FOOTNOTES:

[1] A third column was sent out to the extreme right (3000 under

O'Reilly). This destroyed a small French detachment on the extreme

left, but took little or no part in the main battle.

[2] The Austrians, too, fighting in "linear" formation had few

reserves. About one-third only of the imperial forces in Italy was

actually engaged in the battle.

MAREOTIS (Arabic _Mariut_), the most westerly of the lakes in the Delta

of Egypt. On the narrow strip of land separating the lake from the

Mediterranean the city of Alexandria is built. (See EGYPT; and

ALEXANDRIA.)

MARE'S-TAIL, in botany, the popular name for an aquatic herb known

botanically as _Hippuris vulgaris_ (natural order Haloragaceae). It

grows on margins of lakes, ponds and similar localities, and has a

submerged stout creeping rootstock from which spring many-jointed

cylindrical stems bearing numerous narrow leaves close-set in whorls.

The minute greenish flowers are borne in the leaf-axils. Like many

fresh-water plants it has a wide distribution, occurring in arctic and

temperate regions in the northern hemisphere and reappearing in

antarctic South America.

MARET, HUGUES-BERNARD, DUC DE BASSANO (1763-1839), French statesman and

publicist, was born at Dijon. After receiving a sound education, he

entered the legal profession and became advocate at the King's Council

at Paris. The ideas of the French Revolution profoundly influenced him,

and wholly altered his career. The interest aroused by the debates of

the first National Assembly suggested to him the idea of publishing

them, conjointly with Méjean, in the _Bulletin de l'Assemblée_. The

publicist Charles Joseph Panckoucke (1736-1798), owner of the _Mercure

de France_ and publisher of the famous _Encyclopédie_ (1781), persuaded

him to merge this in a larger paper, the _Moniteur universel_, which

gained a wide repute for correctness and impartiality. He was a member

of the moderate club, the Feuillants; but after the overthrow of the

monarchy on the 10th of August 1792 he accepted an office in the

ministry of foreign affairs, where he sometimes exercised a steadying

influence. On the withdrawal of the British legation from Paris Maret

went on a mission to London, where he had a favourable interview with

Pitt on the 2nd of December 1792. All hope of an accommodation was,

however, in vain. After the execution of Louis XVI. (Jan. 21, 1793), the

chief French diplomatic agent, Chauvelin, was ordered to leave England,

while the French Convention declared war (Feb. 1, 1793). These events

precluded the possibility of success attending a second mission of Maret

to London in January. After a space, in which he held no diplomatic

post, he became ambassador of the French Republic at Naples; but, while

repairing thither with De Sémonville he was captured by the Austrians

and was kept in durance by them for some thirty months, until, at the

close of 1795, the two were set free in return for the liberation of the

daughter of Louis XVI. For a time Maret betook himself to journalism;

but he played a useful part in the negotiations for a peace with Great

Britain which went on at Lille during the summer of 1797, until the

victory of the Jacobins at Paris in the _coup d'état_ of Fructidor

(Sept. 1797) frustrated the hopes of Pitt for peace and inflicted on

Maret another reverse of fortune. On the return of Bonaparte from Egypt

in 1799 Maret joined the general's party which came to power with the

_coup d'état_ of Brumaire (Nov. 9-10, 1799).

Maret now became one of the First Consul's secretaries and shortly

afterwards secretary of state. In this position his moderation,

industry, good sense, knowledge of men and of affairs, made his services

of great value. The _Moniteur_, which became the official journal of the

state in 1800, was placed under his control. He sometimes succeeded in

toning down the hard, abrupt language of Napoleon's communications, and

in every way proved a useful intermediary. It is known that he had a

share in the drawing up of the new constitutions for the Batavian and

Italian Republics. In 1804 he became Minister; in 1807 he was named

count, and in 1809 he received the title of duc de Bassano, an honour

which marked the sense entertained by Napoleon of his strenuous toil,

especially in connexion with the diplomatic negotiations and treaties of

this period. His personal devotion to the emperor was of that absolute

unwavering kind which Napoleon highly valued; it is seen in the attempt

to defend the unworthy artifices adopted by the great man in April-May

1808 in order to make himself master of the destinies of Spain. Maret

also assisted in drawing up the constitution destined for Spain, which

the Spaniards at once rejected.

Maret accompanied Napoleon through most of his campaigns, including that

of 1809; and at its close he expressed himself in favour of the marriage

alliance with the archduchess Marie Louise of Austria, which took place

in 1810. In the spring of 1811, the duc de Bassano replaced Champagny,

duc de Cadore, as minister of Foreign Affairs. In this capacity he

showed his usual industry and devotion, concluding the treaties between

France and Austria and France and Prussia, which preceded the French

invasion of Russia in 1812. He was with Napoleon through the greater

part of that campaign; and after its disastrous conclusion helped to

prepare the new forces with which Napoleon waged the equally disastrous

campaign of 1813. But in November 1813 Napoleon replaced him by

Caulaincourt, duc de Vicence, who was thought to be more devoted to the

cause of peace and personally grateful to the emperor Alexander I. of

Russia. Maret, however, as private secretary of the emperor, remained

with his master through the campaign of 1814, as also during that of

1815. After the second restoration of the Bourbons he was exiled, and

retired to Grätz where he occupied himself with literary work. In 1820

he was allowed to return to France, and after the Revolution of 1830,

Louis Philippe, king of the French, made him a peer of France; he also

held two high offices for a few days. He died at Paris in 1839. He

shares with Daru the honour of being the hardest worker and most devoted

supporter in Napoleon's service; but it has generally been considered

that he carried devotion to the length of servility, and thus often

compromised the real interests of France. This view has been contested

by Baron Ernouf in his work _Maret, duc de Bassano_, which is the best

biography.

For Maret's mission to England in 1792 and his work at Lille in 1797,

see Augustus W. Miles, _Letters on the French Revolution_; J. H. Rose,

_The Life and Times of William Pitt_, and for other incidents of

Maret's career, the memoirs of Bourrienne, Pasquier, Méneval and

Savary (duc de Rovigo), may be consulted. Thiers's account of Maret is

in general hostile to him. (J. Hl. R.)

MARGARET (Fr. _Marguerite_, It. _Margherita_, Ger. _Margareta_, and

_Margarete_, with dim. _Grete_, _Gretchen_, _Meta_, fr. Lat.

_margarita_, Gr. [Greek: margaritês], a pearl), a female proper name,

which became very popular in all Christian countries as that of the

saint noticed below. Biographies of some who have borne it are arranged

below in the following order: saints, queens of Scotland, queens of

other countries, princesses and duchesses.

MARGARET, ST (SANCTA MARGARITA), virgin and martyr, is celebrated by the

Church of Rome on the 20th of July. According to the legend, she was a

native of Antioch, daughter of a pagan priest named Aedesius. She was

scorned by her father for her Christian faith, and lived in the country

with a foster mother keeping sheep. Olybrius, the "praeses orientis,"

offered her marriage as the price of her renunciation of Christianity.

Her refusal led to her being cruelly tortured, and after various

miraculous incidents, she was put to death. Among the Greeks she is

known as Marina, and her festival is on the 17th of July. She has been

identified with St Pelagia (q.v.)--Marina being the Latin equivalent of

Pelagia--who, according to a legend, was also called Margarito. We

possess no historical documents on St Margaret as distinct from St

Pelagia. An attempt has been made, but without success, to prove that

the group of legends with which that of St Margaret is connected is

derived from a transformation of the pagan divinity Aphrodite into a

Christian saint. The problem of her identity is a purely literary

question. The cult of St Margaret was very widespread in England, where

more than 250 churches are dedicated to her.

See _Acta sanctorum_, July, v. 24-45; _Bibliotheca hagiographica.

Latina_ (Brussels, 1899), n. 5303-5313; Frances Arnold-Forster,

_Studies in Church Dedications_ (London, 1899), i. 131-133 and iii.

19. (H. De.)

MARGARET, ST (c. 1045-1093), the queen of Malcolm III. Canmore king of

Scotland, was the daughter of the English prince Edward, son of Edmund

Ironside, and sister of Edgar Ætheling, and was probably born in

Hungary. In 1067 the widow and children of Edward fled from

Northumberland with a large number of followers and sought the

protection of the Scottish king. The marriage of Malcolm and Margaret

soon took place and was followed by several invasions of Northumberland

by the Scottish king, probably in support of the claims of his

brother-in-law Edgar. These, however, had little result beyond the

devastation of the province. Far more important were the effects of this

alliance upon the history of Scotland. A considerable portion of the old

Northumbrian kingdom had been reduced by the Scottish kings in the

previous century, but up to this time the English population had little

influence upon the ruling element of the kingdom. Malcolm's marriage

undoubtedly improved the condition of the English to a great extent, and

under Margaret's sons, Edgar, Alexander I. and David I., the Scottish

court practically became anglicized. Margaret died on the 17th of

November 1093, four days after her husband and her eldest son Edward,

who were slain in an invasion of Northumberland. She rebuilt the

monastery of Iona, and was canonized in 1251 on account of her great

benefactions to the Church.

See _Chronicles of the Picts and Scots_ (Edinburgh, 1867), edited

1876, by W. F. Skene; and W. F. Skene, _Celtic Scotland_ (Edinburgh).

MARGARET (1489-1541), queen of Scotland, eldest daughter of Henry VII.,

king of England, by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., was born

at Westminster on the 29th of November 1489. Before she was six years

old negotiations were opened, which dragged on for several years, for

marrying the princess to James IV. of Scotland, whose support of the

pretender Perkin Warbeck it was hoped to avert by such an alliance.

Eventually the marriage was celebrated in Edinburgh on the 8th of August

1503. The avaricious Henry VII. gave his daughter a scanty dowry and

quarrels on this head embittered the relations between the two kingdoms,

which the marriage, although accompanied by a treaty of perpetual peace,

did nothing to heal. The whole of Margaret's life after her marriage

with James IV. was an unending series of intrigues, first with one

political faction then with another; at one time in favour of her native

country, at another in hostility to it, her conduct being mainly

influenced at all times by considerations affecting her pocket.

Margaret was crowned at Edinburgh in March 1504. Until 1507 she had no

children; between that date and 1510 two sons and a daughter were born,

all of whom died in infancy; in 1512 she gave birth to a son who

succeeded his father as James V.; in 1514 she bore a posthumous son,

Alexander, created duke of Ross, who died in the following year. A

dispute with her brother Henry VIII. over a legacy claimed by Margaret

was a contributory cause of the war which ended at Flodden, where James

IV. was killed on the 9th of September 1513, having by his will

appointed Margaret sole guardian of her infant son, now King James V.

Scotland was divided mainly into two parties, one in favour of alliance

with England, and the other with France. The leader of the latter was

John Stewart, duke of Albany, next heir to the crown of Scotland after

Margaret's sons; Margaret herself for the most part inclined to the

English faction; and when Albany returned to Scotland from France on the

invitation of the Scottish parliament in the spring of 1514, the

conflict grew almost to civil war. Various projects for Margaret's

remarriage had already been started, Louis XII. of France and the

emperor Maximilian being proposed as suitable husbands for the young

widow, when the queen privately married Archibald Douglas, earl of

Angus, on the 6th of August 1514. The consequences of this marriage were

to alienate many of the most powerful of the nobility, especially the

earls of Arran and Home, and to make Margaret entirely dependent on the

house of Douglas; while it furnished the council with a pretext for

removing her from the regency and guardianship of the king in favour of

Albany in July 1515. Albany had to blockade Margaret in Stirling Castle

before she would surrender her sons. After being obliged to capitulate,

Margaret returned to Edinburgh, and being no longer responsible for the

custody of the king she fled to England in September, where a month

later she bore to Angus a daughter, Margaret, who afterwards became

countess of Lennox, mother of Lord Darnley and grandmother of James I.

of England.

In the summer of 1516 Margaret went to her brother's court in London,

while Angus, much to his wife's displeasure, returned to Scotland, where

he made his peace with Albany and was restored to his estates. The

rivalry between the French and English factions in Scotland was

complicated by private feuds of the Hamiltons and Douglases, the

respective heads of which houses, Arran and Angus, were contending for

the supreme power in the absence of Albany in France, where at the

instance of Henry VIII. he was detained by Francis I. Margaret,

quarrelling with her husband over money matters, sided at first with

Arran and began to agitate for a divorce from Angus. In this she was

probably aided by Albany, who had been in Rome, and who found an

unexpected ally in the queen-mother, Margaret being temporarily

alienated from the English party by her brother Henry's opposition to

her divorce. When Albany returned to Scotland in 1521 his association

with Margaret gave rise to the accusation that it was with the intention

of marrying her himself that he favoured her divorce from Angus, and it

was even suggested that she was Albany's mistress. As Albany was

strongly supported by the Scottish parliament, Angus found it necessary

to withdraw to France till 1524. During these years there was constant

warfare between the English and the Scots on the border, but in May 1524

Albany was obliged to retire to France. Henry VIII. continually aimed at

securing the person of his nephew, the king of Scots; while Margaret

veered from faction to faction without any settled policy, unless it

were the "erection" of her son, i.e. his proclamation as a reigning

sovereign, which she successfully brought about in July 1524. The

queen-mother had at this time fallen in love with Henry Stewart, second

son of Lord Avondale, whom she married immediately after obtaining her

divorce from Angus in 1527. Margaret and her new husband, who was

created Lord Methven, now became for a time the ruling influence in the

counsels of James V. But when her desire to arrange a meeting between

James and Henry VIII. in 1534 was frustrated by the opposition of the

clergy and the council, Margaret in her disappointment revealed certain

secrets to Henry which led to her being accused by her son of betraying

him for money and of acting as an English spy. In 1537 she was anxious

to obtain a divorce from Methven, and her desire was on the point of

being realized when it was defeated by the intervention of James. Two

years later she was reconciled to her husband, by whom she had no

children; and, continuing to the end to intrigue both in Scotland and

England, she died at Methven Castle on the 18th of October 1541.

See Andrew Lang, _History of Scotland_, vol. i. (London, 1900); Mary

A. E. Green, _Lives of the Princesses of England_ (6 vols., London,

1849-1855); _The Hamilton Papers_, ed. by J. Bain (2 vols., Edinburgh,

1890); John Leslie, _History of Scotland_, ed. by T. Thompson (4

vols., Edinburgh, 1830); Sir H. Ellis, _Original Letters Illustrative

of English History_ (London, 1825-1846). (R. J. M.)

MARGARET (1283-1290), titular queen of Scotland, and generally known as

the "maid of Norway," was the daughter of Eric II. king of Norway, and

Margaret, daughter of Alexander III. king of Scotland. Her mother died

soon after Margaret's birth, and in 1284 the estates of Scotland decided

that if Alexander died childless the crown should pass to his

granddaughter. In March 1286 Alexander was killed and Margaret became

queen. The English king Edward I. was closely watching affairs in

Scotland, and in 1289 a marriage was arranged between the infant queen

and Edward's son, afterwards Edward II. Margaret sailed from Norway and

reached the Orkneys, where she died about the end of September 1290. The

news of this occurrence was first made known in a letter dated the 7th

of October 1290. Some mystery, however, surrounded her death, and about

1300 a woman from Leipzig declared she was Queen Margaret. The impostor,

if she were such, was burned as a witch at Bergen.

See A. Lang, _History of Scotland_, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1904).

MARGARET (1353-1412), queen of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the daughter

of Valdemar IV. of Denmark, was born in 1353 and married ten years later

to King Haakon VI. of Norway. Her first act, after her father's death

(1375), was to procure the election of her infant son Olaf as king of

Denmark. Olaf died in 1387, having in 1380 also succeeded his father;

and in the following year Margaret, who had ruled both kingdoms in his

name, was chosen regent of Norway and Denmark. She had already given

proofs of her superior statesmanship by recovering possession of

Schleswig from the Holstein counts, who had held it absolutely for a

generation, and who now received it back indeed as a fief (by the

compact of Nyborg 1386), but under such stringent conditions that the

Danish crown got all the advantage of the arrangement. By this compact,

moreover, the chronically rebellious Jutish nobility lost the support

they had hitherto always found in Schleswig-Holstein, and Margaret, free

from all fear of domestic sedition, could now give her undivided

attention to Sweden, where the mutinous nobles were already in arms

against their unpopular king, Albert of Mecklenburg. At a conference

held at Dalaborg Castle, in March 1388, the Swedes were compelled to

accept all Margaret's conditions, elected her "Sovereign Lady and

Ruler," and engaged to accept from her any king she chose to appoint. On

the 24th of February 1389, Albert, who had returned from Mecklenburg

with an army of mercenaries, was routed and taken prisoner at Aasle near

Falköping, and Margaret was now the omnipotent mistress of three

kingdoms. Stockholm then almost entirely a German city, still held out;

fear of Margaret induced both the Mecklenburg princes and the Wendish

towns to hasten to its assistance; and the Baltic and the North Sea

speedily swarmed with the privateers of the _Viktualien brödre or

Vitalianer_, so called because their professed object was to revictual

Stockholm. Finally the Hansa intervened, and by the compact of Lindholm

(1395) Albert was released by Margaret on promising to pay 60,000 marks

within three years, the Hansa in the meantime to hold Stockholm in pawn.

Albert failing to pay his ransom within the stipulated time, the Hansa

surrendered Stockholm to Margaret in September 1398, in exchange for

very considerable commercial privileges.

It had been understood that Margaret should, at the first convenient

opportunity, provide the three kingdoms with a king who was to be her

nearest kinsman, and in 1389 she proclaimed her infant cousin, Eric of

Pomerania, king of Norway. In 1396 homage was rendered to him in Denmark

and Sweden likewise, Margaret reserving to herself the office of regent

during his minority. To weld the united kingdoms still more closely

together, Margaret summoned a congress of the three councils of state to

Kalmar in June 1397; and on Trinity Sunday, the 17th of June, Eric was

solemnly crowned king of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The proposed act of

union divided the three _Rigsraads_, but the actual deed embodying the

terms of the union never got beyond the stage of an unratified draft.

Margaret revolted at the clauses which insisted that each country should

retain exclusive possession of its own laws and customs, and be

administered by its own dignitaries, as tending in her opinion to

prevent the complete amalgamation of Scandinavia. But with her usual

prudence she avoided every appearance of an open rupture.

A few years after the union of Kalmar, Eric, now in his eighteenth year,

was declared of age and homage was rendered to him in all his three

kingdoms, but during her lifetime Margaret was the real ruler of

Scandinavia. So long as the union was insecure, Margaret had tolerated

the presence near the throne of "good men" from all three realms (the

_Rigsraad_, or council of state, as these councillors now began to be

called); but their influence was always insignificant. In every

direction the royal authority remained supreme. The offices of high

constable and earl marshal were left vacant; the _Danehoffer_ or

national assemblies fell into desuetude, and the great queen, an ideal

despot, ruled through her court officials acting as superior clerks. But

law and order were well maintained; the licence of the nobility was

sternly repressed; the kingdoms of Sweden and Norway were treated as

integral parts of the Danish state, and national aspirations were

frowned upon or checked, though Norway, as being more loyal, was treated

more indulgently than Sweden. Margaret also recovered for the Crown all

the landed property which had been alienated during the troublous days

of Valdemar IV. This so-called "reduktion," or land-recovery, was

carried out with the utmost rigour, and hundreds of estates fell into

the Crown. Margaret also reformed the Danish currency, substituting good

silver coins for the old and worthless copper tokens, to the great

advantage both of herself and the state. She had always large sums of

money to dispose of, and a considerable proportion of this treasure was

dispensed in works of charity. Margaret's foreign policy was sagaciously

circumspect, in sharp contrast with the venturesomeness of her father's.

The most tempting offer of alliance, the most favourable conjunctures,

could never move her from her system of neutrality. On the other hand

she spared no pains to recover lost Danish territory. Gotland she

purchased from its actual possessors, Albert of Mecklenburg and the

Livonian Order, and the greater part of Schleswig was regained in the

same way.

Margaret died suddenly on board her ship in Flensborg harbour on the

28th of October 1412. We know very little of her private character.

Contemporary records are both scanty and hostile to a sovereign who

squeezed the utmost out of the people. Craft and wiliness are the

qualities most generally attributed to her, coupled with the cynical

praise that "in temporal matters she was very lucky."

See _Danmarks riges historie, den senere Middelalder_, pp. 358-412

(Copenhagen, 1897-1905); Erslev, _Danmarks historie under dronning

Margrethe_ (Copenhagen, 1882-1901); Hill, _Margaret of Denmark_

(London, 1898). (R. N. B.)

MARGARET OF ANJOU (1430-1482), queen of England, daughter of René of

Anjou, titular king of Naples and Jerusalem, was born on the 23rd of

March 1430. When just fourteen she was betrothed to Henry VI. king of

England, and in the following year was brought to England and married at

Titchfield Abbey, near Southampton, on the 23rd of April 1445. On the

28th of May she was welcomed at London with a great pageant, and two

days later crowned at Westminster. Margaret's marriage had been

negotiated by William de la Pole, duke of Suffolk, and when she came to

England, Suffolk and his wife were her only friends. Naturally she fell

under Suffolk's influence, and supported his policy. This, added to her

French origin and sympathies, made her from the start unpopular. Though

clever and good-looking, she was self-willed and imperious, and without

the conciliatory manners which her difficult position required. In

almost everything she was the opposite of her gentle husband, but

entered into his educational schemes, and gave her patronage to the

foundation of Queen's College, Cambridge. Margaret's really active share

in politics began after Suffolk's fall in 1450. She not only supported

Edmond Beaufort, duke of Somerset, in his opposition to Richard of York,

but concerned herself also in the details of government, seeking not

over-wisely pecuniary benefits for herself and her friends. But as a

childless queen her influence was limited; and when at last her only

son, Edward, was born on the 13th of October 1453, her husband was

stricken with insanity. From this time she was the ardent champion of

her husband's and son's rights; to her energy the cause of Lancaster

owed its endurance, but her implacable spirit contributed to its

failure. When York's protectorate was ended by Henry's recovery in

January 1455, Margaret, not content with the restoration of Somerset and

her other friends to liberty and office, pushed her politics to

extremes. The result was the defeat of the Lancastrians at St Albans,

and for a year Margaret had to acquiesce in York's power. Yet at this

time one wrote of her: "The queen is a great and strong laboured woman,

for she spareth no pain to sue her things to an intent and conclusion to

her power" (_Paston Letters_, i. 378). All the while she was organizing

her party; and ultimately, in October 1456 at Coventry, procured some

change in the government. Though formally reconciled to York in March

1458, she continued to intrigue with her partisans in England, and even

with friends in France, like Pierre de Brezé, the seneschal of Normandy.

After the Yorkist failure at Ludlow in 1459, it was Margaret's

vindictiveness that embittered the struggle by a wholesale proscription

of her opponents in the parliament at Coventry. She was not present with

her husband at Northampton on the 10th of July 1460. After romantic

adventures, in which she owed her safety to the loyalty of a boy of

fourteen, her only companion, she escaped with her little son to

Harlech. Thence after a while she made her way to Scotland. From Mary of

Gelderland, the queen regent, she purchased the promise of help at the

price of surrendering Berwick. Margaret was still in Scotland at the

date of Wakefield, so was not, as alleged by hostile writers,

responsible for the barbarous treatment of York's body. But she at once

joined her friends, and was with the northern army which defeated

Warwick at St Albans on the 17th of February 1461; for the executions

which followed she must bear the blame. After Towton Margaret with her

husband and son once more took refuge in Scotland.

A year later she went to France, and with help from her father and Louis

XI. equipped an expedition under Pierre de Brezé. She landed in

Northumberland in October, and achieved some slight success; but when on

the way to seek further help from Scotland the fleet was overwhelmed in

a storm, and Margaret herself barely escaped in an open boat to Berwick.

In the spring she was again trying to raid Northumberland, meeting with

many hardships and adventures. Once she owed her escape from capture to

the generosity of a Yorkist squire, who carried her off on his own

horse; finally she and her son were brought to Bamburgh through the

compassionate help of a robber, whom they had encountered in the forest.

Thence in August 1463 she crossed to Sluys in Flanders. She was almost

destitute, but was courteously treated by Charles the Bold, then count

of Charolais, and so made her way to her father in France. For seven

years she lived at Saint-Michel-en-Barrois, educating her son with the

help of Sir John Fortescue, who wrote at this time: "We be all in great

poverty, but yet the queen sustaineth us in meat and drink. Her highness

may do no more than she doth" (_Works_, ii. 72, ed. Clermont). Margaret

never lost her hopes of her son's restoration. But when at last the

quarrel between Warwick and Edward IV. brought her the opportunity, it

was with difficulty that she could consent to be reconciled to so old

and bitter an enemy. After Warwick's success and Henry's restoration

Margaret still remained in France. When at last she was ready to sail

she was delayed by contrary winds. So it was only on the very day of

Warwick's defeat at Barnet (14th of April) that Margaret and Edward

landed at Weymouth. Three weeks later the Lancastrians were defeated at

Tewkesbury, and Edward was killed. Margaret was not at the battle; she

was captured a few days after, and brought to London on the 21st of May.

For five years she remained a prisoner, but was treated honourably and

for part at least of the time was in charge of her old friend the

duchess of Suffolk. Finally Louis XI. ransomed her under the Treaty of

Pecquigny, and she returned to France on the 29th of January 1476.

Margaret lived for six years at different places in Bar and Anjou, in

poverty and dependent for a pension on Louis, who made her surrender in

return her claims to her father's inheritance. She died on the 25th of

April 1482 and was buried at Angers Cathedral. René, whom she probably

never saw after 1470, had died in the previous year. During her last

years Chastellain wrote for her consolation his _Temple de Bocace_

dealing with the misfortunes of contemporary princes.

As the courageous champion of the rights of her son and her husband,

Margaret must command a certain sympathy. But she was politically

unwise, and injured their cause by her readiness to purchase foreign

help at the price of English interests. Comines wrote well of her that

she would have done more prudently if she had endeavoured to adjust the

disputes of the rival factions instead of saying "I am of this party,

and will maintain it" (_Mémoires_ vi. ch. 13). Her fierce partisanship

embittered her enemies, and the Yorkists did not hesitate to allege that

her son was a bastard. This, like the scandal concerning Margaret and

Suffolk, is baseless; the tradition, however, continued and found

expression in the _Mirror for Magistrates_ and in Drayton's _Heroical

Epistles_, as well as in Shakespeare's _Henry VI_.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For contemporary English authorities see under HENRY

VI. French authorities and especially the _Chroniques_ of George de

Chastellain, and the _Mémoires_ of Philippes de Comines contain much

that is of value. The _Letters of Margaret of Anjou_ (Camden Soc.,

1863) have small historical importance. There have been numerous

biographies, the chief is Mrs Hookham's _Life of Margaret of Anjou_

(1872). But the best modern accounts are to be found in G. du Fresne

de Beaucourt's _Histoire de Charles VII._, Dr Gairdner's Introductions

to the _Paston Letters_, Sir James Ramsay's _Lancaster and York_

(1892), and _The Political History of England_, vol. iv. (1906), by

Professor C. Oman. Dr Karl Schmidt's _Margareta von Anjou, vor und bei

Shakespeare_ (Palaestra, liv., Berlin, 1906) is a useful digest of

authorities. (C. L. K.)

MARGARET OF AUSTRIA (1480-1530), duchess of Savoy and regent of the

Netherlands from 1507 to 1530, daughter of the archduke Maximilian of

Austria, afterwards the emperor Maximilian I., was born at Brussels on

the 10th of January 1480. At two years of age she was betrothed to the

dauphin Charles, son of Louis XI. of France, and was brought up at the

French court. In 1489, however, Charles, now king as Charles VIII., to

prevent Maximilian taking as his second wife the duchess Anne of

Brittany, threw over Margaret and married the Breton heiress himself.

Her ambitious father now sought for Margaret another throne, and in

April 1497 she was married at Burgos to the Infant John, heir to the

throne of Castile and Aragon. She was left a widow, however, a few

months later. In 1501 Margaret became the wife of Philibert II., duke of

Savoy, who only survived until 1504. The sudden death of her brother the

archduke, Philip the Handsome (Sept 25, 1506), opened out to her a new

career. In 1507 she was appointed by her father regent of the

Netherlands and guardian of her nephew Charles, afterwards the emperor

Charles V. Charles came of age in 1515, but he entrusted Margaret with

the regency, as the vast extent of his dominions permitted him but

seldom to visit the Netherlands, and she continued to hold the post

until her death in 1530. She was a wise and prudent ruler, of masculine

temper and intrepidity, and very capable in affairs.

See E. Münch, _Margaretha von Österreich_ (Leipzig, 1883); Th. Juste,

_Charles-Quint et Marguérite d'Autriche_ (Brussels, 1858); A. Le Glay,

_Maximilien I. et Marguérite d'Autriche_ (with correspondence, Paris,

1839); De Quinsonas, _Matériaux pour servir à l'histoire de Marguérite

d'Autriche_ (Paris, 1855), and E. E. Tremayne, _The First Governors of

the Netherlands: Margaret of Austria_ (1908).

MARGARET OF AUSTRIA (1522-1586), duchess of Parma and regent of the

Netherlands from 1559 to 1567, was a natural daughter of Charles V. Her

mother, Margaret van Ghent, was a Fleming. She was brought up by her

aunts Margaret of Austria and Maria of Hungary, who were successively

regents of the Netherlands from 1507 to 1530 and from 1530 to 1555. In

1533 she was married to Alexander de' Medici, duke of Florence, who was

assassinated in 1537, after which she became the wife of Ottavio

Farnese, duke of Parma, in 1542. The union proved an unhappy one. Like

her aunts, who had trained her, she was a woman of masculine abilities,

and Philip II., when he left the Netherlands in 1559 for Spain, acted

wisely in appointing her regent. In ordinary times she would probably

have proved as successful a ruler as her two predecessors in that post,

but her task was very different from theirs. She had to face the rising

storm of discontent against the Inquisition and Spanish despotism, and

Philip left her but nominal authority. He was determined to pursue his

own arbitrary course, and the issue was the revolt of the Netherlands.

In 1567 Margaret resigned her post into the hands of the duke of Alva

and retired to Italy. She had the satisfaction of seeing her son

Alexander Farnese appointed to the office she had laid down, and to

watch his successful career as governor-general of the Netherlands. She

died at Ortona in 1586.

See L. P. Gachard, _Correspondance de Marguérite d'Autriche avec

Phillippe II. 1554-1568_ (Brussels, 1867-1887); R. Fruin, _Het

voorspel van den tachtig jarigen vorlog_ (Amsterdam, 1856); E.

Rachfahl, _Margaretha von Parma, Statthalterin der Niederlande,

1559-1567_ (Munich, 1895); also bibliography in _Cambridge Modern

History_, iii. 795-809 (1904).

MARGARET OF PROVENCE (1221-1295), queen of France, was the daughter of

Raymond Berenger V., count of Provence. She was married to Saint Louis

at Sens on the 27th of May 1234, and was crowned the next day. Blanche

of Castile, the queen-mother, arranged the marriage to win over to the

cause of France the powerful count of Provence, but treated her

daughter-in-law most unkindly, and her jealousy of the energetic young

queen was naturally shared by Louis, whose coldness towards and

suspicion of his wife are well known. Margaret did not lack courage, she

followed the king on his crusade, and bore herself heroically at

Damietta. But her ambition and strong personal prejudices often led her

to actions injurious to the realm. This is most noticeable in her

hostility to her brother-in-law Charles of Anjou, who had married her

sister Beatrice, and her devotion to Henry III. of England, who had

married her other sister Eleanor. Aspiring during the reign of her son

to the same rôle which she had seen Blanche of Castile play, she

induced, in 1263, the young Philip, heir to the throne, to promise to

obey her in everything up to the age of thirty; and Saint Louis was

obliged to ask for a bull from Urban IV. which would release the prince

from his oath. After Saint Louis' death, Margaret continued obstinately

to claim her rights on the county of Provence against Charles of Anjou.

She sought to employ force of arms, calling upon her son, her nephew

Edward II. of England, and the German king Rudolph of Habsburg. She did

not give up her claim until after the death of Charles of Anjou (1285),

when Philip the Bold succeeded in getting her to accept an income from

the county of Anjou in exchange for her rights in Provence. She died on

the 31st of December 1295.

See E. Boutaric, _Marguérite de Provence_, in _Revue des questions

historiques_ (1867), pp. 417-458.

MARGARET MAULTASCH (1318-1369), countess of Tirol, who received the name

of Maultasch (pocket-mouth) on account of the shape of her mouth, was

the daughter and heiress of Henry, duke of Carinthia and count of Tirol.

When Henry died in 1335 Carinthia passed to Albert II., duke of Austria;

but Tirol was inherited by Margaret and her young husband, John Henry,

son of John, king of Bohemia, whom she had married in 1330. This union

was not a happy one, and the Tirolese disliked the government of

Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles IV., who ruled the county for

his brother. The result was that John Henry was driven from Tirol, and

Margaret's cause was espoused by the emperor Louis IV., who was anxious

to add the county to his possessions. Declaring her marriage dissolved

on the ground that it had not been consummated, Louis married Margaret

in 1342 to his own son Louis, margrave of Brandenburg. But as this

action on the emperor's part entrenched on the privileges of the Church,

Pope Clement VI. placed father and son under the ban, from which they

were not released until 1359. In 1361 Margaret's husband died, followed

two years later by her only son, Meinhard, when she handed over Tirol to

Rudolph IV., duke of Austria, and retired to Vienna, where she died on

the 3rd of October 1369. She lived long in the memory of the people of

Carinthia, who regarded her as an amazon, and called her the _Wicked

Gretl_.

See A. Huber, _Geschichte der Vereinigung Tirols mit Oesterreich_

(Innsbruck, 1864).

MARGARINE, the name, first given by Chevreul, to an artificial

substitute for butter, made from beef and other animal fats, and

sometimes mixed with real butter. The name of "butterine" has also been

used. Artificial butter, or "margarine-mouries," was for some years

manufactured in Paris according to a method made public by the eminent

chemist Mège-Mouries. Having surmised that the formation of butter

contained in milk was due to the absorption of fat contained in the

animal tissues, he was led to experiment on the splitting up of animal

fat. The process he ultimately adopted consisted in heating finely

minced beef suet with water, carbonate of potash, and fresh sheep's

stomach cut up into small fragments. The mixture he raised to a

temperature of 45° C. (113° F.). The influence of the pepsine of the

sheep's stomach with the heat separated the fat from the cellular

tissue; he removed the fatty matter, and submitted it when cool to

powerful hydraulic pressure, separating it into stearin and

oleomargarin, which last alone he used for butter-making. Of this fat

about the proportions of 10 lb. with 4 pints of milk, and 3 pints of

water were placed in a churn, to which a small quantity of anatto was

added for colouring, and the whole churned together. The compound so

obtained when well washed was in general appearance, taste and

consistency like ordinary butter, and when well freed from water it was

found to keep a longer time. Margarine is a perfectly wholesome

butter-substitute, and is now largely used, but the ease with which it

may be passed off as real butter has led to much discussion and

legislative action. (See ADULTERATION.)

MARGARITA, an island in the Caribbean Sea belonging to Venezuela, about

12 m. N. of the peninsula of Araya, and constituting, under the

constitution of 1904,--with Tortuga, Cubagua and Coche--a political

division called the Eastern Federal District. The island is about 40 m.

long from east to west, has an area of 400 sq. m., and consists of two

mountainous extremities, nearly separated by the Laguna Grande on the

south, but connected by a low, narrow isthmus. The highest elevation on

the island is the peak of Macanao, 4484 ft., in the western part, the

highest point in the eastern part being the peak of Copei, 4170 ft. The

higher valleys of the interior are highly fertile and are well adapted

to grazing and stock-raising. The principal industries are fishing and

the making of salt. The pearl fisheries, which were so productive in the

16th and 17th centuries, are no longer important. A domestic industry of

the women is that of making coarse straw hats, which are sold on the

mainland. The products of Margarita, however, are insufficient to

support its population, and large numbers periodically emigrate to the

mainland, preventing the increase in population which its healthful

climate favours. The population was estimated in 1904 at 40,000,

composed in great part of half-caste Guayqueri Indians. The capital is

Asunción (pop. about 3000), on the east side of the island, and its

principal port is Pompatar on the south coast. The two small ports of

Puebla de la Mar (_Porlamar_) and Puebla del Norte are merely open

roadsteads.

The island of Margarita (from Span. _Margarita_, pearl) was discovered

by Columbus in 1498, and was bestowed in 1524 upon Marceto Villalobos by

Charles V. In 1561 the freebooter Lope de Aguirre ravaged the island,

and in 1662 the town of Pompatar was destroyed by the Dutch. For a long

time Margarita was attached to Cumana, but in the eighteenth century it

was made administratively independent. Its traders and sailors rendered

invaluable assistance to the revolutionists in the war of independence,

and the Spanish general, Morillo, was driven from its shores in 1817; in

recognition of this it was made a separate state and was renamed Nueva

Esparta (New Sparta). In 1904-1909 it was a part of the Federal District

with Asunción as its capital. The first Spanish settlement in South

America was Nueva Cadiz, founded in 1515 on the barren island of

Cubagua; but the place was abandoned when pearl-fishing and

slave-trading ceased to be profitable.

MARGATE, a municipal borough and seaside resort in the Isle of Thanet

parliamentary division of Kent, England, 74 m. E. by S. of London by the

South Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1891), 18,662; (1901), 23,118. It

lies on the north coast of Thanet, and is practically contiguous with

Westgate on the west and with Broadstairs on the south-east, owing to

the modern extension of these popular watering-places. An electric

tramway connects Margate with Broadstairs and Ramsgate, and during the

season it is served by numerous pleasure steamers from London. An

esplanade faces the sea along nearly the entire front of the town, and

is lined with hotels, shops and dwelling-houses. A jetty exceeding a

quarter of a mile in length permits the approach of vessels at all

tides. It was built in 1854 and subsequently enlarged, but a pier was

constructed by John Rennie in 1815, and is now chiefly used by fishermen

and colliers. The church of St John the Baptist, founded in 1050,

contains some portions of Norman architecture, the remainder being

Decorated and Perpendicular. It is rich in ancient brasses and

monuments, including a brass to Sir John Daundelyon (1443), whose family

occupied a manor in the neighbourhood as early as the 13th century. The

manor house of Daundelyon, or Dent de Lion, with its gateway of the

early part of the 15th century, remains between Margate and Westgate.

Charitable institutions include a deaf and dumb asylum (1875-1886), the

Metropolitan infirmary for children (1841), and the royal sea-bathing

infirmary, established in 1791 and enlarged through the munificence of

Sir Erasmus Wilson in 1882. Dane Park (33 acres) was opened in 1898.

Margate (Meregate, Mergate), formerly a small fishing village, was an

ancient and senior non-corporate member of Dover. In 1347 it contributed

15 ships of small tonnage at the time of the siege of Calais. Throughout

the 14th century references are made to Margate in crown regulations

regarding fisheries and shipping. A pier existed before 1500, but by the

reign of Henry VIII. it was in a decayed condition. The amount of corn

shipped was evidently small, the droits being insufficient to keep the

pier in repair. Under Elizabeth Margate was still an obscure fishing

village employing about 20 small vessels ("hoys") in the coasting and

river trades, chiefly in the conveyance of grain, on which in 1791 it

chiefly subsisted. The droits increased, but were not properly collected

until 1724. In 1777 the pier was rebuilt. It was about this time that

Margate first began to be known as a bathing-place owing to its fine

stretch of firm sand. In 1835 Margate was still a liberty of Dover and

no right of citizenship could be acquired. In 1857 it was incorporated.

In 1777 a weekly market was granted on Wednesday and Saturday. It is now

held daily, but principally on those two days.

MARGGRAF, ANDREAS SIGISMUND (1709-1782), German chemist, was born at

Berlin on the 3rd of March 1709. After studying chemistry at Berlin and

Strassburg, medicine at Halle, and mineralogy and metallurgy at

Freiberg, he returned to his native city in 1735 as assistant to his

father, Henning Christian Marggraf, chief apothecary at the court. Three

years later he was elected to the Berlin Academy of Sciences, which in

1754 put him in charge of its chemical laboratory and in 1760 appointed

him director of its physics class. He died in Berlin on the 7th of

August 1782. His name is especially associated with the discovery of

sugar in beetroot. In 1747 he published an account of experiments

undertaken with the definite view of obtaining true sugar from

indigenous plants, and found that for this purpose the first place is

taken by beetroot and carrot, that in those plants sugar like that of

cane exists ready formed, and that it may be extracted by boiling the

dried roots in alcohol, from which it is deposited on cooling. This

investigation is also memorable because he detected the minute

sugar-crystals in the roots by the help of the microscope, which was

thus introduced as an adjunct to chemical inquiry. In another research

dealing with the nature of alum he showed that one of the constituents

of that substance, alumina, is contained in common clay, and further

that the salt cannot be prepared by the action of sulphuric acid on

alumina alone, the addition of an alkali being necessary. He explained

and simplified the process of obtaining phosphorus from urine, and made

some admirable observations on phosphoric acid; but though he noted the

increase in weight that attends the conversion of phosphorus into

phosphoric acid he was content to remain an adherent of the phlogistic

doctrine. For his time he was a skilful chemical analyst; he knew how to

distinguish potash and soda by the different colorations they produce in

flame, and how to test for iron with prussiate of potash: he was aware

that sulphate of potash, gypsum and heavy spar, in spite of their

different appearances, all contain sulphuric acid; and he recognized

that there are different varieties of urinary calculi. In metallurgy he

devised improved methods for the manufacture of zinc and the

purification of silver, tin and other metals.

His papers, mostly written in French, were presented to the Berlin

Academy, and with the exception of a few of the latest were collected

in two volumes of _Chymische Schriften_ in 1761-1767.

MARGHELAN, or MARGHILAN, a town of Asiatic Russia, situated in 40° 28´

N. and 71° 45´ E., the administrative centre of the province of

Ferghana. Pop. (1900), 42,855, mostly Sarts, with Tajiks and Jews. It is

a very old town, with high earthen walls and twelve gates, commanded by

a fort. It lies in a beautiful, extraordinary fertile and well irrigated

district. The heat in summer is excessive. The principal industry is the

manufacture of silk; camels' hair and woollen fabrics are also made. The

new Russian town, founded in 1877, is 10 m. distant to the south-east,

and has a population (1897) of 8977.

MARGRAVE (Ger. _Markgraf_), a German title meaning literally "count of

the March" (Lat. _marchio_, _comes marchae_, _marchisus_). The margraves

had their origin in the counts established by Charlemagne and his

successors to guard the frontier districts of the empire, and for

centuries the title was always associated with this function. The

margraves had within their own jurisdiction the authority of dukes, but

at the outset they were subordinate to the dukes in the feudal army of

the empire. In the 12th century, however, the margraves of Brandenburg

and Austria (the north and east marks) asserted their position as

tenants-in-chief of the empire; with the break-up of the great duchies

the others did the same; and the margraves henceforward took rank with

the great German princes. The title of margrave very early lost its

original significance, and was borne by princes whose territories were

in no sense frontier districts, e.g. by Hermann, a son of Hermann,

margrave of Verona, who assumed in 1112 the title of margrave of Baden.

Thus, too, when the elector Albert Achilles of Brandenburg in 1473 gave

Bayreuth and Ansbach as apanages to his sons and their descendants these

styled themselves margraves. The title, however, retained in Germany its

sovereign significance, and has not, like "marquis" in France and

"marchese" in Italy, sunk into a mere title of nobility; it is not,

therefore, in its present sense the equivalent of the English title

"marquess." The German margraviates have now all been absorbed into

other sovereignties, and the title margrave is borne only as a

subsidiary title in the full style of their sovereigns.

MARGUERITE, the popular name for the plant known botanically as

_Pyrethrum_ (or _Chrysanthemum_) _frutescens_ (natural order

Compositae), a shrubby perennial with smooth leaves cut pinnately into

narrow segments and flower-heads two to three inches across produced

singly in summer and autumn on slender erect stalks. The white

ray-florets surround a yellow disk. It is a native of the Canary Isles,

and a favourite for decoration and for greenhouse cultivation,

window-boxes and open ground in the summer. The yellow marguerite

(_étoile d'or_) has somewhat larger pale yellow flowers and glaucous

leaves. The plant is propagated from cuttings taken in autumn from old

plants and placed in sandy loamy soil in cold frames. By pruning the

shoots in autumn the plants may be grown into very large specimens in

the course of a few seasons.

MARGUERITE DE VALOIS. The name Marguerite was common in the Valois

dynasty, and during the 16th century there were three princesses, all of

whom figure in the political as well as in the literary history of the

time, and who have been not unfrequently confounded. The first and last

are the most important, but all deserve some account.

I. MARGUERITE D'ANGOULÊME (1492-1549). This, the most celebrated of the

Marguerites, bore no less than four surnames. By family she was entitled

to the name of Marguerite de Valois; as the daughter of Charles

d'Orléans, count d'Angoulême, she is more properly, and by careful

writers almost invariably, called Marguerite d'Angoulême. From her first

husband she took, during no small part of her life, the appellation

Marguerite d'Alençon, and from her second, Henri d'Albret, king of

Navarre, that of Marguerite de Navarre. She was born at Angoulême on the

11th of April 1492, and was two years older than her brother Francis I.

She was betrothed early to Charles, duke d'Alençon, and married him in

1509. She was not very fortunate in this first marriage, but her

brother's accession to the throne made her, next to their mother Louise

of Savoy, the most powerful woman of the kingdom. She became a widow in

1525, and was sought in marriage by many persons of distinction,

including, it is said, Charles V. and Henry VIII. In 1527 she married

Henri d'Albret, titular king of Navarre, who was considerably younger

than herself, and whose character was not faultless, but who seems on

the whole, despite slander, to have both loved and valued his wife.

Navarre was not reconquered for the couple as Francis had promised, but

ample apanages were assigned to Marguerite, and at Nérac and Pau

miniature courts were kept up, which yielded to none in Europe in the

intellectual brilliancy of their frequenters. Marguerite was at once one

of the chief patronesses of letters that France possessed, and the chief

refuge and defender of advocates of the Reformed doctrines. Round her

gathered C. Marot, Bonaventure Des Périers, N. Denisot, J. Peletier, V.

Brodeau, and many other men of letters, while she protected Rabelais, E.

Dolet, &c. For a time her influence with her brother, to whom she was

entirely devoted, and whom she visited when he was imprisoned in Spain,

was effectual, but latterly political rather than religious

considerations made him discourage Lutheranism, and a fierce persecution

was begun against both Protestants and freethinkers, a persecution which

drove Des Périers to suicide and brought Dolet to the stake. Marguerite

herself, however, was protected by her brother, and her personal

inclinations seem to have been rather towards a mystical pietism than

towards dogmatic Protestant sentiments. Nevertheless bigotry and the

desire to tarnish the reputation of women of letters have led to the

bringing of odious accusations against her character, for which there is

not the smallest foundation. Marguerite died at Odot-en-Bigorre on the

21st of September 1549. By her first husband she had no children, by her

second a son who died in infancy, and a daughter, Jeanne d'Albret, who

became the mother of Henry IV. Although the poets of the time are

unwearied in celebrating her charms, she does not, from the portraits

which exist, appear to have been regularly beautiful, but as to her

sweetness of disposition and strength of mind there is universal

consent.

Her literary work consists of the _Heptameron_, of poems entitled _Les

Marguerites de la marguerite des princesses_, and of _Letters_. The

_Heptameron_, constructed, as its name indicates, on the lines of the

_Decameron_ of Boccaccio, consists of seventy-two short stories told

to each other by a company of ladies and gentlemen who are stopped in

the journey homewards from Cauterets by the swelling of a river. It

was not printed till 1558, ten years after the author's death, and

then under the title of _Les Amants fortunés_. Internal evidence is

strongly in favour of its having been a joint work, in which more than

one of the men of letters who composed Marguerite's household took

part. It is a delightful book, and strongly characteristic of the

French Renaissance. The sensuality which characterized the period

appears in it, but in a less coarse form than in the great work of

Rabelais; and there is a poetical spirit which, except in rare

instances, is absent from _Pantagruel_. The _Letters_ are interesting

and good. The _Marguerites_ consist of a very miscellaneous collection

of poems, mysteries, farces, devotional poems of considerable length,

spiritual and miscellaneous songs, &c. The _Dernières poésies_, not

printed till 1896 (by M. A. Lefranc), are interesting and

characteristic, consisting of verse-epistles, _comédies_ (pieces in

dramatic form on the death of Francis I., &c.), _Les Prisons_, a long

allegorical poem of amorous-religious-historical tenor; some

miscellaneous verse chiefly in dizains, and a later and remarkable

piece, _Le Navire_, expressing her despair at her brother's death. Of

the other works, never yet completely edited, the best editions are,

for the _Heptameron_, Leroux de Lincy (1855); for the _Lettres_, Genin

(1841-1842); and for the _Marguerites_, &c., Frank (1873). English

translations of the _Heptameron_ are rather numerous: one appeared in

1887 by A. Machen, with an introduction by Miss A. M. F. Robinson (Mme

Darmesteter) and another (anonymous) in 1894, with an essay by G.

Saintsbury. The religious poem, _Le Miroir de l'âme pécheresse_ was

translated by Queen Elizabeth. Books on Marguerite and her court are

also many. There may be noted Durand's _Marguerite de Valois et la

cour de François I^er_ (1848); La Ferrière's _Marguerite d'Angoulême_

(1891); Lotheissen's _Königin Margareta von Navarra_ (1885); Miss

Edith Sichel's _Women and Men of the French Renaissance_ (1901), and

P. Courtault's _Marguerite de Navarre_ (1904).

II. The second MARGUERITE (1523-1574), daughter of Francis I., was born

on the 5th of June, 1523, at St Germain-en-Laye, and, at an age the

lateness of which caused lampoons, married Emmanuel Philibert, duke of

Savoy, in 1559. Like her aunt and her niece she was a good scholar and

strongly interested in men of letters. She is noteworthy as having given

the chief impulse at the court of her brother Henry II. to the first

efforts of the Pléiade (see RONSARD), and as having continued her

patronage of literature at Turin. The poet Marc Antonio Flaminio, for

instance, congratulates himself in pretty Latin verses on her singing

his poems.

Her _Letters_ have been published by A. G. Spinelli.

III. The third MARGUERITE (1553-1615), called more particularly

Marguerite de Valois, was great-niece of the first and niece of the

second, being daughter of Henry II. by Catherine de' Medici. She was

born on the 14th of May 1553. When very young she became famous for her

beauty, her learning, and the looseness of her conduct. She was married,

after a liaison with the duke of Guise, to Henry of Navarre, afterwards

Henry IV., on the eve of St Bartholomew's Day. Both husband and wife

were extreme examples of the licentious manners of the time, but they

not unfrequently lived together for considerable periods, and nearly

always on good terms. Later, however, Marguerite was established in the

castle of Usson in Auvergne, and after the accession of Henry the

marriage was dissolved by the pope. But Henry and Marguerite still

continued friends; she still bore the title of queen; she visited Marie

de' Medici on equal terms; and the king frequently consulted her on

important affairs, though his somewhat parsimonious spirit was grieved

by her extravagance. Marguerite exhibited during the rest of her life,

which was not a short one, the strange Valois mixture of licentiousness,

pious exercises, and the cultivation of art and letters, and died in

Paris on the 27th of March 1615. She left letters and memoirs the latter

of which are admirably written, and rank among the best of the 16th

century. She was the idol of Pierre de Bourdeille Brantôme, and is the

"Reine Margot" of anecdotic history and romance.

The _Mémoires_ are contained in the collection of Michaud and

Poujoulat, and have been published separately by Guessard (the best,

1842), Lalanne, Caboche, &c. An English translation with introduction

by Violet Fane appeared in 1892. Her character, and still more her

circumstances, made the pen very unamiably busy with her in her

lifetime, the chief of many lampoons being the famous _Divorce

satirique_, variously attributed to Agrippa d'Aubigné, Palma Cayet,

and others. The chief recent book on her is Saint Poucy's _Histoire de

Marguerite de Valois_ (1887). (G. Sa.)

MARGUERITTE, PAUL (1860- ) and VICTOR (1866- ), French novelists,

both born in Algeria, were the sons of General Jean Auguste Marguerite

(1823-1870), who after an honourable career in Algeria was mortally

wounded in the great cavalry charge at Sedan, and died in Belgium, on

the 6th of September 1870. An account of his life was published by Paul

Marguerite as _Mon père_ (1884; enlarged ed., 1897). The names of the

two brothers are generally associated, on account of their

collaboration. Paul Marguerite, who has given a picture of his home in

Algiers in _Le Jardin du passé_ (1895), was sent to the military school

of La Flèche for the sons of officers, and became in 1880 clerk to the

minister of public instruction. He designed two pantomimes, _Pierrot

assassin de sa femme_ (Théâtre Libre, 1882), and _Colombine pardonnée_

(Cercle funambulesque, 1888), in which the traditional Pierrot, played

by Margueritte himself, became a nervous, tragic creature. He resigned

his clerkship in 1889 to devote himself entirely to literature,

producing in rapid succession a series of novels, among which were _Tous

quatre_ (1885), _La Confession posthume_ (1886), _Maison ouverte_

(1887), _Pascal Géfosse_ (1887), _Jours d'épreuve_ (1889), _Amants_

(1890), _La Force des choses_ (1891), _Sur le retour_ (1892), _La

Tourmente_ (1893), _Ma grande_ (1892), _Âme d'enfant_ (1894) and _L'Eau

qui dort_ (1896). Paul Margueritte had begun as a realistic novelist,

but he was one of the five writers who signed a manifesto against Zola's

_La Terre_, and he made his reputation by delicate, sober studies of the

by-ways of sentiment. His brother Victor entered his father's regiment,

the 1st chasseurs d'Afrique, in 1888, and served in the army until 1896,

when he resigned his commission. He was already known by some volumes of

poetry, and by a translation from Calderon (_La Double méprise_, played

at the Odéon, 1898) when he began to collaborate with his brother. From

the time of this collaboration Paul Margueritte's work gained in colour

and force.

Among the books written in common by the brothers, the most famous is

the series known under the collective title, _Une Époque_, dealing with

the events of 1870-1871, and including the novels _Le Désastre_ (1898),

_Les Tronçons du glaive_ (1900), _Les Braves gens_ (1901), _La Commune_

(1904). They also collaborated in an _Histoire de la guerre de

1870-1877_ (1903). These books were founded on a mass of documentary and

verbal information, amassed with great care and arranged with admirable

art; the authors are historians rather than novelists. The disasters and

humiliations of the campaigns are faithfully described, but are traced

to defects of organization and leadership; while the courage and

patriotism of the army itself is made the basis of an assured confidence

in the destinies of France. _La Commune_ is a bold indictment of the

methods adopted by the victorious party. The novelists also attacked the

laws governing marriage and divorce and the abuses entailed by the dowry

demanded from the bride, in pamphlets and in the novels, _Femmes

nouvelles_ (1899), _Les Deux vies_ (1902), and _Le Prisme_ (1905). Their

literary partnership was dissolved in 1907. Paul Marguerite was one of

the original members of the Académie de Goncourt.

See _P. et V. Margueritte_ (1905) by E. Pilon, in the series of

_Célébrités d'aujourd'hui_, and A. France, _La Vie littéraire_ (4th

series, 1892).

MARHEINEKE, PHILIP KONRAD (1780-1846), German Protestant divine, was

born at Hildesheim, Hanover, on the 1st of May 1780. He studied at

Göttingen, and in 1805 was appointed professor extraordinarius of

philosophy at Erlangen; in 1807 he moved to Heidelberg. In 1811 he

became professor ordinarius at Berlin, where from 1820 he was also

preacher at Trinity Church and worked with Schleiermacher. When he died,

on the 31st of May 1846, he was a member of the supreme consistorial

council. At first influenced by Schelling, Marheineke found a new master

in Hegel, and came to be regarded as the leader of the Hegelian Right.

He sought to defend and explain all the orthodox doctrines of the Church

in an orthodox way in the terms of Hegel's philosophy. The dogmatic

system that resulted from this procedure was inevitably more Hegelian

than Christian; it was in fact an essentially new form of Christianity.

Marheineke's developed views on dogmatics are given in the third edition

(1847) of his _Die Grundlehren der christlichen Dogmatik als

Wissenschaft_. When he published the first edition (1819) he was still

under the influence of Schelling; the second edition (1827) marked his

change of view. His works on symbolics show profound scholarship, keen

critical insight, and rare impartiality. The _Christliche Symbolik_

(1810-1814) has been pronounced his masterpiece.

His other works include _Institutiones symbolicae_ (1812; 3rd ed.,

1830), _Geschichte der deutschen Reformation_ (1816; 2nd ed.,

1831-1834); _Die Reformation, ihre Entstehung und Verbreitung in

Deutschland_ (1846; 2nd ed., 1858), and the posthumous _Theol.

Vorlesungen_ (1847-1849).

See F. Lichtenberger, _History of German Theology_ (1889); A. Weber,

_Le Système dogmatique de Marheineke_ (1857); and cf. O. Pfleiderer,

_Development of Theology in Germany_ (1890).

MARIANA, JUAN DE (1536-1624), Spanish historian, was born at Talavera.

He studied at the university of Alcalá, and was admitted at the age of

seventeen into the Society of Jesus. In 1561 he went to teach theology

in Rome, reckoning among his pupils Robert Bellarmine, afterwards

cardinal; then passed into Sicily; and in 1569 he was sent to Paris,

where his expositions of the writings of Thomas Aquinas attracted large

audiences. In 1574, owing to ill health, he obtained permission to

return to Spain; the rest of his life being passed at the Jesuits' house

in Toledo in vigorous literary activity. He died at Madrid, on the 17th

of February 1624.

Mariana's great work, _Historiae de rebus Hispaniae_, first appeared

in twenty books at Toledo in 1592; ten books were subsequently added

(1605), bringing the work down to the accession of Charles V. in 1519,

and in a still later abstract of events the author completed it to the

accession of Philip IV. in 1621. It was so well received that Mariana

was induced to translate it into Spanish (the first part in 1601;

completed, 1609; Eng. trans., by J. Stevens, 1699). Mariana's

_Historiae_, though in many parts uncritical, is justly esteemed for

its research, accuracy, sagacity and style. Of his other works the

most interesting is the treatise _De rege et regis institutione_

(Toledo, 1598). In its sixth chapter the question whether it is lawful

to overthrow a tyrant is freely discussed and answered in the

affirmative, a circumstance which brought much odium upon the Jesuits,

especially after the assassination of Henry IV. of France, in 1610. A

volume entitled _Tractatus VII. theologici et historici_ (published by

Mariana at Cologne, in 1609, containing in particular a tract, "_De

morte et immortalitate_," and another, _"De mutatione monetae"_) was

put upon the index expurgatorius, and led to the confinement of its

author by the Inquisition. During his confinement there was found

among his papers a criticism upon the Jesuits, which was printed after

his death as _Discursus de erroribus qui in forma gubernationis

societatis Jesu occurrunt_ (Bordeaux, 1625), and was reprinted by

order of Charles III. when he banished the Jesuits from Spain.

See L. von Ranke, _Zur Kritik neuerer Geschichtsschreiber_ (Leipzig,

1874), and Cirot, _Études sur les historiographes espagnols_;

_Mariana, historien_ (Bordeaux, 1905).

MARIANAO, a city of the province of Havana, Cuba, 6 m. W. by S. of the

city of Havana, with which it is connected by the Marianao railway. Pop.

(1899), 5416; (1907), 9332. Marianao is on a range of hills about 1500

ft. above the sea, is noted for its salubrious climate, and is mainly a

place of residence for the families of prosperous business men of

Havana. On the neighbouring coast is Marianao Beach, a popular bathing

resort. The city dates from about 1830.

MARIANAS, MARIANNES, or LADRONES (Ger. _Marianen_), an archipelago in

the north-western Pacific Ocean, in about 12° to 21° N. and 145° E. With

the exception of the island of Guam (United States) it belongs to

Germany, and administratively forms part of the New Guinea protectorate.

It consists of two groups--a northern of ten volcanic main islands, of

which only four (Agrigan, Anatahan, Alamagan and Pagan) are inhabited;

and a southern of five coralline limestone islands (Rota, Guam, Aguijan,

Tinian and Saypan), all inhabited save Aguijan. In the volcanic group an

extreme elevation of about 2700 ft. is reached, and there are craters

showing signs of activity, while earthquakes are not uncommon. Coral

reefs fringe the coasts of the southern isles, which are of slight

elevation. The total area, excluding Guam, is about 245 sq. m. and the

population 2500, mostly descendants of the Tagal immigrants from the

Philippines. All the islands except Farallon de Medinilla and Urracas or

Mangs (in the northern group) are more or less densely wooded, and the

vegetation is luxuriant, much resembling that of the Carolines, and also

of the Philippines, whence many species of plants have been introduced.

Owing to the humidity of the soil cryptogams are numerous, as also most

kinds of grasses. Coco-nut and areca palms, yams, sweet potatoes,

manioc, coffee, cocoa, sugar, cotton, tobacco and mother-of-pearl are

the chief products, and copra is the principal export. Agriculture is

neglected, in spite of the exceptional advantages offered by the climate

and soil. On most of the islands there is a plentiful supply of water.

The native population known to the early Spanish colonists as Chamorros

has died out as a distinct people, though their descendants have

intermarried with the immigrant Tagals and natives of the Carolines. At

the Spanish occupation in 1668 the Chamorros were estimated at 40,000 to

60,000, but less than a century later only 1800 remained. They were

typical Micronesians, with a considerable civilization. In the island of

Tinian are some remarkable remains attributed to them, consisting of two

rows of massive square stone columns, about 5 ft. 4 in. broad and 14 ft.

high, with heavy round capitals. According to early Spanish accounts

cinerary urns were found imbedded in the capitals.

The fauna of the Marianas, though inferior in number and variety, is

similar in character to that of the Carolines, and certain species are

indigenous to both colonies. Swine and oxen run wild, and are hunted

when required: the former were known to the earlier inhabitants; the

latter with most other domestic animals were introduced by the

Spaniards. The climate though damp is healthy, while the heat, being

tempered by the trade winds, is milder than that of the Philippines; the

variations of temperature are not great.

The discovery of this archipelago is due to Magellan, who on the 6th

of March 1521 observed the two southernmost islands, and sailed

between them (O. Peschel, _Geschichte des Zeitalters der

Entdeckungen_, Stuttgart, 1877). The name _Islas de los Ladrones_ (or

"Islands of the Thieves") was given them by the ship's crew of

Magellan on account of the thieving propensity of the inhabitants; and

the islands are still commonly called the Ladrones. Magellan himself

styled them _Islas de las Velas Latinas_ ("Islands of the Lateen

Sails"). San Lazarus archipelago, Jardines and Prazeres are among the

names applied to them by later navigators. They received the name _Las

Marianas_ in 1668 in honour of Maria Anna of Austria, widow of Philip

IV. of Spain. Research in the archipelago was carried out by Commodore

Anson, who in August 1742 landed upon the island of Tinian (George,

Lord Anson, _Voyage round the World_, bk. iii., 1748). The Ladrones

were visited by Byron in 1765, Wallis in 1767 and Crozet in 1772. The

entire archipelago (except Guam) together with the Caroline and Pelew

Islands was sold by Spain to Germany for £837,500 in 1899.

See Anson, _op. cit._; L. de Freycinet, _Voyage autour du monde_

(Paris, 1826-1844); "The Marianas Islands" in _Nautical Magazine_,

xxxiv., xxxv. (London, 1865-1866); O. Finsch, _Karolinen und Marianen_

(Hamburg, 1900); Costenoble, _"Die Marianen"_ in Globus, lxxxviii.

(1905).

MARIANAS, or MARANHAS, a tribe of South American Indians on the river

Jutahy, north-western Brazil. They wear small pieces of wood in their

ears and lips, but are not tattooed. Marianas are also found on the

upper reaches of the Putumayo across to the Yapurá.

MARIANUS SCOTUS (1028-1082 or 1083), chronicler (who must be

distinguished from his namesake Marianus Scotus, d. 1088, abbot of St

Peter's, Regensburg), was an Irishman by birth, and called Moelbrigte,

or servant of Bridget. He was educated by a certain Tigernach, and

having become a monk he crossed over to the continent of Europe in 1056,

and his subsequent life was passed in the abbeys of St Martin at Cologne

and of Fulda, and at Mainz. He died at Mainz, on the 22nd of December

1082 or 1083.

Marianus wrote a _Chronicon_, which purports to be a universal history

from the creation of the world to 1082. The _Chronicon_ was very

popular during the middle ages, and in England was extensively used by

Florence of Worcester and other writers. It was first printed at Basel

in 1559, and has been edited with an introduction by G. Waitz for the

_Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores_ (Bd. v.). See also W.

Wattenbach, _Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen_ (Bd. ii., 1894).

MARIA STELLA, the self-styled legitimate daughter of Philip, duke of

Orleans. According to her, Louis Philippe was not the son of Philip duke

of Orleans, but a suppositious child, his father being one Lorenzo

Chiappini, constable at the village of Modigliana in Tuscany. The story

is that the duke and duchess of Orleans, travelling under the incognito

of Comte and Comtesse de Joinville, were at this village in April 1773,

when the duchess gave birth to a daughter; and that the duke, desiring a

son in order to prevent the rich Penthièvre inheritance from reverting

to his wife's relations in the event of her death, bribed the Chiappinis

to substitute their newly-born male child for his own.

Maria Stella, the supposed daughter of Chiappini, went on the stage at

Florence, where her putative parents had settled, and there at the age

of thirteen became the wife of the first Lord Newborough, after whose

death she married the Russian Count Ungern-Sternberg. On the death of

her putative father in 1821 she received a letter, written by him

shortly before his death, in which he confessed that she was not his

daughter, adding "Heaven has repaired my fault, since you are in a

better position than your real father, though he was of almost similar

rank" (i.e. a French nobleman). Maria Stella henceforward devoted her

time and fortune to establishing her identity. Her first success was the

judgment of the episcopal court at Faenza, which in 1824 declared that

the Comte Louis de Joinville exchanged his daughter for the son of

Lorenzo Chiappini, and that the Demoiselle de Joinville had been

baptized as Maria Stella, "with the false statement that she was the

daughter of L. Chiappini and his wife." The discovery that Joinville was

a countship of the Orleans family, and a real or fancied resemblance of

Louis Philippe to Chiappini, convinced her that the duke of Orleans was

the person for whose sake she had been cheated of her birthright, a

conviction strengthened by the striking resemblance which many people

discovered in her to the princesses of the Orleans family. In 1830 she

published her proofs under the title _Maria Stella ou un échange d'une

demoiselle du plus haut rang contre un garçon de plus vile condition_

(reprinted 1839 and 1849). This coincided with the advent of Louis

Philippe to the throne, and her claim became a weapon for those who

wished to throw discredit and ridicule on the "bourgeois monarch." He

for his part treated the whole thing with amused contempt, and Baroness

Newborough-Sternburg de Joinville, or Marie Étoile d'Orléans, as she

called herself, was suffered to live in Paris until on the 23rd of

December 1843 she died in poverty and obscurity.

In spite of much discussion and investigation, the case of Maria

Stella remains one of the unsolved problems of history. Sir Ralph

Payne Gallwey's _Mystery of Maria Stella, Lady Newborough_ (London,

1907), is founded on her own accounts and argues in favour of her

point of view. More convincing, however, is Maurice Vitrac's

_Philippe-Egalité et M. Chiappini_ (Paris, 1907), which is based on

unpublished material in the _Archives nationales_. M. Vitrac seeks to

overthrow Maria Stella's case by an alibi. The duke and duchess of

Chartres could not have been at Modigliana in April 1773, for the

simple reason that they can be proved at that time to have been in

Paris. On the 8th of April the duke, according to the official

_Gazette de France_, took part in the Maundy Thursday ceremonies at

Versailles; from the 7th to the 14th he was in constant attendance at

the lodge of Freemasons of which he had just been elected grand

master. Moreover, it was impossible for the first prince of the blood

royal to leave France without the royal permission, and his absence

would certainly have been remarked. Lastly, the duchess's

accouchement, a semi-public function in the case of royal princesses,

did not take place till the 6th of October. M. Vitrac identifies the

real father of Maria Stella with Count Carlo Battaglini of Rimini, who

died in 1796 without issue: the case being not one of substitution,

but of ordinary "farming out" to avoid a scandal.

MARIA THERESA (1717-1780), archduchess of Austria, queen of Hungary and

Bohemia, and wife of the Holy Roman emperor Francis I., was born at Vienna

on the 13th of May 1717. She was the eldest daughter of the Emperor

Charles VI. (q.v.) and his wife Elizabeth of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. On

the 12th of February 1736 she was married to her cousin Francis of

Lorraine (q.v.), then grand duke of Tuscany, and afterwards emperor. Five

sons and eleven daughters were born of this marriage. From the date of her

father's death on the 20th of October 1740, till her own death in 1780,

Maria Theresa was one of the central figures in the wars and politics of

Europe. But unlike some sovereigns, whose reigns have been agitated, but

whose personal character has left little trace, Maria Theresa had a strong

and in the main a noble individuality. Her great qualities were relieved

by human traits which make her more sympathetic. It must be allowed that

she was fairly open to the criticism implied in a husbandly jest

attributed to Francis I. While they were returning from the opera house at

Vienna she said to him that the singer they had just heard was the

greatest actress who had ever lived, and he answered "Next to you, Madam."

Maria Theresa had undoubtedly an instinctive histrionic sense of the

perspective of the theatre, and could adopt the appropriate attitude and

gesture, passionate, dignified or pathetic, required to impress those she

wished to influence. But there was no affectation in her assumption of a

becoming bearing or in her picturesque words. The common story, that she

appeared before the Hungarian magnates in the diet at Pressburg in 1741

with her infant son, afterwards Joseph II., in her arms, and so worked on

their feelings that they shouted _Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria

Theresia_, is only mythically true. But during the delicate negotiations

which were required to secure the support of the Hungarian nobles she

undoubtedly did appeal to them with passionate eloquence, and, we may

believe, with a very pardonable sense of the advantage she obtained from

her youth, her beauty and her sex. Her beauty, inherited from her mother,

was of an open and noble German type. The official portrait by Muytens,

engraved by Petit, gives a less convincing impression that an excellent

chalk drawing of the head by Gabriel Mattei. In the conflict between her

sense of what was morally just and her sense of duty to the state she laid

herself open to the scoffing taunt of Frederick of Prussia, who said that

in the first partition of Poland _elle pleurait et prenait toujours_. But

the king of Prussia's taunt is deprived of its sting by the almost

incredible candour of her own words to Kaunitz, that if she was to lose

her reputation before God and man for respecting the rights of others it

must not be for a small advantage--if, in fact, Austria was to share in

the plunder of Poland, she was to be consoled for the distress caused to

her feelings by the magnitude of her share of the booty. There was no

hypocrisy in the tears of the empress. Her intellectual honesty was as

perfect as Frederick's own, and she was as incapable as he was of

endeavouring to blind herself to the quality of her own acts. No ruler was

ever more loyal to a conception of duty. Maria Theresa considered herself

first and foremost as the heiress of the rights of the house of Austria.

Therefore, when her inheritance was assailed at the beginning of her

reign, she fought for it with every weapon an honest woman could employ,

and for years she cherished the hope of recovering the lost province of

Silesia, conquered by Frederick. Her practical sense showed her the

necessity of submitting to spoliation when she was overpowered. She

accepted the peace of Berlin in 1742 in order to have a free hand against

her Bavarian enemy, the emperor Charles VII. (q.v.). When Frederick

renewed the war she accepted the struggle cheerfully, because she hoped to

recover her own. Down to the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 she went on

fighting for Silesia or its equivalent. In the years following the peace

she applied herself to finding allies in France and Russia who would help

her to recover Silesia. Here, as later in the case of Poland, she

subordinated her feelings to her duty to the state. