[1] Cotton MS. Domit. A xi. (British Museum), edited for the Rolls
Series by Thomas Arnold in 1892.
[2] Edited by R. Keyser and C. R. Unger as _Strengleikar eða
Lioðabok_ (Christiania, 1850).
[3] Chestre's _Sir Launfal_ was printed by J. Ritson in _Ancient
English Metrical Romances_ (1802); and by L. Erling (Kempten, 1883).
[4] The _soi-disant_ Breton folk-song "Ann Eostik" on the same
subject translated by La Villemarque in his _Barzaz-Breiz_ (1840) is
rejected by competent authorities. Similar stories in which the
nightingale is slain by an angry husband occur in Renard _contrefait_
and in the _Gesta Romanorum_.
[5] Cf. the _Oiseau bleu_ of Mme d'Aulnoy.
[6] Sir Lambewell in Bishop Percy's Folio MS. (ed. Hales and
Furnivall, vol. ii., 1867), is another version of _Lanval_, and
differs from Chestre's. For the relations between _Lanval_ and the
_Lai de Graelent_, wrongly ascribed to Marie by Roquefort, see W. H.
Schofield, "The Lays of Graelent and Lanval, and the story of
Wayland," in the _Publications_ of the Mod. Lang. Assoc. of America,
vol. xv. (Baltimore, 1900).
MARIE DE' MEDICI (1573-1642), queen consort and queen regent of France,
daughter of Francis de' Medici, grand duke of Tuscany, and Joanna, an
Austrian archduchess, was born in Florence on the 26th of April 1573.
After Joanna's death in 1578 duke Francis married the notorious Bianca
Capello, and the grand-ducal children were brought up away from their
father at the Pitti Palace in Florence, where after the death of her
brother and sister and the marriage of her elder sister Eleonora,
duchess of Mantua, a companion was chosen for Marie, this being Leonora
Dori, afterwards known as Leonora Galigaï. She received a good education
in company with her half-brother Antonio. After many projects of
marriage for Marie had failed Henry IV. of France, who was under great
monetary obligations to the house of Medici, offered himself as a suitor
although his marriage with Marguerite de Valois was not yet dissolved;
but the marriage was not celebrated until October 1600. Her eldest son,
the future Louis XIII., was born at Fontainebleau in September of the
next year; the other children who survived were Gaston duke of Orleans;
Elizabeth queen of Spain; Christine duchess of Savoy; and Henrietta
Maria queen of England. During her husband's lifetime Marie de' Medici
showed little sign of political taste or ability; but after his murder
in 1610 when she became regent, she devoted herself to affairs with
unfailing regularity and developed an inherited passion for power. She
gave her confidence chiefly to Concini, the husband of Leonora Galigaï,
who squandered the public money and secured a series of important
charges with the title of Maréchal d'Ancre. Under the regent's lax and
capricious rule the princes of the blood and the great nobles of the
kingdom revolted; and the queen, too weak to assert her authority,
consented at Sainte Menehould (May 15, 1614) to buy off the discontented
princes. In 1616 her policy was strengthened by the accession to her
councils of Richelieu, who had come to the front at the meeting of the
states general in 1614; but Louis XIII., who was now sixteen years old,
was determined to throw off the tutelage of his mother and Concini. By
his orders Concini was murdered, Leonora Galigaï was tried for sorcery
and beheaded, Richelieu was banished to his bishopric, and the queen was
exiled to Blois. After two years of virtual imprisonment she escaped in
1619 and became the centre of a new revolt. Louis XIII. easily dispersed
the rebels, but through the mediation of Richelieu was reconciled with
his mother, who was allowed to hold a small court at Angers, and resumed
her place in the royal council in 1621. But differences between her and
the cardinal rapidly arose, and the queen mother intrigued to drive
Richelieu again from court. For a single day the _journée des dupes_,
the 12th of November 1630, she seemed to have succeeded; but the triumph
of Richelieu was followed by her exile to Compiêgne, whence she escaped
in 1631 to Brussels. From that time till her death at Cologne on the 3rd
of July 1642 she intrigued in vain against the cardinal.
Among contemporary authorities for the history of Marie de' Medici,
see Mathieu de Morgues, _Deux faces de la vie et de la mort de Marie
de Médicis_ (Antwerp, 1643); J. B. Matthieu, _Éloge historial de Marie
de Médicis_ (Paris, 1626); Florentin du Ruau, _Le Tableau de la
régence de Marie de Médicis_ (Poitiers, 1615); F. E. Mézeray,
_Histoire de la mère et du fils, ou de Marie de Médicis et de Louis
XIII._ (Amsterdam, 1730); and A. P. Lord, _The Regency of Marie de
Médicis_ (London, 1904). For the political history see the
bibliographies to HENRY IV. and LOUIS XIII.
There are lives by Thiroux d'Arconville (3 vols., Paris, 1774) by Miss
J. S. H. Pardoe (London, 1852, and again 1890); and by B. Zeller,
_Henri IV. et Marie de Médicis_ (Paris, 1877). There is a technical
discussion of the causes of her death in A. Masson's _La Sorcellerie
et la science des poisons au xvii^e siècle_ (Paris, 1904), and the
minutest details of her private life are in L. Batiffol's _La Vie
intime d'une reine de France_ (Paris, 1906; Eng. trans., 1908).
MARIE GALANTE, an island in the French West Indies. It lies in 15° 55´
N. and 61° 17´ W., 16 m. S.E. of Guadeloupe, of which it is a
dependency. It is nearly circular in shape and 55 sq. m. in area. A
rocky limestone plateau, rising in the east to a height of 675 ft.,
occupies the centre of the island, and from it the land descends in a
series of well-wooded terraces to the sea. The shores are rocky, there
are no harbours, and the roadstead off Grand Bourg is difficult of
access, owing to the surrounding reefs. The climate is healthy and the
soil rich; sugar, coffee and cotton being the chief products. The
largest town is Grand Bourg (pop. 6901) on the south-west coast. The
island was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and received its name from
the vessel on which he was sailing. The French who settled here in 1648
suffered numerous attacks both from the Dutch and the British, but since
1766, except for a short period of British rule in the early part of the
19th century, they have held undisturbed possession.
MARIE LESZCZYNSKA (1703-1768), queen consort of France, was born at
Breslau on the 23rd of June 1703, being the daughter of Stanislas
Leszczynski (who in 1704 became king of Poland) and of Catherine
Opalinska. During a temporary flight from Warsaw the child was lost, and
eventually discovered in a stable; on another occasion she was for
safety's sake hidden in an oven. In his exile Stanislas found his chief
consolation in superintending the education of his daughter. Madame de
Prie first suggested the Polish princess as a bride for Louis duke of
Bourbon, but she was soon betrothed not to him but to Louis XV., a step
which was the outcome of the jealousies of the houses of Condé and
Orléans, and was everywhere regarded as a _mésalliance_ for the French
king. The marriage took place at Fontainebleau on the 5th of September
1725. Marie's one attempt to interfere in politics, an effort to prevent
the disgrace of the duke of Bourbon, was the beginning of her husband's
alienation from her; and after the birth of her seventh child Louise,
Marie was practically deserted by Louis, who openly avowed his _liaison_
with Louise de Nesle, comtesse de Mailly, who was replaced in turn by
her sisters Pauline marquise de Vintimille, and Marie Anne, duchess de
Châteauroux, and these by Madame de Pompadour. In the meantime the queen
saw her father Stanislas established in Lorraine, and the affectionate
intimacy which she maintained with him was the chief consolation of her
harassed life. After a momentary reconciliation with Louis during his
illness at Metz in 1744, Marie shut herself up more closely with her own
circle of friends until her death at Versailles on the 24th of June
1768.
See V. des Diguières, _Lettres inédites de le reine Marie Leczinska et
de la duchesse de Luynes au Président Hénault_ (1886); Marquise des
Réaux, _Le Roi Stanislas et Marie Leczinska_ (1895); P. de Raynal, _Le
Mariage d'un roi_ (Paris, 1887); H. Gauthier Villars, _Le Mariage de
Louis XV. d'après des documents nouveaux_ (1900); P. de Nolhac, _La
Reine Marie Leczinska_ (1900) and _Louis XV. et Marie Leczynska_
(1900); P. Boyé, _Lettres du roi Stanislas à Marie Leszczynska
1754-1766_ (Paris and Nancy, 1901); and C. Stryienski's book on Marie
Joséphs de Saxe (_La Mère des trois derniers Bourbons_, Paris, 1902).
