionettes proper, and the dolls exhibited in puppet shows (not
including Punch and his companion actors), are constructed of wood or
of pasteboard, with faces of composition, sometimes of wax; and each
figure is suspended by a number of threads to a short bar of wood
which is commonly held in one hand of the hidden performer while the
finger of his other hand poses the figure or gives action to it by
means of the threads. In the mode of constructing the joints, and the
greater elaboration with which the several parts of the limbs are
supported and moved, and especially in the fine degrees of movement
given to the heads, marionettes have been so improved as to present
very exact imitations of the gestures of actors and actresses, and the
postures and evolutions of acrobats; and, in addition, ingenious
exhibitors such as Theodon, who introduced many novelties in the
'sixties of the 19th century, have employed mechanical arrangements
for accomplishing the tricks of pantomime harlequinade. Among the
puppet personages presented in the small street shows are generally
included a sailor who dances a hornpipe, a hoop-dancer, a dancer of
the Highland fling, a wooden-legged pensioner, a vaulter on a pole
also balancing two chairs, a clown playing with a butterfly, a dancing
figure without head until the head rises out of the body, gradually
displaying an enormously long neck, and a skeleton, seen at first in
scattered parts lying about the stage, but piece successively flying
to piece, the body first sitting up, then standing, and finally capped
by the skull, when the completed figure begins to dance.
_Ombres Chinoises_ are performances by means of the shadows of figures
projected upon a stretched sheet of thin calico or a gauze scene
painted as a transparency. The cardboard flat figures are held behind
this screen, illuminated from behind--the performer supporting each
figure by a long wire held in one hand while wires from all the
movable parts terminate in rings in which are inserted the fingers of
his other hand.
See also C. Magnin, _Histoire des marionettes_ (1852; 2nd ed., 1862);
L. de Neuville, _Histoire des marionettes_ (1892).
MARIOTTE, EDME (c. 1620-1684), French physicist, spent most of his life
at Dijon, where he was prior of St Martin sous Beaune. He was one of the
first members of the Academy of Sciences founded at Paris in 1666. He
died at Paris on the 12th of May 1684. The first volume of the _Histoire
et mémoires de l'Académie_ (1733) contains many original papers by him
upon a great variety of physical subjects, such as the motion of fluids,
the nature of colour, the notes of the trumpet, the barometer, the fall
of bodies, the recoil of guns, the freezing of water, &c.
His _Essais de physique_, four in number, of which the first three
were published at Paris between 1676 and 1679, are his most important
works, and form, together with a _Traité de la percussion des corps_,
the first volume of the _Oeuvres de Mariotte_ (2 vols., Leiden, 1717).
The second of these essays (_De La nature de l'air_) contains the
statement of the law that the volume of a gas varies inversely as the
pressure, which, though very generally called by the name of Mariotte,
had been discovered in 1660 by Robert Boyle. The fourth essay is a
systematic treatment of the nature of colour, with a description of
many curious experiments and a discussion of the rainbow, halos,
parhelia, diffraction, and the more purely physiological phenomena of
colour. The discovery of the blind spot is noted in a short paper in
the second volume of his collected works.
MARIPOSAN, or YOKUTS, a linguistic stock of North American Indians,
including some 40 small tribes. Its former territory was in southern
California, around Tulare lake. The Mariposans were fishers and hunters.
Their villages consisted of a single row of wedge-shaped huts, with an
awning of brush along the front. In 1850 they numbered some 3000; in
1905 there were 154 on the Tule river reservation.
MARIS, JACOB (1837-1899), Dutch painter, first studied at the Antwerp
Academy, and subsequently in Hébert's studio during a stay in Paris from
1865 till 1871. He returned to Holland when the Franco-Prussian War
broke out, and died there in August 1899. Though he painted, especially
in early life, domestic scenes and interiors invested with deeply
sympathetic feeling, it is as a landscape painter that Maris will be
famous. He was the painter of bridges and windmills, of old quays,
massive towers, and level banks; even more was he the painter of water,
and misty skies, and chasing clouds. In all his works, whether in water
or oil colour, and in his etchings, the subject is always subordinate to
the effect. His art is suggestive rather than decorative, and his force
does not seem to depend on any preconceived method, such as a
synthetical treatment of form or gradations of tone. And yet, though his
means appear so simple, the artist's mind seems to communicate with the
spectator's by directness of pictorial instinct, and we have only to
observe the admirable balance of composition and truthful perspective to
understand the sure knowledge of his business that underlies such purely
impressionist handling. Maris has shown all that is gravest or brightest
in the landscape of Holland, all that is heaviest or clearest in its
atmosphere--for instance, in the "Grey Tower, Old Amsterdam," in the
"Landscape near Dordrecht," in the "Sea-weed Carts, Scheveningen," in "A
Village Scene," and in the numerous other pictures which have been
exhibited in the Royal Academy, London, in Edinburgh (1885), Paris,
Brussels and Holland, and in various private collections. "No painter,"
says M. Philippe Zilcken, "has so well expressed the ethereal effects,
bathed in air and light through floating silvery mist, in which painters
delight, and the characteristic remote horizons blurred by haze; or
again, the grey yet luminous weather of Holland, unlike the dead grey
rain of England or the heavy sky of Paris."
See Max Rooses, _Dutch Painters of the Nineteenth Century_ (London,
1899); R. A. M. Stevenson, "Jacob Maris," _Magazine of Art_ (1900);
Ph. Zilcken, _Peintres Hollandais modernes_ (Amsterdam, 1893); Jan
Veth, "Een Studie over Jacob Maris," _Onze Kunst_ (Antwerp, 1902).
MARITIME PROVINCE (Russ., _Primorskaya Oblast_), a province of Russia,
in East Siberia. It consists of a strip of territory along the coast of
the Pacific from Korea to the Arctic Ocean, including also the peninsula
of Kamchatka, part of the island of Sakhalin, and several small islands
along the coast. Its western boundary stretches northwards from a point
S.W. of Peter the Great Bay (42° 40´ N.) by Lake Hanka or Khanka and
along the Usuri, then goes due north from the mouth of the Usuri as far
as 52° N., runs along the Stanovoi watershed, crosses the spurs of this
plateau through barren _tundras_, and finally reaches the Arctic Ocean
at Chaun Bay (70° N.). Area, 715,735 sq. m.
The northern part lies between the Arctic Ocean and the Seas of Bering
and Okhotsk, and has the character of a barren plateau 1000 to 2000
ft. high, deeply indented by the rivers of the Anadyr basin and by
long fiords, such as Kolyuchin Bay (the wintering-place of
Nordenskjöld s "Vega"), the Gulf of Anadyr, and the Bays of Penzhina
and Ghizhiga. To the north this plateau is bordered by a chain of
mountains, several summits of which reach 8000 ft. (Makachinga peak),
while the promontories by which the Asiatic continent terminates
towards Bering Strait run up to 1000 to 2000 ft. Only lichens and
mosses, with a few dwarf species of Siberian trees, grow in this
district. The fauna, however, is far richer than might be expected. A
few American birds and mammals cross the strait when it is frozen.
This country, and the seas which surround it, have for the last two
centuries supplied Siberian trade with its best furs. The blue fox and
black sable have been nearly exterminated, and the whale has become
very rare. The sea-otter is rapidly becoming extinct, as well as the
sea-lion (_Otaria stelleri_); while the sea-cow (_Rhytina stelleri_)
was completely extirpated in the course of forty years. The sea-bear
(_Otaria ursina_), which at one time seemed likely to meet with the
same fate, is now nearly domesticated, and multiplies rapidly. The
middle part of the province is a narrow strip (40 to 60 m. wide) along
the Sea of Okhotsk, including the basin of the Uda in the south. This
area is occupied by rugged mountains, 4000 to 7000 ft. high, forming
the eastern border of the high plateau of East Siberia. Thick forests
of larch clothe the mountains half way up, as well as the deep
valleys. The undulating hills of the basin of the Uda, which is a
continuation to the south-west, between the Stanovoi and Bureya
mountains, of the deep indentation of the Sea of Okhotsk, are covered
with forests and marshes.
The southern part of the province includes two distinct regions. From
the north-eastern extremity of the Bureya, or Little Khingan range, of
which the group of the Shantar Islands is a continuation, a wide, deep
depression runs south-west to the confluence of the Amur and the
Usuri, and thence to the lowlands of the lower Sungari. This is for
the most part less than 500 ft. above sea-level. The region on the
right banks of the Amur and the Usuri, between these rivers and the
coast, is occupied by several systems of mountains, usually
represented as a single range, the Sikhota-alin. The summits reach
5150 ft. (Golaya Gora), and the average elevation of the few passes is
about 2500 ft. There is, however, one depression occupied by Lake
Kidzi, which may have been at one time an outflow of the Amur to the
sea. The Sikhota-alin mountains are covered with impenetrable forests.
The flora and fauna of this region (especially in the Usuri district)
exhibit a striking combination of species of warm climates with those
of subarctic regions; the wild vine clings to the larch and the
cedar-pine, and the tiger meets the bear and the sable. The quantity
of fish in the rivers is immense, and in August the Amur and the Usuri
swarm with salmon.
The best part of the Maritime Province is at its southern extremity in
the valley of the Suifeng river, which enters the Pacific in the Gulf
of Peter the Great, and on the shores of the bays of the southern
coast. But even there the climate is very harsh. The warm sea-current
of the Kuro-Siwo does not reach the coasts of Siberia, while a cold
current originating in the Sea of Okhotsk brings its icy water and
chilling fogs to the coasts of Sakhalin, and flows along the Pacific
shore to the eastern coast of Korea. The high mountains of the
sea-coast and the monsoons of the Chinese Sea produce in the southern
parts of the Maritime Province cold winters and wet summers.
Accordingly, at Vladivostok (on the Gulf of Peter the Great), although
it has the same latitude as Marseilles, the average yearly temperature
is only 39.5° F., and the harbour is frozen for nearly three months in
the year; the Amur and the Usuri are frozen in November. Towards the
end of summer the moist monsoons bring heavy rains, which destroy the
harvests and give rise to serious inundations of the Amur. The
sea-coast farther north has a continental and arctic climate. At
Nikolayevsk, temperatures as low as -41.5° F. are observed in winter,
and as high as 94.6° in summer, the average yearly temperature being
below zero (-0.9°). At Ayan (56° 27´ N.) the average temperature of
the year is 25.5° (-0.4° in winter and 50.5° in summer), and at
Okhotsk (59° 21´ N.) it is 23° (-6° in winter and 52.5° in summer).
Russian settlements occur throughout the whole of the province, but,
with the exception of those on the banks of the Amur and the Usuri,
and the southern ports of the sea-coast, they are mere centres of
administration.
Okhotsk is one of the oldest towns of East Siberia, having been
founded in 1649. Nikolayevsk, on the left bank of the Amur, was
formerly the capital of the Maritime Province; but the difficulties of
navigation and of communication with the interior, and the complete
failure of the governmental colonization of the Amur, caused the seat
of government to be transferred to Khabarovsk. Since the loss (1905)
of Port Arthur to the Japanese, Vladivostok on Peter the Great Bay has
again become the chief naval station of Russia on the Pacific. The
trade is in the hands of the Chinese, who export stags' horns, seaweed
and mushrooms, and of the Germans, who import groceries and spirits.
The total population was 209,516 in 1897, of whom 57.7% were Russians,
the others being Tunguses, Golds, Orochons, Lamuts, Chuvantses,
Chukchis, Koryaks, Ghilyaks and Kamchadales. Their chief occupations
are hunting and fishing; the Russians carry on agriculture and trade
in furs. Active measures were taken in 1883-1897 for increasing the
Russian population in the South Usuri district, the result being that
over 29,000 immigrants, chiefly Little Russian peasants, settled
there; while Cossacks from the Don and Orenburg came to settle among
the Usuri Cossacks. Agriculture is gradually developing in the South
Usuri region. Gold-mining has been started on the Amguñ, a tributary
of the Amur. Coal is found near Vladivostok, as well as in Kamchatka.
Roads exist only in the South Usuri district. A railway runs from
Vladivostok to Nikolsk (69 m.), and thence to Khabarovsk along the
right bank of the Usuri (412 m.). At Nikolsk the Manchurian railway
begins. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
MARITIME TERRITORY, a term used in international law to denote coastal
waters which are not Territorial Waters though in immediate contact with
the sea. In the case of Territorial Waters (q.v.) the dominion of the
adjacent state is subject to a limitation. Dominion over maritime
territory is not subject to any limitation. Thus any strait through
which the right of passage of foreign vessels can be forbidden (as the
Solent or the Inland Sea of Japan), or bays so land-locked that they
cannot be held to form part of any ocean-highway, are maritime
territory.
MARIUPOL, a seaport of Russia, on the north shore of the Sea of Azov, at
the mouth of the Kalmius, in the government of Ekaterinoslav, 67 m. W.
of Taganrog. Pop. (1900), 52,770, including the inhabitants of two
suburbs, Mariinsk and Kara-su. The place is said to have been inhabited
in remote times under the name of Adamakha; the present town was built
only in 1779, by Greek emigrants from the Crimea. Its inhabitants are
engaged in agriculture, cattle-breeding, fishing, and the manufacture of
leather, agricultural implements, iron goods and bricks. In export trade
Mariupol ranks next to Taganrog among the ports of the Sea of Azov; but
its harbour is open to the south-east and shallow, though it is being
gradually deepened by systematic dredging. The principal articles of
export are cereals, with some oilcake, phosphate and coal; but the total
value is only about £2,000,000 annually. The imports do not reach a
quarter of a million sterling.
MARIUS OF AVENCHES (or AVENTICUM) (d. 593 or 594), chronicler and
ecclesiastic, was born in the neighbourhood of Autun probably in 530,
and became bishop of Avenches about 573. In addition to being a good
bishop, Marius was a clever goldsmith; he was present at the council of
Mâcon in 585, and transferred the seat of his bishopric from Avenches to
Lausanne. He died on the 31st of December 593 or 594. As a continuation
of the _Chronicon_ of Prosper of Aquitaine, Marius wrote a short
_Chronicon_ dealing with the period from 455 to 581; and although he
borrowed from various sources his work has some importance for the
history of Burgundy. Regarding himself and his land as still under the
authority of the Roman empire, he dates his _Chronicon_ according to the
years of the Roman consuls and of the East Roman emperors.
The only extant manuscript of the _Chronicon_ is in the British
Museum. Among several editions may be mentioned the one in the
_Monumenta Germaniae historica, chronica minora_, Band II. (1893),
with introduction by T. Mommsen. See also W. Arndt, _Bischof Marius
von Aventicum_ (Leipzig, 1875); and W. Wattenbach, _Deutschlands
Geschichtsquellen_, Bd. I. (1904).
MARIUS, GAIUS (155-86 B.C.), Roman general, of plebeian descent, the son
of a small farmer of Cereatae (mod. _Casamare_, "home of Marius") near
Arpinum. He served first in Spain under the great Scipio Africanus, and
rose from the ranks to be an officer. In 119 as tribune he proposed a
law intended to limit the influence of the nobles at elections. This
brought him into conflict with the aristocratic party, who prevented him
from obtaining the aedileship. When about forty years of age he married
a lady of patrician rank, Julia, the aunt of Julius Caesar. This gave
him a new social status, and being at the same time a popular favourite
and a brave, energetic soldier, he was in 115 elected praetor, in which
capacity he effected the subjugation of the troublesome province of
Further Spain. In the war with Jugurtha (109-106) he came to the front
as lieutenant of the consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus. When
he had already achieved some important successes over Jugurtha (q.v.),
in 107 he was elected consul for the first time (an almost unheard-of
honour for a "new man"), his popularity with the army and people being
sufficient to bear down all opposition. In the following year, in
conjunction with Sulla, he brought the war to a triumphant issue, and
passed two years in his province of Numidia, which he thoroughly subdued
and annexed. The surrender of the person of Jugurtha to Sulla gave rise
to the view that he, not Marius, had really ended the war, and so laid
the foundation of the subsequent enmity between the two leaders.
By this time Marius was generally recognized as the ablest general of
the day, and was appointed to the chief command against the Cimbri and
Teutones. Two Roman armies had been destroyed near the Lake of Geneva,
and it seemed as if a repetition of the disaster of the Allia and the
capture of Rome itself might not be impossible. Marius, out of
unpromising materials and a demoralized soldiery, organized a
well-disciplined army, with which he inflicted on the invaders two
decisive defeats, the first in 102 at Aquae Sextiae (_Aix_), 18 m. north
of Marseilles, and the second in the following year on the Raudian plain
near Vercellae (_Vercelli_), about midway between Turin and Milan. For
some centuries afterwards Rome remained unmolested by northern
barbarians. In 101 Marius was elected consul a fifth time (previously in
107, 104, 103, 102), hailed as the "saviour of his country," and
honoured with a triumph of unprecedented splendour.
The glorious part of his career was now over. Though a very able
soldier, he was without the intellectual culture which the Gracchi, his
political ancestors, possessed. As a politician he on the whole failed,
though he retained the confidence of the popular party almost to the
last. But he unfortunately associated himself with the demagogues
_Saturninus_ (q.v.) and Glaucia, in order to secure the consulship for
the sixth time (100). The manner in which he turned against his former
associates (although he probably had no choice in the matter) alienated
the sympathies of the plebs; and Marius, feeling that his only chance of
rehabilitation lay in war, left Rome for Asia, where he endeavoured to
provoke Mithradates to hostilities. On his return he served as legate in
the Social War (90), and defeated the Marsi on two occasions. In 88 war
broke out with Mithradates, and Sulla was appointed by the senate to the
chief command, which was eagerly desired by Marius. This led to a
rupture. With the assistance of the tribune Sulpicius Rufus, Marius
succeeded in getting the command transferred to himself. Sulla marched
upon Rome and defeated Marius, who fled to the marshes of Minturnae in
Latium. He was discovered and taken prisoner; and the local magistrates,
in accordance with Sulla's proclamation, resolved to put him to death.
The Gallic trooper sent to strike off the old man's head quailed, it is
said, before the fire of his eyes, and fled exclaiming, "I cannot kill
Gaius Marius." The inhabitants out of compassion then allowed Marius to
depart, and put him on board a ship which conveyed him to Carthage. When
forbidden to land, he told the messenger to inform the governor that he
had seen Marius sitting as a fugitive among the ruins of Carthage.
Having been joined by his son, he took refuge in the island of Cercina.
Meantime, Sulla having left Italy for the Mithradatic war, Cinna's
sudden and violent revolution put the senate at the mercy of the popular
leaders, and Marius greedily caught at the opportunity of a bloody
vengeance, which became in fact a reign of terror in which senators and
nobles were slaughtered wholesale. He had himself elected consul for the
seventh time, in fulfilment of a prophecy given to him in early manhood.
Less than three weeks afterwards he died of fever, on the 13th of
January 86.
Marius was not only a great general, but also a great military reformer.
From his time a citizen militia was replaced by a professional soldiery,
which had hitherto been little liked by the Roman people. He further
made the cohort the military unit instead of the maniple, and his
cavalry and light-armed troops were drawn from foreign countries, so
that it may be said that Marius was the originator of the mercenary
army. The Roman soldier was henceforth a man who had no trade but war. A
great general could hardly fail to become the foremost man in the state.
Marius, however, unlike Caesar, did not attempt to overturn the
oligarchy by means of the army; he used rather such expedients as the
constitution seemed to allow, though they had to be backed up by riot
and violence. He failed as a political reformer because the merchants
and the moneyed classes, whom the Gracchi had tried to conciliate,
feared that they would themselves be swept away by a revolution of which
the mob and its leaders would be the ultimate controllers. Marius had a
decided tinge of fanaticism and superstition. In canvassing for the
consulship he was guided by the counsels of an Etruscan soothsayer, and
was accompanied in his campaigns by a Syrian prophetess. The fashionable
accomplishments of the day, and the new Greek culture, were wholly alien
to his taste.
For the life of Marius the original sources are numerous passages in
Cicero's works, Sallust's _Jugurtha_, the epitomes of the lost books
of Livy, Plutarch's _Lives_ of Sulla and Marius, Velleius Paterculus,
Florus and Appian's _Bellum civite_. See F. D. Gerlach, _Marius und
Sulla_ (Basel, 1856); I. Gilles, _Campagne de Marius dans la Gaule_
(1870); W. Votsch, _Marius als Reformator des römischen Heerwesens_
(with notes and references to ancient authorities, 1886); A. H. J.
Greenidge, _History of Rome_, vol. i. (1904); also ROME: _History_,
II. "The Republic."
MARIVAUX, PIERRE CARLET DE CHAMBLAIN DE (1688-1763), French novelist and
dramatist, was born at Paris on the 4th of February 1688. His father was
a financier of Norman extraction whose real name was Carlet, but who
assumed the surname of Chamblain, and then superadded that of Marivaux.
M. Carlet de Marivaux was a man of good reputation, and he received the
appointment of director of the mint at Riom in Auvergne, where and at
Limoges the young Pierre was brought up. It is said that he developed
literary tastes early, and wrote his first play, the _Père prudent et
équitable_, when he was only eighteen; it was not, however, published
till 1712, when he was twenty-four. His chief attention in those early
days was paid to novel writing, not the drama. In the three years from
1713 to 1715 he produced three novels--_Effets surprenants de la
sympathie_; _La Voiture embourbée_, and a book which had three
titles--_Pharsamon_, _Les Folies romanesques_, and _Le Don Quichotte
moderne_. All these books were in a curious strain, not in the least
resembling the pieces which long afterwards were to make his reputation,
but following partly the Spanish romances and partly the heroic novels
of the preceding century, with a certain intermixture of the marvellous.
Then Marivaux's literary ardour took a new phase. He fell under the
influence of Antoine Hondar [d] de La Motte, and thought to serve the
cause of that ingenious paradoxer by travestying Homer, an ignoble task,
which he followed up (perhaps, for it is not certain) by performing the
same office in regard to Fénelon. His friendship for La Motte, however,
introduced him to the _Mercure_, the chief newspaper of France, where in
1717 he produced various articles of the "Spectator" kind, which were
distinguished by much keenness of observation and not a little literary
skill. It was at this time that the peculiar style called Marivaudage
first made its appearance in him. The year 1720 and those immediately
following were very important ones for Marivaux; not only did he produce
a comedy, now lost except in small part, entitled _L'Amour et la
vérité_, and another and far better one entitled _Arlequin poli par
l'amour_, but he wrote a tragedy, _Annibal_ (printed 1737), which was
and deserved to be unsuccessful. Meanwhile his worldly affairs underwent
a sudden revolution. His father had left him a comfortable subsistence,
but he was persuaded by friends to risk it in the Mississippi scheme,
and after vastly increasing it for a time lost all that he had. His
prosperity had enabled him to marry (perhaps in 1721) a certain Mlle
Martin, of whom much good is said, and to whom he was deeply attached,
but who died very shortly. His pen now became almost his sole resource.
He had a connexion with both the fashionable theatres, for his _Annibal_
had been played at the Comédie Française and his _Arlequin poli_ at the
Comédie Italienne, where at the time a company who were extremely
popular, despite their imperfect command of French, were established. He
endeavoured too to turn his newspaper practice in the _Mercure_ to more
account by starting a weekly _Spectateur Français_ (1722-1723), to which
he was the sole contributor. But his habits were the reverse of
methodical; the paper appeared at the most irregular intervals; and,
though it contained some excellent work, its irregularity killed it. For
nearly twenty years the theatre, and especially the Italian theatre, was
Marivaux's chief support, for his pieces, though they were not ill
received by the actors at the Français, were rarely successful there.
The best of a very large number of plays (Marivaux's theatre numbers
between thirty and forty items) were the _Surprise de l'amour_ (1722),
the _Triomphe de Plutus_ (1728), the _Jeu de l'amour et du hasard_
(1730), _Les Fausses confidences_ (1737), all produced at the Italian
theatre, and _Le Legs_ (1736), produced at the French. Meanwhile he had
at intervals returned to both his other lines of composition. A
periodical publication called _L'Indigent philosophe_ appeared in 1727,
and another called _Le Cabinet du philosophe_ in 1734, but the same
causes which had proved fatal to the _Spectateur_ prevented these later
efforts from succeeding. In 1731 Marivaux published the first two parts
of his best and greatest work, _Marianne_, a novel of a new and
remarkable kind. The eleven parts appeared in batches at intervals
during a period of exactly the same number of years, and after all it
was left unfinished. In 1735 another novel, _Le Paysan parvenu_, was
begun, but this also was left unfinished. He was elected a member of the
Academy in 1742. He survived for more than twenty years, and was not
idle, again contributing occasionally to the _Mercure_, writing plays,
"reflections" (which were seldom of much worth), and so forth. He died
on the 12th February 1763, aged seventy-five years.
The personal character of Marivaux was curious and somewhat
contradictory, though not without analogies, one of the closest of
which is to be found in Goldsmith. He was, however, unlike Goldsmith,
at least as brilliant in conversation as with the pen. He was
extremely good-natured, but fond of saying very severe things,
unhesitating in his acceptance of favours (he drew a regular annuity
from Helvetius), but exceedingly touchy if he thought himself in any
way slighted. He was, though a great cultivator of _sensibilité_, on
the whole decent and moral in his writings, and was unsparing in his
criticism of the rising _Philosophes_. This last circumstance, and
perhaps jealousy as well, made him a dangerous enemy in Voltaire, who
lost but few opportunities of speaking disparagingly of him. He had
good friends, not merely in the rich, generous and amiable Helvetius,
but in Mme de Tencin, in Fontenelle and even in Mme de Pompadour, who
gave him, it is said, a considerable pension, of the source of which
he was ignorant. His extreme sensitiveness is shown by many stories.
He had one daughter, who took the veil, the duke of Orleans, the
regent's successor, furnishing her with her dowry.
The so-called Marivaudage is the main point of importance about
Marivaux's literary work, though the best of the comedies have great
merits, and _Marianne_ is an extremely important step in the
legitimate development of the French novel--legitimate, that is, in
opposition to the brilliant but episodic productions of Le Sage. Its
connexion, and that of _Le Paysan parvenu_, with the work not only of
Richardson but of Fielding is also an interesting though a difficult
subject. The subject matter of Marivaux's peculiar style has been
generally and with tolerable exactness described as the metaphysic of
love-making. His characters, in a happy phrase of Claude Prosper
Jolyot Crébillon's, not only tell each other and the reader everything
they have thought, but everything that they would like to persuade
themselves that they have thought. The style chosen for this is justly
regarded as derived mainly from Fontenelle, and through him from the
Précieuses, though there are traces of it even in La Bruyère. It
abuses metaphor somewhat, and delights to turn off a metaphor itself
in some unexpected and bizarre fashion. Now it is a familiar phrase
which is used where dignified language would be expected; now the
reverse. In the criticism of Crébillon's already quoted occurs another
happy description of Marivaux's style as being "an introduction to
each other of words which have never made acquaintance, and which
think that they will not get on together," a phrase as happy in its
imitation as in its satire of the style itself. This kind of writing,
of course, recurs at several periods of literature, and did so
remarkably at the end of the 19th century in more countries than one.
Yet this fantastic embroidery of language has a certain charm, and
suits perhaps better than any other style the somewhat unreal
gallantry and _sensibilité_ which it describes and exhibits. The
author possessed, moreover, both thought and observation, besides
considerable command of pathos.
The best and most complete edition of Marivaux is that of 1781 in 12
vols. reprinted with additions 1825-1830. The plays had been published
during the author's lifetime in 1740 and 1748. There are modern
editions by Paul de Saint Heylli Victor (1863), by G. d'Heylli (1876)
and by E. Fournier (1878), while issues of selections and separate
plays and novels are numerous. Of works concerning him J. Fleury's
_Marivaux et le Marivaudage_ (Paris, 1881), G. Larroumet's _Marivaux,
sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (1882; new ed., 1894), the standard work on the
subject, and G. Deschamps's _Marivaux_ (1897), in the _Grands
écrivains français_, are the most important. Separate articles on him
will be found in the collected essays of the chief modern French
critics from Sainte-Beuve onwards. (G. Sa.)
MARJORAM, (O. Fr. _majorane_, Med. Lat. _majorana_; not connected with
_major_, greater, nor with _amaracus_), in botany, the common name for
some aromatic herbs or undershrubs, belonging to the genus _Origanum_
(natural order Labiatae). Wild marjoram is _O. vulgare_, a perennial
common in England in dry copses and on hedge-banks, with many stout
stems 1 to 3 ft. high, bearing short-stalked somewhat ovate leaves and
clusters of purple flowers. Sweet or knotted marjoram, _O. Marjorana_,
and pot marjoram, _O. Onites_, are cultivated for the use of their
aromatic leaves, either green or dry, for culinary purposes; the tops
are cut as the plants begin to flower and are dried slowly in the shade.
MARK, ST, the traditional author of the second Gospel. His name occurs
in several books of the New Testament, and doubtless refers in all cases
to the same person, though this has been questioned. In the Acts of the
Apostles (xii. 12) we read of "John, whose surname was Mark," and gather
that Peter was a familiar visitor at the house of his mother Mary, which
was a centre of Christian life in Jerusalem. That he was, as his Roman
surname would suggest, a Hellenist, follows from the fact that he was
also cousin ("nephew" is a later sense of [Greek: anepsios], see J. B.
Lightfoot on Col. iv. 10) of Barnabas, who belonged to Cyprus. When
Barnabas and Paul returned from their relief visit to Judaea (c. A.D.
46), Mark accompanied them (xii. 25). Possibly he had shown in connexion
with their relief work that practical capacity which seems to have been
his distinctive excellence (cf. 2 Tim. iv. 11). When, not long after,
they started on a joint mission beyond Syria, Mark went as their
assistant, undertaking the minor personal duties connected with travel,
as well as with their work proper (xiii. 5). As soon, however, as their
plans developed, after leaving Cyprus and on arrival at Perga in
Pamphylia (see PAUL), Mark withdrew, probably on some matter of
principle, and returned to Jerusalem (xiii. 13). When, then, Paul
proposed, after the Jerusalem council of Acts xv., to revisit with
Barnabas the scenes of their joint labours, he naturally demurred to
taking Mark with them again, feeling that he could not be relied on
should fresh openings demand a new policy. But Barnabas stood by his
younger kinsman and "took Mark and sailed away to Cyprus" (xv. 38 seq.).
Barnabas does not reappear, unless we trust the tradition which makes
him an evangelist in Alexandria (Clem. _Hom._ i. 9 seq., cf. the
attribution to him of the Alexandrine _Epistle of Barnabas_).
When Mark appears once more, it is in Paul's company at Rome, as a
fellow-worker joining in salutations to Christians at Colossae (Col. iv.
10; Philem. 24). We gather, too, that his restoration to Paul's
confidence took place some time earlier, as the Colossians had already
been bidden by oral message or letter to welcome him if he should visit
them. This points to a reconciliation during Paul's last sojourn in
Jerusalem or Caesarea. Not long after Col. iv. 10 Mark seems to have
been sent by Paul to some place in the province of Asia, lying on the
route between Ephesus and Rome. For in 2 Tim. iv. 11 Paul bids Timothy,
"Pick up Mark and bring him with thee, for he is useful to me for
ministering."
Once more Mark's name occurs in the New Testament, this time with yet
another leader, Peter, the friend of his earliest Christian years in
Jerusalem, to whom he attached himself after the deaths of Barnabas and
Paul. Peter's words, "Mark, my son," show how close was the spiritual
tie between the older and the younger man (1 Pet. v. 13); and as he is
writing from Rome ("Babylon," since Paul's death and the change of
policy it implied), this forms a link between the New Testament and
early tradition, which speaks of Mark as an Evangelist writing his
Gospel under the influence of Peter's preaching (in Rome). This is the
essence of the tradition preserved from "the elders of former days" by
Clement of Alexandria (in Eus. ii. 15, vi. 14), a tradition probably
based on Papias's record (cf. Eus. iii. 39) of the explanation given by
"the Elder" (John) as to the contrast in form between Mark's memoirs of
Peter's discourses and the Gospel of Matthew (see GOSPELS; PAPIAS), but
defining the place where these memoirs were written as Rome. That he
acted to some degree as Peter's interpreter or dragoman ([Greek:
hermêneus]), owing to the apostle's imperfect mastery of Greek, is held
by some but denied by others (e.g. by Zahn). His rôle throughout his
career was _servus servorum dei_; and the fact that he was this
successively to Barnabas, Paul and Peter, helps to show the essential
harmony of their message.
The identification of the author of the second Gospel with Mark, which
we owe to tradition, enables us to fill in our picture of him a little
further. Thus it is possible that Mark was himself the youth ([Greek:
neaniskos]) to whom his Gospel refers as present at Jesus's arrest (xiv.
51 seq.; cf. his detailed knowledge as to the place of the last supper,
13 seq.). It is probably as evangelist, and not in his own person, that
he became known as "he of the stunted extremities" ([Greek:
kolobodaktulos], "curt-fingered"), a title first found in Hippolytus
(_Haer._ vii. 30), in a context which makes its metaphorical reference
to his Gospel pretty evident.[1] It was too as evangelist that he became
personally a subject of later interest, and of speculative legends due
to this, e.g. he was one of the Seventy (first found in Adamantius,
_Dial. de recta fide_, 4th century), he was the founder of the
Alexandrine Church (recorded as a tradition by Eusebius, ii. 16) and its
first bishop (id. ii. 2), and was author of the local type of liturgy
(cf. the _Acts of Mark_, ch. vii., not earlier than the end of the 4th
century).
As to his last days and death nothing is really known. It is
possible--even probable, if we accept the theory that he had already[2]
been there with Barnabas--that Alexandria was his final sphere of work,
as the earliest tradition on the point implies (the Latin _Prologue_,
and Eusebius as above, probably after Julius Africanus in the early 3rd
century), and as was widely assumed in the 4th century. That he died and
was buried there is first stated by Jerome (_De vir. ill._ 8), to which
his _Acts_ adds the glory of martyrdom (cf. Ps.-Hippolytus, _De LXX
Apostolis_).
LITERATURE.--H. B. Swete, _The Gospel acc. to St Mark_ (1898),
Introduction, § I., where the authorities are fully cited; also the
art. in Hastings's _Dict. Bible_. The Patristic and other legends are
discussed at length by R. A. Lipsius, _Die apokr. Apostelgesch.
u.s.w._ (1884), ii. 2, and T. Schermann, _Propheten- und
Apostellegenden_ (1907), 285 seq. (with special reference to
Ps.-Hippolytus and Ps.-Dorotheus). (J. V. B.)
_Medieval Legends._
The majority of medieval writers on the subject state that Mark was a
Levite; but this is probably no more than an inference from his
supposed relationship to Barnabas. The Alexandrian tradition seems to
have been that he was of Cyrenaean origin; and Severus, a writer of
the 10th century, adds to this the statement that his father's name
was Aristobulus, who, with his wife Mary, was driven from the
Pentapolis to Jerusalem by an invasion of barbarians (Severus
Aschimon in Renaudot, _Hist. patriarch. alex._, p. 2). In the
apocryphal Acts of Barnabas, which profess to be written by him, he
speaks of himself as having been formerly a servant of Cyrillus, the
high priest of Zeus, and as having been baptized at Iconium. The
presbyter John, whom Papias quotes, says distinctly that "he neither
heard the Lord nor accompanied Him" (Eusebius, _loc. cit._); and this
positive statement is fatal to the tradition, which does not appear
until about two hundred and fifty years afterwards, that he was one of
the seventy disciples (Epiphanius, pseudo-Origen _De recta in Deum
fide_, and the author of the _Paschal Chronicle_). Various other
results of the tendency to fill up blank names in the gospel history
must be set aside on the same ground; it was, for example, believed
that Mark was one of the disciples who "went back" because of the
"hard saying" (pseudo-Hippolyt., _De LXX Apostolis_ in Cod. Barocc.
Migne, _Patrol. graec._ x. 955); there was an Alexandrian tradition
that he was one of the servants at the miracle of Cana of Galilee,
that he was the "man bearing a pitcher of water" in whose house the
last supper was prepared, and that he was also the owner of the house
in which the disciples met on the evening of the resurrection
(Renaudot, _loc. cit._); and even in modern times there has been the
conjecture that he was the "certain young man" who "fled naked" from
Gethsemane, Mark xiv. 51, 52 (Olshausen).
A tradition which was widely diffused, and which is not in itself
improbable, was that he afterwards preached the gospel and presided
over the church at Alexandria (the earliest extant testimony is that
of Eusebius, _H. E._ ii. 16, 1; ii. 24; for the fully-developed legend
of later times see Symeon Metaphrastes, _Vita S. Marci_, and Eutychius
_Origines ecclesiae Alexandrinae_). There was another, though perhaps
not incompatible, tradition that he preached the gospel and presided
over the church at Aquileia in North Italy. The earliest testimony in
favour of this tradition is the vague statement of Gregory of
Nazianzus that Mark preached in Italy, but its existence in the 7th
century is shown by the fact that in A.D. 629 Heraclius sent the
patriarchal chair from Alexandria to Grado, to which city the
patriarchate of Aquileia had been then transferred (_Chron. patriarch.
Gradens._, in Ughelli, _Italia sacra_, tom. v. p. 1086; for other
references to the general tradition see De Rubeis, _Monum. eccles.
aquileien._, c. 1; _Acta sanctorum_, ad April, xxv.). It was through
this tradition that Mark became connected with Venice, whither the
patriarchate was further transferred from Grado; an early Venetian
legend, which is represented in the Cappella Zen in the basilica of St
Mark, antedates this connexion by picturing the evangelist as having
been stranded on the Rialto, while it was still an uninhabited island,
and as having had the future greatness of the city revealed to him
(Danduli, _Chron._ iv. 1, ap. Muratori, _Rer. ital. script._ xii. 14).
The earliest traditions appear to imply that he died a natural death
(Eusebius, Jerome, and even Isidore of Seville); but the Martyrologies
claim him as a martyr, though they do not agree as to the manner of
his martyrdom. According to the pseudo-Hippolytus he was burned; but
Symeon Metaphrastes and the _Paschal Chronicle_ represent him to have
been dragged over rough stones until he died. But, however that may
be, his tomb appears to have been venerated at Alexandria, and there
was a firm belief at Venice in the middle ages that his remains had
been translated thither in the 9th century (the fact of the
translation is denied even by Tillemont; the weakness of the evidence
in support of the tradition is apparent even in Molini's vigorous
defence of it, lib. ii. c. 2; the minute account which the same writer
gives, lib., ii. c. 11, of the discovery of the supposed actual bones
of the evangelist in A.D. 1811, is interesting). There was another
though less widely accepted tradition, that the remains soon after
their translation to Venice were retranslated to the abbey of
Reichenau on Lake Constance; a circumstantial account of this
retranslation is given in the treatise _Ex miraculis S. Marci_, in
Pertz, _Mon. hist. german. script._, tom. iv. p. 449. It may be added
that the Venetians prided themselves on possessing, not only the body
of St Mark, but also the autograph of his Gospel; this autograph,
however, proved on examination to be only part of a 6th-century book
of the Gospels, the remainder of which was published by Bianchini as
the _Evangeliarium forojuliense_; the Venetian part of this MS. was
found some years ago to have been wholly destroyed by damp.
It has been at various times supposed that Mark wrote other works
besides the Gospel. Several books of the New Testament have been
attributed to him: viz. the Epistle to the Hebrews (Spanheim, _Op.
miscell._ ii. 240), the Epistle of Jude (cf. Holtzmann, _Die
synoptischen Evangelien_, p. 373), the Apocalypse (Hitzig, _Ueber
Johannes Marcus_, Zürich, 1843). The apocryphal _Acta Barnabae_
purport to have been written by him. There is a liturgy which bears
his name, and which exists in two forms; the one form was found in a
MS. of the 12th century in Calabria, and is, according to Renaudot,
the foundation of the three liturgies of St Basil, St Gregory
Nazianzen and St Cyril; the other is that which is used by the
Maronite and Jacobite Syrians. Both forms have been published by
Renaudot, _Liturg. oriental. collect_, i. 127, and ii. 176, and in
Neale's _History of the Holy Eastern Church_; but neither has any
substantial claim to belong to the ante-Nicene period of Christian
literature.
The symbol by which Mark is designated in Christian art is usually
that of a lion. Each of the "four living creatures" of Ezekiel and the
Apocalypse has been attributed to each of the four evangelists in
turn; Augustine and Bede think that Mark is designated by the "man";
Theophylact and others think that he is designated by the eagle;
Anastasius Sinaita makes his symbol the ox; but medieval art
acquiesced in the opinion of Jerome that he was indicated by the lion.
Most of the martyrologies and calendars assign April 25 as the day on
which he should be commemorated; but the _Martyr. Hieron._ gives the
23rd of September, and some Greek martyrologies give the 11th of
January. This unusual variation probably arises from early differences
of opinion as to whether there was one Mark or more than one.
See Canon Molini of Venice, _De vita et lipsanis S. Marci
Evangelistae_, edited, after the author's death, by S. Pieralisi, the
librarian of the Barberini library (1864); R. A. Lipsius, _Die
apokryphen Apostelgesch. und Apostellegenden_ (1883 foll). vol. ii.
part 2, pp. 321-353.