See also the memoirs of Président Hénault and of the duc de Luynes
(ed. Dussieux and Soulié, 1860, &c.).
MARIE LOUISE (1791-1847), second wife of Napoleon I., was the daughter
of Francis I., emperor of Austria, and of the princess Theresa of
Naples, and was born on the 12th of December 1791. Her disposition,
fresh and natural but lacking the qualities that make for distinction,
gave no promise of eminence until reasons of state brought Napoleon
shortly after his divorce of Josephine to sue for her hand (see NAPOLEON
and JOSEPHINE). It is probable, though not quite certain, that the first
suggestions as to this marriage alliance emanated secretly from the
Austrian chancellor, Metternich. The prince de Ligne claimed to have
been instrumental in arranging it. In any case the proposal was well
received at Paris both by Napoleon and by his ministers; and though
there were difficulties respecting the divorce, of Josephine, yet these
were surmounted in a way satisfactory to the emperor and the prelates of
Austria. The marriage took place by proxy in the church of St Augustine,
Vienna, on the 11th of March 1810. The new empress was escorted into
France by Queen Caroline Murat, for whom she soon conceived a feeling of
distrust. The civil and religious contracts took place at Paris early in
April, and during the honeymoon, spent at the palace of Compiègne, the
emperor showed the greatest regard for his wife. "He is so evidently in
love with her," wrote Metternich "that he cannot conceal his feelings,
and all his customary ways of life are subordinate to her wishes." His
joy was complete when on the 20th of March 1811 she bore him a son who
was destined to bear the empty titles of "king of Rome" and "Napoleon
II." The regard of Napoleon for his consort was evidenced shortly before
the birth of this prince, when he bade the physicians, if the lives of
the mother and of the child could not both be saved, to spare her life.
Under Marie Louise the etiquette of the court of France became more
stately and the ritual of religious ceremonies more elaborate. Before
the campaign of 1812 she accompanied the emperor to Dresden; but after
that scene of splendour misfortunes crowded upon Napoleon. In January
1814 he appointed her to act as regent of France (with Joseph Bonaparte
as lieutenant-general) during his absence in the field.
At the time of Napoleon's first abdication (April 11, 1814), Joseph and
Jerome Bonaparte tried to keep the empress under some measure of
restraint at Blois; but she succeeded in reaching her father the emperor
Francis while Napoleon was on his way to Elba. She, along with her son,
was escorted into Austria by Count von Neipperg, and refused to comply
with the entreaties and commands of Napoleon to proceed to Elba; and her
alienation from him was completed when he ventured to threaten her with
a forcible abduction if she did not obey. During the Hundred Days she
remained in Austria and manifested no desire for the success of Napoleon
in France. At the Congress of Vienna the Powers awarded to her and her
son the duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla, in conformity with the
terms of the treaty of Fontainebleau (March, 1814); in spite of the
determined opposition of Louis XVIII. she gained this right for herself
owing largely to the support of the emperor Alexander, but she failed to
make good the claims of her son to the inheritance (see NAPOLEON II.).
She proceeded alone to Parma, where she fell more and more under the
influence of the count von Neipperg, and had to acquiesce in the title
"duke of Reichstadt" accorded to her son. Long before the tidings of the
death of Napoleon at St Helena reached her she was living in intimate
relations with Neipperg at Parma, and bore a son to him not long after
that event. Napoleon on the other hand spoke of her in his will with
marked tenderness, and both excused and forgave her infidelity to him.
Thereafter Neipperg became her morganatic husband; and they had other
children. In 1832, at the time of the last illness of the duke of
Reichstadt, she visited him at Vienna and was there at the time of his
death; but in other respects she shook off all association with
Napoleon. Her rule in Parma, conjointly with Neipperg, was characterized
by a clemency and moderation which were lacking in the other Italian
states in that time of reaction. She preserved some of the Napoleonic
laws and institutions; in 1817 she established the equality of women in
heritage, and ordered the compilation of a civil code which was
promulgated in January 1820. The penal code of November 1821 abolished
many odious customs and punishments of the old code, and allowed
publicity in criminal trials. On the death of Neipperg in 1829 his place
was taken by Baron Werklein, whose influence was hostile to popular
liberty. During the popular movements of 1831 Marie Louise had to take
refuge with the Austrian garrison at Piacenza; on the restoration of her
rule by the Austrians its character deteriorated, Parma becoming an
outwork of the Austrian empire. She died at Vienna on the 18th of
December 1847.
See _Correspondance de Marie Louise 1799-1847_ (Vienna, 1887); J. A.
Baron von Helfert, _Marie Louise_ (Vienna, 1873); E. Wertheimer, _Die
Heirath der Erzherzogin Marie Louise mit Napoléon I._ (Vienna, 1882);
and _The Duke of Reichstadt_ (Eng. ed., London, 1905). See also the
_Memoirs_ of Bausset, Mme Durand Méneval and Metternich; and Max
Billard, _The Marriage Ventures of Marie Louise_, English version by
Evelyn duchess of Wellington (1910).
MARIENBAD, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 115 m. W. of Prague by rail. Pop.
(1900), 4588. It is one of the most frequented watering-places of
Europe, lying on the outskirts of the Kaiserwald at an altitude of 2093
ft., and is 40 m. S.W. of Carlsbad by rail. Marienbad is enclosed on all
sides except the south by gently sloping hills clad with fragrant pine
forests, which are intersected by lovely walks. The principal buildings
are: the Roman Catholic church, which was completed in 1851; the English
church, the theatre, the _Kurhaus_, built in 1901, and several bathing
establishments and hospitals. The mineral springs, which belong to the
adjoining abbey of Tepl, are eight in number, and are used both for
bathing and drinking, except the Marienquelle, which is used only for
bathing. Some of them, like the Kreuzbrunnen and the Ferdinandsbrunnen,
contain alkaline-saline waters which resemble those of Carlsbad, except
that they are cold and contain nearly twice the quantity of purgative
salts. Others, like the Ambrosiusbrunnen and the Karolinenbrunnen, are
among the strongest iron waters in the world, while the Rudolfsbrunnen
is an earthy-alkaline spring. The waters are used in cases of liver
affections, gout, diabetes and obesity; and the patients must conform
during the cure to a strictly regulated diet. Besides the mineral water
baths there are also _moor_ or mud-baths, and the peat used for these
baths is the richest in iron in the world. About 1,000,000 bottles of
mineral water are exported annually.
Amongst the places of interest round Marienbad is the basaltic rock of
Podhorn (2776 ft.), situated about 3 m. to the east, from which an
extensive view of the Böhmerwald, Fichtelgebirge and Erzgebirge is
obtained. About 7 m. in the same direction lies the old and wealthy
abbey of Tepl, founded in 1193. The actual building dates from the end
of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century, and contains a fine
library with a collection of rare manuscripts and incunabula; near it is
the small and old town of Tepl (pop. 2789). To the north-east of
Marienbad lies the small watering-place of Königswart; near it is a
castle belonging since 1618 to the princes of Metternich, which contains
an interesting museum, created by the famous Austrian statesman in the
first part of the 19th century. It contains, besides a fine library, a
collection of the presents he received during his long career; numerous
autographs, and other historical relics, a collection of rare coins,
armour, portraits and various minerals.
Marienbad is among the youngest of the Bohemian watering-places,
although its springs were known from of old. They appear in a document
dating from 1341, where they are called "the Auschowitzer springs
belonging to the abbey of Tepl;" but it was only through the efforts of
Dr Josef Nehr, the doctor of the abbey, who from 1779 until his death in
1820 worked hard to demonstrate the curative properties of the springs,
that the waters began to be used for medicinal purposes. The place
obtained its actual name of Marienbad in 1808; became a watering-place
in 1818, and received its charter as a town in 1868.
See Lang, _Führer durch Marienbad und Umgebung_ (Marienbad, 1902); and
Kisch, Marienbad, seine Umgebung und Heilmittel (Marienbad, 1895).
MARIENBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony 16 m. S.E. of
Chemnitz on the Flöha-Reitzenhain railway. Pop. (1905), 7603. It has an
Evangelical church, a Roman Catholic church, a non-commissioned
officers' school and a preparatory school; and the industries comprise
wool-spinning, flax-dressing, the making of lace, toys and cigars, and
silver-mining.
MARIENBURG (Polish, _Malborg_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of West Prussia, 30 m. by rail to the S.E. of Danzig in a
fertile plain on the right bank of the Nogat, a channel of the Vistula,
here spanned by a handsome railway bridge and by a bridge of boats. Pop.
(1905), 13,095. Marienburg contains large chemical wool-cleaning works
and several other factories, carries on a considerable trade in grain,
wood, linen, feathers and brushes, and is the seat of important cattle,
horse and wool markets. Its educational institutions include a gymnasium
and a Protestant normal school. In the old market-place, many of the
houses in which are built with arcades, stands a Gothic town-hall,
dating from the end of the 14th century. The town is also embellished
with a fine statue of Frederick the Great, who added this district to
Prussia, and a monument commemorating the war of 1870-71. Marienburg is
chiefly interesting from its having been for a century and a half the
residence of the grand masters of the Teutonic order. The large castle
of the order here was originally founded in 1274 as the seat of a simple
commandery against the pagan Prussians, but in 1309 the headquarters of
the grand master were transferred hither from Venice, and the
"Marienburger Schloss" soon became one of the largest and most strongly
fortified buildings in Germany. On the decline of the order in the
middle of the 15th century, the castle passed into the hands of the
Poles, by whom it was allowed to fall into neglect and decay. It came
into the possession of Prussia in 1772, and was carefully restored at
the beginning of the 19th century. This interesting and curious building
consists of three parts, the Alt- or Hochschloss, the Mittelschloss, and
the Vorburg. It is built of brick, in a style of architecture peculiar
to the Baltic provinces, and is undoubtedly one of the most important
secular buildings of the middle ages in Germany.
Of the numerous monographs published in Germany on the castle of
Marienburg, it will suffice to mention here Büsching's _Schloss der
deutschen Ritter zu Marienburg_ (Berlin, 1828); Voigt's _Geschichte
von Marienburg_ (Königsberg, 1824); Bergau's _Ordenshaupthaus
Marienburg_ (Berlin, 1871); and Steinbrecht, _Schloss Marienburg in
Preussen_ (8th ed., Berlin, 1905).
MARIENWERDER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of West
Prussia, 3 m. E. of the Vistula, 23 m. S. of Marienburg by rail. Pop.
(1905), 10,258. The town was founded in the year 1233 by the Teutonic
order. It has a cathedral of the same century, a triple Gothic edifice,
restored in 1874 and containing the tombs of several grand masters of
the Teutonic order; a (Gothic) town-hall (1880); a Roman Catholic
basilica (1858); a non-commissioned officers' school; a monument of the
war of 1870-71 (1897); an archaeological collection; and a seminary for
female teachers. The industries include iron-foundries, saw-mills,
sugar-refineries, breweries and printing-works.
MARIE THÉRÈSE (1638-1683), queen consort of France, was born on the 10th
of September 1638 at the Escurial, being the daughter of Philip IV. of
Spain and Elizabeth of France. By pretending to seek a bride for his
master in Margaret of Savoy, Mazarin had induced the king of Spain to
make proposals for the marriage of his daughter with Louis XIV., and the
treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659 stipulated for her marriage with the
French king, Marie renouncing any claim to the Spanish succession. As
the treaty, however, hinged on the payment of her dowry, which was
practically impossible for Spain, Mazarin could evade the other terms of
the contract. Marie Thérèse was married in June 1660, when Philip IV.
with his whole court accompanied the bride to the Isle of Pheasants in
the Bidassoa, where she was met by Louis. The new queen's amiability and
her undoubted virtues failed to secure her husband's regard and
affection. She saw herself neglected in turn for Louise de la Vallière,
Mme. de Montespan and others; but Marie Thérèse was too pious and too
humble openly to resent the position in which she was placed by the
king's avowed infidelities. With the growing influence of Madame de
Maintenon over his mind and affections he bestowed more attention on his
wife, which she repaid by lavishing kindness on the mistress. She had no
part in political affairs except in 1672, when she acted as regent
during Louis XIV.'s campaign in Holland. She died on the 30th of July
1683 at Versailles, not without suspicion of foul play on the part of
her doctors. Of her six children only one survived her, the dauphin
Louis, who died in 1711.
See the funeral oration of Bossuet (Paris, 1684), E. Ducéré, _Le
Mariage de Louis XIV. d'après les contemporains et des documents
inédits_ (Bayonne, 1905); Dr Cabanès, _Les Morts mystérieuses de
l'histoire_ (1900), and the literature dealing with her rivals Louise
de la Vallière, Madame de Montespan and Madame de Maintenon.
MARIETTA, a city and the county-seat of Cobb county, Georgia, U.S.A., in
the N.W. of the state, about 17 m. N.W. of Atlanta. Pop. (1890), 3384;
(1900), 4446, of whom 1928 were negroes; (1910), 5940. The city is
served by the Louisville & Nashville, the Nashville, Chattanooga & St.
Louis, and the Western & Atlantic railways, and is connected with
Atlanta by an electric line. Marietta is situated about 1118 ft. above
the sea, has a good climate, and is both a summer and a winter resort.
The principal industries are the manufacture of chairs and paper, and
the preparation of marble for the markets; there are also locomotive
works, planing mills, a canning factory, a knitting mill, &c. At
Marietta there is a national cemetery, in which more than 10,000 Federal
soldiers are buried, and at Kenesaw Mountain (1809 ft.), about 2½ m.
west of the city, one of the fiercest battles of the Civil War was
fought. After the Confederate retreat from Dalton in May 1864, General
William T. Sherman, the Federal commander, made Marietta his next
intermediate point in his Atlanta campaign, and the Confederate
commander, General Joseph E. Johnston, established a line of defence
west of the town. After several preliminary engagements Sherman on the
26th and 27th of June made repeated unsuccessful attempts to drive the
Confederates from their defences at Kenesaw Mountain; he then resorted
to a flanking movement which forced the Confederate general to retire
(July 2) toward Atlanta. Marietta was settled about 1840, and was
chartered as a city in 1852.
MARIETTA, a city and the county-seat of Washington county, Ohio, U.S.A.,
on the Ohio River, at the mouth of the Muskingum, about 115 m. S.E. of
Columbus. Pop. (1890), 8273; (1900), 13,348, including 679 foreign-born
and 361 negroes; (1910), 12,923. It is served by the Pennsylvania
(Marietta Division), the Baltimore & Ohio (Marietta & Parkersburg,
Marietta & Zanesville, and Ohio River divisions) and the Marietta,
Columbus & Cleveland railways, and by steamboat lines to several river
ports; a bridge across the Ohio connects it with Williamstown, West
Virginia. The city is in a hilly country of much natural beauty, and is
of considerable historic interest. On the banks of the Muskingum is a
public park, facing which stood the oldest church in the state; this was
burned in 1905, but was subsequently rebuilt in the old style. Near by
are some 18th century buildings, some interesting earthworks of the
"mound-builders," and a cemetery in which are buried many soldiers who
fought in the War of Independence. Marietta is the seat of Marietta
College, dating from 1830, which in 1908 had more than 500 students. It
possesses a library of 60,000 volumes, including some rare collections,
especially the Stimson collection of books bearing on the history of the
North-West Territory. Petroleum, coal, and iron-ore abound in the
neighbouring region, and the city has a considerable trade in these and
in its manufactures of chairs, leather, flour, carriages, wagons, boats,
boilers, bricks and glass. In 1905 the factory products were valued at
$2,599,287.
Marietta, named in honour of Marie Antoinette, is the oldest settlement
in the state and in the North-west Territory. It was founded in 1788 by
a company of Revolutionary officers from New England under the
leadership of General Rufus Putnam, and in the same year the North-West
Territory was formally organized here. The pseudo-classicism of the
period of Marietta's foundation is indicated by the names--_Capitolium_
for one of the public squares, _Sacra Via_ for one of the principal
streets, and _Campus Martius_ for the fortification. The settlement was
incorporated as a town in 1800 and chartered as a city in 1852. In 1800
the village of Harmar, including the site on which Fort Harmar was built
in 1785, was annexed.
See Henry Howe, _Historical Collections of Ohio_ (Columbus, 1891).
MARIETTE, AUGUSTE FERDINAND FRANÇOIS (1821-1881), French Egyptologist,
was born on the 11th of February 1821 at Boulogne, where his father was
town clerk. Educated at the Boulogne municipal college, where he
distinguished himself and showed much artistic talent, he went to
England in 1839 when eighteen as professor of French and drawing at a
boys' school at Stratford-on-Avon. In 1840 he became pattern-designer to
a ribbon manufacturer at Coventry; but weary of ill-paid exile he
returned the same year to Boulogne, and in 1841 took his degree at
Douai. He now became a professor at his old college, and for some years
supplemented his salary by giving private lessons and writing on
historical and archaeological subjects for local periodicals. Meanwhile
his cousin Nestor L'Hôte, the friend and fellow-traveller of
Champollion, died, and upon Mariette devolved the task of sorting the
papers of the deceased savant. He thenceforth became passionately
interested in Egyptology, devoted himself to the study of hieroglyphs
and Coptic, and in 1847 published a _Catalogue analytique_ of the
Egyptian Gallery of the Boulogne Museum; in 1849, being appointed to a
subordinate position in the Louvre, he left Boulogne for Paris.
Entrusted with a government mission for the purpose of seeking and
purchasing Coptic, Syriac, Arabic and Ethiopic MSS. for the national
collection, he started for Egypt in 1850; and soon after his arrival he
made his celebrated discovery of the ruins of the Serapeum and the
subterraneous catacombs of the Apisbulls. His original mission being
abandoned, funds were now advanced for the prosecution of his
researches, and he remained in Egypt for four years, excavating,
discovering and despatching archaeological treasures to the Louvre, of
which museum he was on his return appointed an assistant conservator. In
1858 he accepted the position of conservator of Egyptian monuments to
the ex-khedive, Ismail Pasha, and removed with his family to Cairo. His
history thenceforth becomes a chronicle of unwearied exploration and
brilliant success. The museum at Bula was founded immediately. The
pyramid-fields of Memphis and Sakkara, and the necropolis of Meydum, and
those of Abydos and Thebes were examined; the great temples of Dendera
and Edfu were disinterred; important excavations were carried out at
Karnak, Medinet-Habu and Deir el-Bahri; Tanis (the Zoan of the Bible)
was partially explored in the Delta; and even Gebel Barkal in the Sudan.
The Sphinx was bared to the rock-level, and the famous granite and
alabaster monument miscalled the "Temple of the Sphinx" was discovered.
Mariette was raised successively to the rank of bey and pasha in his own
service. Honours and orders were showered on him: the Legion of Honour
and the Medjidie in 1852; the Red Eagle (first class) of Prussia in
1855; the Italian order of SS. Maurice and Lazarus in 1857; and the
Austrian order of Francis-Joseph in 1858. In 1873 the Academy of
Inscriptions decreed to him the biennial prize of 20,000 francs, and in
1878 he was elected a member of the Institute. He was also an honorary
member of most of the learned societies of Europe. In 1877 his health
broke down through overwork. He lingered for a few years, working to the
last, and died at Cairo on the 19th of January 1881.
His chief published works are: _Le Sérapéum de Memphis_ (1857 and
following years); _Dendérah_, five folios and one 4to (1873-1875);
_Abydos_, two folios and one 4to (1870-1880); _Karnak_, folio and 4to
(1875); _Deir el-Bahari_, folio and 4to (1877); _Listes géographiques
des pylônes de Karnak_, folio (1875); _Catalogue du Musée de Boulaq_
(six editions 1864-1876); _Aperçu de l'histoire d'Égypte_ (four
editions, 1864-1874, &c.); _Les Mastabas de l'ancien empire_ (edited
by Maspero) (1883). See "Notice biographique," by Maspero in _Auguste
Mariette. Oeuvres diverses_ (tome 1, Paris, 1904), and art. EGYPT:
_Exploration and Research_.
MARIGNAC, JEAN CHARLES GALISSARD DE (1817-1894), Swiss chemist, was born
at Geneva on the 24th of April 1817. When sixteen years old he began to
attend the École Polytechnique in Paris, and from 1837 to 1839 studied
at the École des Mines. Then, after a short time in Liebig's laboratory
at Giessen, and in the Sèvres porcelain factory, he became in 1841
professor of chemistry in the academy of Geneva. In 1845 he was
appointed professor of mineralogy also, and held both chairs till 1878,
when ill-health obliged him to resign. He died at Geneva on the 15th of
April 1894. Marignac's name is well known for the careful and exact
determinations of atomic weights which he carried out for twenty-eight
of the elements. In undertaking this work he had, like J. S. Stas, the
purpose of testing Prout's hypothesis, but he remained more disposed
than the Belgian chemist to consider the possibility that it may have
some degree of validity. Throughout his life he paid great attention to
the "rare earths" and the problem of separating and distinguishing them;
in 1878 he extracted ytterbia from what was supposed to be pure erbia,
and two years later found gadolinia and samaria in the samarskite
earths. In 1858 he pointed out the isomorphism of the fluostannates and
the fluosilicates, thus settling the then vexed question of the
composition of silicic acid; and subsequently he studied the fluosalts
of zirconium, boron, tungsten, &c., and prepared silicotungstic acid,
one of the first examples of the complex inorganic acids. In physical
chemistry he carried out many researches on the nature and process of
solution, investigating in particular the thermal effects produced by
the dilution of saline solutions, the variation of the specific heat of
saline solutions with temperature and concentration, and the phenomena
of liquid diffusion.
A memorial lecture by P. T. Cleve, printed in the _Journal of the
London Chemical Society_ for 1895, contains a list of Marignac's
papers.
MARIGNAN, BATTLE OF, fought on the 13th and 14th of September 1515
between the French army under Francis I. and the Swiss. The scene of the
battle--which was also that of a hard fought engagement in 1859 (see
ITALIAN WARS)--was the northern outskirts of the village of Melegnano,
on the river Lambro, 10 m. S.E. of Milan. The circumstances out of which
the battle of Marignan arose, almost inconceivable to the modern mind,
were not abnormal in the conditions of Italian warfare and politics then
prevailing. The young king of France had gathered an army about Lyons,
wherewith to overrun the Milanese; his allies were the republics of
Venice and Genoa. The duke of Milan, Maximilian Sforza, had secured the
support of the emperor, the king of Spain, and the pope, and also that
of the Swiss cantons, which then supplied the best and most numerous
mercenary soldiers in Europe. The practicable passes of the Alps and the
Apennines were held by Swiss and papal troops. Francis however boldly
crossed the Col de l'Argentière (Aug. 1515) by paths that no army had
hitherto used, and Marshal de La Palisse surprised and captured a papal
corps at Villafranca near Pinerolo, whereupon the whole of the enemy's
troops fell back on Milan. The king then marching by Vercelli, Novara
and Pavia, joined hands with Alviano, the Venetian commander, and
secured a foothold in the Milanese. But in order to avoid the necessity
of besieging Milan itself, he offered the Swiss a large sum to retire
into their own country. They were about to accept his offer, not having
received their subsidies from the pope and the king of Spain, when a
fresh corps of mercenaries descended into Italy, desirous both of
gaining booty and of showing their prowess against their new rivals the
French and Lower Rhine "lansquenets" (Landsknechts) and against the
French gendarmerie, whom (alluding to the "Battle of the Spurs" at
Guinegatte in 1513) they called "hares in armour." The French took
position at Melegnano to face the Swiss, the Venetians at Lodi to hold
in check the Spanish army at Piacenza. Alviano, who was visiting the
king when the Swiss appeared before Melegnano, hurried off to bring
thither his own army. Meantime the French and the Swiss engaged in an
incredibly fierce struggle.
The king's army was grouped in front of the village, facing in the
direction of Milan, with a small stream separating it from the oncoming
Swiss. On either side of the Milan road was a large body of
landsknechts, a third being in reserve. The French and Gascon infantry
(largely armed with arquebuses) was on the extreme right, the various
bodies of gendarmerie in the centre. In front of all was the French
artillery. The battle opened in the afternoon of the 13th of September.
As the Swiss advanced in three huge columns, the French guns fired into
them with terrible effect, but the assailants reached the intersected
ground bordering the stream, and thus protected from the rush of the
French gendarmerie, they debouched on the other side, and fell upon the
landsknechts. The crowd of combatants, the gathering darkness, and the
dust, prevented any general direction being given to the battle by the
leaders of either side. Francis himself at the head of two hundred
gendarmes charged and drove back two large bodies of Swiss which were
pressing the landsknechts hard. The battle went on by moonlight till
close on midnight, when the Swiss retired a short distance. Both sides
spent the rest of the night on the battlefield, reorganizing their
broken corps. Francis and his gendarmes were the outpost line of the
French army, and remained all night mounted, lance in hand and helmet on
head. Next morning at sunrise, the battle was renewed. The Swiss now
left their centre inactive opposite the king and with two strong corps
attempted to work round his flanks. That on the left made for the French
baggage, but found it strongly guarded by landsknechts, who drove them
back. The nearest French gendarmerie joined in the pursuit, but a
detachment from the Swiss centre fell upon these and destroyed them.
This detachment in turn followed up its advantage until as Francis
himself expressed it, "the whole camp turned out" to aid the
landsknechts and "hunted out" the Swiss. Meantime the Swiss left attack
had closed with the French infantry bands and the "aventuriers"
(afterwards the famous corps of Picardie and Piedmont), who were
commanded on this day by the famous engineer Pedro Navarro. It was in
the main struggle of arquebus against pike, but it was not the arquebus
alone, or even principally, that gave the victory to the French. When
the Swiss ranks had been disordered, the short pike and the sword came
into play, and aided by the constable de Bourbon with a handful of the
gendarmerie, the French right more than held its own until Alviano with
the cavalry from Lodi rode on to the field and completed the rout of the
Swiss. In the centre meanwhile the two infantries stood fast for eight
hours, separated by the brook, while the artillery on both sides fired
into it at short range. But the landsknechts, animated by the king,
endured it as well as the Swiss; and at the last, Francis leading a
final advance of his exhausted troops, the Swiss gave way and fled. Only
3000 Swiss escaped out of some 25,000 who fought. On the French side
probably 8000 were killed or died of wounds. The battle lasted
twenty-eight hours. Its tactical lesson was the efficacy of combining
two arms against one. The French gendarmerie, burning to avenge the
insult of "hares in armour," made more than thirty charges by squadrons,
and they were admirably supported by their light artillery. The
landsknechts retrieved their first day's defeat by their conduct on the
second day. Nevertheless Marignan was in the main the work of the
gendarmerie, the last and greatest triumph of the armoured lancer; and
as a fitting close to the battle the young king was knighted by Bayard
on the field.
MARIGNOLLI, GIOVANNI DE', a notable traveller to the Far East in the
14th century, born probably before 1290, and sprung from a noble family
in Florence. The family is long extinct, but a street near the cathedral
(Via de' Cerretani) formerly bore the name of the Marignolli. In 1338
there arrived at Avignon, where Benedict XII. held his court, an embassy
from the great khan of Cathay (the Mongol-Chinese emperor), bearing
letters to the pontiff from the khan himself, and from certain Christian
nobles of the Alan race in his service. These latter represented that
they had been eight years (since Monte Corvino's death) without a
spiritual guide, and earnestly desired one. The pope replied to the
letters, and appointed four ecclesiastics as his legates to the khan's
court. The name of John of Florence, i.e. Marignolli, appears third on
the letters of commission. A large party was associated with the four
chief envoys; when in Peking the embassy still numbered thirty-two, out
of an original fifty.
The mission left Avignon in December 1338; picked up the Tatar envoys at
Naples; stayed nearly two months in Constantinople (Pera, May 1-June 24,
1339); and sailed across the Black Sea to Kaffa, whence they travelled
to the court of Mahommed Uzbeg, khan of the Golden Horde, at Sarai on
the Volga. The khan entertained them hospitably during the winter of
1339-1340 and then sent them across the steppes to Armalec, Almalig or
Almaligh (Kulja), the northern seat of the house of Chaghatai, in what
is now the province of Ili. "There," says Marignolli, "we built a
church, bought a piece of ground ... sung masses, and baptized several
persons, notwithstanding that only the year before the bishop and six
other minor friars had there undergone glorious martyrdom for Christ's
salvation." Quitting Almaligh in 1341, they seem to have reached Peking
(by way of Kamul or Hami) in May or June 1342. They were well received
by the reigning khan, the last of the Mongol dynasty in China. An entry
in the Chinese annals fixes the year of Marignolli's presentation by its
mention of the arrival of the great horses from the kingdom of Fulang
(_Farang_ or Europe), one of which was 11 ft. 6 in. in length, and 6 ft.
8 in. high, and black all over.
Marignolli stayed at Peking or Cambalec three or four years, after which
he travelled through eastern China to Zayton or Amoy Harbour, quitting
China apparently in December 1347, and reaching Columbum (Kaulam or
Quilon in Malabar) in Easter week of 1348. At this place he found a
church of the Latin communion, probably founded by Jordanus of Séverac,
who had been appointed bishop of Columbum by Pope John XXII. in 1330.
Here Marignolli remained sixteen months, after which he proceeded on
what seems a most devious voyage. First he visited the shrine of St
Thomas near the modern Madras, and then proceeded to what he calls the
kingdom of Saba, and identifies with the Sheba of Scripture, but which
seems from various particulars to have been Java. Taking ship again for
Malabar on his way to Europe, he encountered great storms. They found
shelter in the little port of _Pervily_ or _Pervilis_ (Beruwala or
Berberyn) in the south-west of Ceylon; but here the legate fell into the
hands of "a certain tyrant Coya Jaan (Khoja Jahan), a eunuch and an
accursed Saracen," who professed to treat him with all deference, but
detained him four months, and plundered all the gifts and Eastern
rarities that he was carrying home. This detention in _Seyllan_ enables
Marignolli to give a variety of curious particulars regarding Adam's
Peak, Buddhist monasticism, the aboriginal races of Ceylon, and other
marvels. After this we have only fragmentary notices, showing that his
route to Europe lay by Ormuz, the ruins of Babel, Bagdad, Mosul, Aleppo
and thence to Damascus and Jerusalem. In 1353 he arrived at Avignon, and
delivered a letter from the great khan to Pope Innocent VI. In the
following year the emperor Charles IV., on a visit to Italy, made
Marignolli one of his chaplains. Soon after, the pope made him bishop of
Bisignano; but he seems to have been in no hurry to reside there. He
appears to have accompanied the emperor to Prague in 1354-1355; in 1356
he is found acting as envoy to the Pope from Florence; and in 1357 he is
at Bologna. We know not when he died. The last trace of Marignolli is a
letter addressed to him, which was found in the 18th century among the
records in the Chapter Library at Prague. The writer is an unnamed
bishop of Armagh, easily identified with Richard Fitz Ralph, a strenuous
foe of the Franciscans, who had broken lances in controversy with Ockham
and Burley. The letter implies that some intention had been intimated
from Avignon of sending Marignolli to Ireland in connexion with matters
then in debate--a project which stirs Fitz Ralph's wrath.
The fragmentary notes of Marignolli's Eastern travels often contain
vivid remembrance and graphic description, but combined with an
incontinent vanity, and an incoherent lapse from one thing to another.
They have no claim to be called a narrative, and it is with no small
pains that anything like a narrative can be pieced out of them. Indeed
the mode in which they were elicited curiously illustrates how little
medieval travellers thought of publication The emperor Charles,
instead of urging his chaplain to write a history of his vast
journeys, set him to the repugnant task of recasting the annals of
Bohemia; and he consoled himself by salting the insipid stuff by
interpolations, _à propos de bottes_, of his recollections of Asiatic
travel.
Nobody seems to have noticed the work till 1768, when the chronicle
was published in vol. ii. of the _Monumenta hist. Bohemiae nusquam
antehac edita_ by Father Gelasius Dobner. But, though Marignolli was
thus at last in type, no one seems to have read him till 1820, when an
interesting paper on his travels was published by J. G. Meinert.
Professor Friedrich Kunstmann of Munich also devoted to the subject
one of his admirable series of papers on the ecclesiastical travellers
of the middle ages.
See _Fontes rerum bohemicarum_, iii. 492-604 (1882, best text); G.
Dobner's _Monumenta hist. boh._, vol. ii. (Prague, 1768); J. G.
Meinert, in _Abhandl. der k. böhm. Gesellsch. der Wissenschaften_,
vol. vii.; F. Kunstmann, in _Historisch-politische Blätter von
Phillips und Görres_, xxxviii. 701-719, 793-813 (Munich, 1859); Luke
Wadding, _Annales minorum, A.D. 1338_, vii. 210-219 (ed. of 1733,
&c.); Sbaralea, _Supplementum et castigatio ad scriptores trium
ordinum S. Francisci a Waddingo_, p. 436 (Rome, 1806); John of
Winterthur, in Eccard, _Corpus historicum medii aevi_, vol. i., 1852;
Mosheim, _Historia Tartarorum ecclesiastica_, part i., p. 115; Henry
Yule, _Cathay and the Way Thither_, ii. 309-394 (Hak. Soc., 1866); C.
Raymond Beazley, _Dawn of Modern Geography_, iii. 142, 180-181,
184-185, 215, 231, 236, 288-309 (1906). (H. Y.; C. R. B.)
MARIGNY, ENGUERRAND DE (1260-1315), French chamberlain, and minister of
Philip IV. the Fair, was born at Lyons-la-Forêt in Normandy, of an old
Norman family of the smaller baronage called Le Portier, which took the
name of Marigny about 1200. Enguerrand entered the service of Hugues de
Bonville, chamberlain and secretary of Philip IV., as a squire, and then
was attached to the household of Queen Jeanne, who made him one of the
executors of her will. He married her god-daughter, Jeanne de St Martin.
In 1298 he received the custody of the castle of Issoudun. After the
death of Pierre Flotte and Hugues de Bonville at the battle of
Mons-en-Pevèle in 1304, he became Philip's grand chamberlain and chief
minister. In 1306 he was sent to preside over the exchequer of Normandy.
He received numerous gifts of land and money from Philip as well as a
pension from Edward II. of England. Possessed of an ingratiating manner,
politic, learned and astute, he acted as an able instrument in carrying
out Philip's plans, and received corresponding confidence. He shared the
popular odium which Philip incurred by debasing the coinage. He acted as
the agent of Philip in his contest with Louis de Nevers, the son of
Robert count of Flanders, imprisoning Louis and forcing Robert to
surrender Lille, Douay and Béthune. He obtained for his half-brother
Philip de Marigny in 1301 the bishopric of Cambray, and in 1309 the
archbishopric of Sens, and for his brother Jean in 1312 the bishopric of
Beauvais. Still another relative, Nicolas de Fréauville, became the
king's confessor and a cardinal. He addressed the estates general in
1314 and succeeded in getting further taxes for the Flemish war,
incurring at the same time much ill will. This soon came to a head when
the princes of the blood, eager to fight the Flemings, were disappointed
by his negotiating a peace in September. He was accused of receiving
bribes, and Charles of Valois denounced him to the king himself; but
Philip stood by him and the attack was of no avail. The death of Philip
IV. on the 29th of November 1314 was a signal for a reaction against his
policy. The feudal party, whose power the king had tried to limit,
turned on his ministers and chiefly on his chamberlain. Enguerrand was
arrested by Louis X. at the instigation of Charles of Valois, and
twenty-eight articles of accusation including charges of receiving
bribes were brought against him. He was refused a hearing; but his
accounts were correct, and Louis was inclined to spare him anything more
than banishment to the island of Cyprus. Charles then brought forward a
charge of sorcery which was more effectual. He was condemned at once and
hanged on the public gallows at Montfaucon, protesting that in all his
acts he had only been carrying out Philip's commands (April 30, 1315).
Louis X. seems to have repented of his treatment of Marigny, and left
legacies to his children. When his chief enemy, Charles of Valois, lay
dying in 1325, he was stricken with remorse and ordered alms to be
distributed among the poor of Paris with a request to "pray for the
souls of Enguerrand and Charles." Marigny founded the collegiate church
of Notre Dame d'Escoës near Rouen in 1313. He was twice married, first
to Jeanne de St Martin, by whom he had three children, Louis, Marie and
Isabelle (who married Robert, son of Robert de Tancarville); and the
second time to Alips de Mons.
See contemporary chroniclers in vols. xx. to xxiii. of D. Bouquet,
_Historiens de la France_; P. Clément, _Trois drames historiques_
(Paris, 1857); Ch. Dufayard, _La Réaction féodale sous les fils de
Philippe le Bel_, in the _Revue historique_ (1894, liv. 241-272) and
lv. 241-290.
MARIGNY, JEAN DE (d. 1350), French bishop, was a younger brother of the
preceding. Entering the church at an early age, he was rapidly advanced
until in 1313 he was made bishop of Beauvais. During the next twenty
years he was one of the most notable of the members of the French
episcopate, and was particularly in favour with King Philip VI. He
devoted himself in 1335 to the completion of the choir of Beauvais
Cathedral, the enormous windows of which were filled with the richest
glass. But this building activity, which has left one of the most
notable Gothic monuments in Europe, was broken into by the Hundred
Years' War. Jean de Marigny, a successful administrator and man of
affairs rather than a saintly churchman, was made one of the king's
lieutenants in southern France in 1341 against the English invasion. His
most important military operation, however, was when in 1346 he
successfully held out in Beauvais against a siege by the English, who
had overrun the country up to the walls of the city. Created archbishop
of Rouen in 1347 as a reward for this defence, he enjoyed his new
honours only three years; he died on the 26th of December 1350.
MARIGOLD. This name has been given to several plants, of which the
following are the best known: _Calendula officinalis_, the pot-marigold;
_Tagetes erecta_, the African marigold; _T. patula_, the French
marigold; and _Chrysanthemum segetum_, the corn marigold. All these
belong to the order Compositae; but _Caltha palustris_, the marsh
marigold, belongs to the order Ranunculaceae.
The first-mentioned is the familiar garden plant with large
orange-coloured blossoms, and is probably not known in a wild state.
There are now many fine garden varieties of it. The florets are
unisexual, the "ray" florets being female, the "disk" florets male. This
and the double variety have been in cultivation for at least three
hundred years, as well as a proliferous form, _C. prolifera_, or the
"fruitful marigolde" of Gerard (_Herball_, p. 602), in which small
flower-heads proceed from beneath the circumference of the flower. The
figure of "the greatest double marigold," _C. multiflora maxima_, given
by Gerard (loc. cit. p. 600) is larger than most specimens now seen,
being 3 in. in diameter. He remarks of "the marigolde" that it is called
_Calendula_ "as it is to be seene to flower in the calends of almost
euerie moneth." It was supposed to have several specific virtues, but
they are non-existent. "The marigold, that goes to bed wi' the sun," is
mentioned by Shakespeare, _Winter's Tale_, iv. 3.
_Tagetes patula_, and _T. erecta_, the French and African marigolds, are
natives of Mexico, and are equally familiar garden plants, having been
long in cultivation. Gerard figures five varieties of _Flos africanus_,
of the single and double kind (loc. cit., p. 609). Besides the above
species the following have been introduced later, _T. lucida_, _T.
signata_, also from Mexico, and _T. tenuifolia_ from Peru.
_Chrysanthemum segetum_, the yellow corn marigold, is indigenous to
Great Britain, and is frequent in corn-fields in most parts of England.
When dried it has been employed as hay. It is also used in Germany for
dyeing yellow. Gerard observes that in his day "the stalke and leaues of
Corne Marigolde, as Dioscorides saith, are eaten as other potherbes
are."
_Caltha palustris_, the marsh marigold, or king-cups, the "winking
Mary-buds" of Shakespeare (_Cymb._, ii. 3), is a common British plant in
marshy meadows and beside water. It bears smooth heart-shaped leaves,
and flowers with a golden yellow calyx but no corolla, blossoming in
March and April. The flower-buds preserved in salted vinegar are a good
substitute for capers. A double-flowered variety is often cultivated,
and is occasionally found wild.
MARIINSK, a town of Russia, in West Siberia and the government of Tomsk,
on the bank of the Kiya river and on the Siberian railway, 147 m. E.S.E.
of Tomsk. Pop. (1897), 8300. It is built of timber, but has a stately
cathedral. There are tanneries and soapworks; and Mariinsk is an
entrepôt for the goldmines.
MARILLAC, CHARLES DE (c. 1510-1560), French prelate and diplomatist,
came of a good family of Auvergne, and at the age of twenty-two was
advocate at the parlement of Paris. Suspected, however, of sympathizing
with the reformers, he deemed it prudent to leave Paris, and in 1535
went to the East with his cousin Jean de la Forêt, the first French
ambassador at Constantinople. Cunning and ambitious, he soon made his
mark, and his cousin having died during his embassy, Marillac was
appointed his successor. He did not return from the East until 1538,
when he was sent almost immediately to England, where he remained
ambassador until 1543. He retained his influence during the reign of
Henry II., fulfilling important missions in Switzerland and at the
imperial court (1547-1551), and at the courts of the German princes
(1553-1554). In 1555 he was one of the French deputies at the
conferences held at Mark near Ardres to discuss peace with England. His
two last missions were at Rome (1557) and at the Diet of Augsburg
(1559). In 1550 he was given the bishopric of Vannes, and in 1557 the
archbishopric of Vienne; he also became a member of the privy council.
He distinguished himself as a statesman at the Assembly of Notables at
Fontainebleau in 1560, when he delivered an exceedingly brilliant
discourse, in which he opposed the policy of violence and demanded a
national council and the assembly of the states general. Irritated by
his opposition, the Guises compelled him to leave the court, and he died
on the 2nd of December of the same year.
His works include: _Discours sur la roupture de la Trefve en l'an
1556_ (Paris, 1556), and "Sommaire de l'ambassade en Allemagne de feu
M^r. l'archévesque de Vienne en l'an 1550," published in Ranke's
_Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation_, vol. vi. (Leipzig,
1882). See J. Kaulek, _Correspondance politique de Castillon et
Marillac (1537-1542)_ (Paris, 1885); P. de Vassière, _Charles de
Marillac_ (Paris, 1896).
MARINES (from Lat. _mare_, sea), the technical term for sea-soldiers,
i.e. troops appropriated and specially adapted to the requirements of
maritime war. This force--formerly (1694) styled "mariners"--is in
origin, use and application peculiarly British. The only other nation
possessing a special force discharging exactly similar functions is the
United States (see below). In the armed forces of the great European
Powers marines and marine artillery are mentioned, but these troops have
little in common with British and American marines. In France their
duties are to garrison military forts and colonies and take part in
marine and other wars. In Germany they are used for coast defence. In
Holland, Austria and Italy they have a military organization, but not as
complements of sea-going ships.
The origin of the British marine force was an order in council 1664,
directing "1200 Land souldgers to be forthwith rayzed to be in readiness
to be distributed in His Majesty's fleete prepared for sea service."
This body was named the "Admiral's regiment." At this period land
warfare had developed a system and was waged by men organized,
disciplined and trained. Sea warfare was left "to every man's own
conceit." War-ships were built to be manned in a hurry, by "the press,"
when needed. Men were thus obtained by force and grouped without
organization or previous training in ships. When no longer required they
were turned adrift. The administration of England's fleet was "a prodigy
of wastefulness, corruption and indolence; no estimate could be trusted,
no contract was performed, no check was enforced." Such officers as had
been "bred to the sea seemed a strange and savage race." They robbed the
king and cheated the seamen. As regards land force, it was a violation
of the law to keep at home in the king's pay "any other body of armed
men, save as a guard for the royal person." On the other hand it was
"illegal to land press men" in a foreign country, but soldiers "only
required a little persuasion to land." Thus by thrusting into naval
chaos and confusion a nucleus of disciplined, trained and organized
land troops, an expedient was found which offered a solution of the many
political and administrative difficulties of the time. This "Admiral's
regiment." was the germ which by a constant process of evolution during
a period of over 235 years has produced not merely the marine forces,
but the royal navy, organized, disciplined and trained as it is to-day.
In 1668 the experiment of the Admiral's regiment was extended. At a
council held "to discourse about the fitness for entering men presently
for manning the fleete," King Charles II. "cried very civilly, 'If ever
you intend to man the fleet without being cheated by the captains and
pursers, you may go to bed and resolve never to have it manned.'" This
seems to throw some light on the council's order a few days later "to
draw out and furnish such numbers of His Majesty's Foot Guards for His
Majesty's service at sea this summer, as H.R.H. the duke of York, lord
high admiral of England, shall from time to time desire." The men were
to be paid and accounted for by their own officers. This maritime force
subsequently disappeared, but two new regiments of "marines" were raised
in 1694, the House of Commons directing they "were to be employed in the
service of the navy only." One regiment only was to be on shore at a
time, and to be employed in the dockyards with extra pay. None of the
officers were to be sea commanders, save two colonels. The intention was
to make these regiments feeders for the navy, captains being ordered to
report periodically "the names of such soldiers as shall in any measure
be made seamen, and how far each of them is qualified toward being an
able seaman." In 1697 these regiments were disbanded, but early in the
reign of Queen Anne a number of regiments of marines were raised, and
independent companies of marines were also enlisted in the West Indies.
At the peace of Utrecht (1713) the marines were disbanded, but
reappeared in 1739 as part of the army; and in 1740 three regiments of
marines were raised in America, the colonels being appointed by the
crown, the captains by the provinces. In 1747 the marine regiments were
transferred from the control of the secretary at war to that of the
admiralty, and the next year once more wholly disappeared on the treaty
of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748).
During the preceding period of fifty-four years the marine force
appeared and disappeared with war. It was a military body, applied to
naval purposes. Its main functions were three-fold--(1) for fighting in
ships; (2) for seizing and holding land positions necessary or
advantageous to the naval operations of war; (3) for maintaining
discipline of the ships, and by "expertness in handling arms to incite
our seamen to the imitation of them." Incidentally the force came to be
regarded as so good a feeder for the navy that Admiral Vernon (1739)
urged "the necessity of converting most of our marching regiments into
marines, and if, as they became seamen they were admitted to be
discharged as such, that would make a good nursery for the breeding of
them."
The organization of the force was purely military. Regiments were
embarked in fleets, and distributed in the ships. The officers were
interchangeable with those of the guards and line. John Churchill
(afterwards duke of Marlborough) and George Rooke (afterwards Admiral
Sir George Rooke) were together at one time ensigns of marines. During
this period the marines were never regarded as a reserve for the fleet.
The navy in peace did without them. The necessities of maritime war
demanded a mobile military force adapted to naval conditions and at
naval disposal, and so in all naval operations during these eighty-four
years the marines played a conspicuous part. The navy had been slowly
groping towards a system. For example, sea officers had been granted a
uniform, and a naval academy (1729) had been established for the
education of young gentlemen for the sea service. But in its main
features the navy remained in 1748 as it was in 1664. The sailor was
kidnapped and forced into ships, to become an outcast when no longer
wanted. The marine when not in a ship was comfortably housed and looked
after by his officers in barracks on shore.
In 1755 the marine force once more reappeared under the Admiralty, and
from that date its history has been continuous. But the regimental
system was abandoned, and an entirely new principle of organization was
applied. Companies were raised, and these companies were grouped into
great depots, called divisions, at Portsmouth, Plymouth and Chatham. At
these divisions this force could be increased and reduced at pleasure,
without disturbing the basis of organization, and from them could be
supplied as many or as few sea-soldiers as fleets or ships needed, while
preserving in the varying units so provided all the essentials of
uniformity of system, drill, training, ties of comradeship and _esprit
de corps_. This force then and for ninety-eight years afterwards was the
only continuously trained, disciplined and organized fighting force
placed by the country at the disposal of naval officers. On the
establishment of this new marine force the purchase of commissions was
abolished, but interchange with the army was for a time permitted. When
embarked, marines were under the naval code of discipline; when on
shore, under the marine Mutiny Act, identical with that of the army.
When the seamen of the fleet mutinied at the Nore, at the close of the
18th century, and turned their officers out of the ships, the marines,
undaunted, stood firm by theirs.
Mutiny lurked beneath the deck of many a ship before and long years
after that event. The control of admirals and captains over their own
men was precarious in the extreme. This was the natural result of the
country's neglect of its seamen. The discipline of the fleet in those
days rested on the firm bayonets of the marines. What England owes to
them may be gathered from Lord St Vincent's recorded testimony: "There
never was an appeal made to them for honour, courage or loyalty, that
they did not more than realize my highest expectation. If ever real
danger should come to England, the marines will be found the country's
sheet-anchor." At his earnest solicitation the marines were made a royal
corps in 1802. It is worthy of note that in those days of masts, yards,
sails and pure seamanship, this greatest of naval statesmen, this
matchless naval strategist, whose practical experience of maritime war
was unrivalled, strenuously advocated as the true policy for England
what in these days of steam and mastless ships would be scouted and
ridiculed. It was to make service afloat as marines a part of the duty
of every regiment of the line in rotation.
Down to 1804 the marines were an infantry force; the improvement in
artillery towards the close of the century had necessitated the
occasional putting into the fleet of detachments of Royal Artillery.
This, as regards gunnery duties in the fleet, was repeating on a smaller
scale the expedient adopted in the time of Charles II. So much friction
arose between the naval and the artillery officers that a special corps
of Royal Marine Artillery was raised in 1804, on the recommendation of
Nelson. This special corps fulfilled the expectations of its founders.
It was charged with the care, equipment and working of the larger
ordnance afloat and field-guns ashore, and was employed also as a body
of gunnery instructors to the fleet. In 1831, a certain number of naval
officers being thought to be sufficiently trained in gunnery, this
corps, of which Napier wrote, "Never in my life have I seen soldiers
like the Royal Marine Artillery," was, without warning, abolished. Then
the marine force ceased to be composed of two corps, artillery and
infantry, and it reverted to a single one of infantry. Very soon
afterwards, however, the Admiralty began to build up what they had so
suddenly and ruthlessly destroyed, by ordering the conversion of one
company of each infantry marine division into artillery. The number of
these artillery companies gradually increased, and were grouped in a
separate depot. Just as the wars from Charles II. to George III. had
demanded marines, so the Crimean War led to their increase. Thus in 1859
the artillery companies of marines were formed into a separate division,
and in 1862 the old name of Royal Marine Artillery was restored.
The marines thus became once more and still remain two corps, the
official designation of the whole being Royal Marine Forces. In 1855 the
marine infantry corps became light infantry, and in 1869 the Woolwich
division (added in 1805) was abolished; and more recently a marine
depot, as a feeder of the other divisions, was established at Walmer.
The headquarters of the R.M.A. are at Eastney, Southsea. The divisions
R.M.L.I. are at Gosport, Chatham and Devonport. The uniform of the
R.M.A. is blue with red facings, that of R.M.L.I. red with blue facings.
The badge of both corps is the globe surrounded with the laurel wreath,
with the motto "Per mare per terram." The Royal Marine Forces share with
the 3rd Battalion Grenadier Guards, the East Kent Regiment (formerly the
Buffs), and the Royal London Militia the privilege of marching through
the city of London with colours flying, bands playing and bayonets
fixed. This is due to a common original association with the London
train bands.
_War Services._--To describe these would be to review the wars waged
by England by sea and by land for over 200 years. In every sea fight,
great or small, marines have taken part, and on every continent they
have served in big and little wars, sometimes as part of the army,
sometimes with naval contingents, sometimes alone.
Throughout the Napoleonic war the marines took part in every sort of
operation afloat and ashore. During the Crimean War, mortar-boat
flotillas in the Baltic and Black Sea were commanded and manned by
R.M.A., while comrades in the same corps served with the Royal
Artillery in the trenches before Sebastopol--a marine infantry brigade
occupying the heights of Balaclava. During the Indian Mutiny, marines
(artillery and infantry) served with the Naval Brigade under Peel. In
the China wars batteries and brigades of the marine force played a
prominent part, and likewise were represented in all the Egyptian and
Sudan campaigns, 1881 to 1898. In one action the R.M.A. gunners came
to the relief of the Royal Horse Artillery when exhausted, and fought
their guns; in another the R.M.A., out of the débris of the enemy's
Krupp guns captured, built up one complete gun and fought it with
effect; in the final campaign gunboats were brought up in pieces, put
together and fought by a detachment of the R.M.A.
In 1899 in the Boer War the marine artillery and infantry took part
with the Naval Brigade, maintaining their historic reputation, and at
the battle of Enslin their losses were exceptionally severe.
_Characteristics of Marine System._--The recruit first goes to the
depot at Walmer, and is trained as a soldier before joining his
division to complete instruction as a marine. His division is his
permanent military home, from which he goes on service and to which he
returns at its conclusion. Restrictions on marriage, necessary under
the army system, are not necessary in the marine forces. The permanent
home of the wife and family is not broken up by the marine going
abroad; the wife thus can continue any local goodwill in any business
her industry may secure. This fixed home enables a marine to learn a
trade in the workshops of his division which supply the clothing, &c.,
to the corps. Marines are enlisted for 12 years, and if of good
character they can re-engage to complete 21 years, entitling to
pension. The periods of service abroad for marines are shorter
(generally 3 years), but more constantly recurrent than for the army.
The administrative, as distinct from the instructional, staff
necessary for a marine division is more simple and less expensive than
that of a numerical army equivalent expressed in regiments. The system
of pay and accounts is also less complex. The following table shows
the relative proportions of marine forces to the whole navy at
different periods up to the South African War of 1899:--
+------+----------+----------+---------+------------+----------+------------------------------+
| | Navy | Marines. | | Maritime. | Percent. | |
| Year.| proper. | Officers | Grand | Peace or | Marines | Nature of Ships. |
| | Officers | and Men. | Total. | War. | to Total | |
| | and Men. | | | | Forces. | |
+------+----------+----------+---------+------------+----------+------------------------------+
| 1805 | 90,000 | 30,000 | 120,000 | War | 25 | Sailing. |
| | | | |(Trafalgar) | | |
| 1838 | 23,165 | 9,000 | 32,165 | \ | 28 | Sailing. |
| 1858 | 40,219 | 14,919 | 55,138 | > Peace | 27 | Sailing with auxiliary steam.|
| 1878 | 42,046 | 13,727 | 55,773 | | | 24 | Steam with auxiliary sail. |
| 1898 | 78,441[1]| 17,099 | 95,540 | / | 17 | Steam and mastless ships. |
+------+----------+----------+---------+------------+----------+------------------------------+
The above table indicates a gradual change in naval policy and
practice as regards marines. It will be observed that, concurrently
with the gradual disappearance of masts, sails and yards, the
proportion of marines has steadily declined. Down to very recent times
the marine spent more time ashore than afloat. Now the reverse is the
case.
By the introduction of the Continuous Service Act 1853, the
blue-jacket was placed on exactly the same footing as the marine in
respect of conditions of service and pension, and now the blue-jacket
when not afloat is quartered in barracks. The main difference between
the blue-jacket and marine is the dress and the pay. The blue-jacket
is better paid than the marine. As regards opportunity of discipline,
there is now no difference; and in short, all the reasons for the
existence of a marine force have disappeared except as regards duties
on shore incidental to naval operations of war, e.g. the holding of
ports and the seizing of minor positions necessary to prosecution of
maritime war. The facts that modern ships cannot now as formerly carry
a supernumerary force sufficient for such purposes, and are more
dependent on fixed bases of supply and repair than in old days, point
to a different method of using and applying the marine force to the
sole purpose for which they are now necessary as a distinct branch of
the naval service. If employed at the headquarters of a naval station,
their efficiency as marines could be preserved by occasional
embarcation of the officers and men in rotation. The substitution of
marine for army garrisons at coaling stations would also relieve the
army of a class of duties incidental to naval warfare which the marine
force formerly performed, and which prejudicially affects the
organization and arrangement of the army as a mobile field force.
_Marine Corps, United States._--This dates from the establishment of the
American navy. It is a wholly separate military body, though under the
control of the Navy Department. It was formed in 1775, and it has a
history of brilliant services rendered by land and sea in all the wars
of America since that date. The headquarters of the corps are at
Washington, and the strength of the corps was fixed by Act of Congress
(March 3, 1899) at 211 officers and 5920 non-commissioned officers and
men. Its organization and system are based on the British model, and the
dress corresponds to that of the United States army. The corps is
commanded by a brigadier-general who bears to the secretary a relation
similar to that of a chief of bureau. Although the organization closely
follows the army system, regimental or even permanent battalion
organizations are impracticable, owing to their numerous and
widely-separated stations. Practically all shore stations have barracks
where marines are enlisted and drilled. At these places they also do
sentry, police and orderly duties. From such stations they are sent to
ships for sea duty. Nearly all ships carry a body of marines known as
the guard, varying in size from a few men commanded by a sergeant, on
small ships, to eighty or more, with one or more commissioned officers,
on large vessels. It is customary to cause all marines to serve at sea
three of the four years of each enlistment. On board ship they perform
sentry and orderly duty, and assist in police duties. They are also
instructed in many exercises pertaining to the navy, as rowing, naval
signalling, gun drill, &c. In action they act as riflemen, and on many
ships serve a portion of the guns. When circumstances require a force to
be landed from ships present to guard American interests in foreign
countries, legations, &c., the marine guard is usually sent, though, if
numerically insufficient, sailors are landed also. Marines also garrison
places beyond the territorial limits of the United States which are
under navy control. Candidates for first enlistment must be between the
ages of 21 and 35 and unmarried, must be citizens of the United States,
be able to read, write and speak English, and pass a physical
examination. Second lieutenants are appointed from civil life after
examination or from the graduates of the Naval Academy. Promotion is by
seniority as in the navy.
Admiral Farragut's opinion that "the marine guard is one of the great
essentials of a man-of-war" is corroborated by that of Admiral Wilkes,
who considered that "marines constituted the great difference between
a man-of-war and a privateer." In the famous battles between the
"Bonhomme Richard" and "Serapis" in 1777, and in that between the
"Chesapeake" and "Shannon," the American marines displayed brilliant
gallantry; and while on the one hand they at Derne in 1803 first
planted the American flag on a fortress of the Old World, for which
exploit "Tripoli" is inscribed on their colours, they on the other
shared in the hard fighting of the Mexican War as well as all the
important coast actions of the Civil War of 1861-65. A proposal to
incorporate them with the army after the struggle met with universal
condemnation from the authorities best qualified to judge of their
value. A brigade of three battalions served in the Philippines in
1899. Their device is a globe resting on an anchor and surmounted by
an eagle. "Ever faithful" is the title which Captain Luce, the
historian of the force, appropriately applies to them.
(J. C. R. C.)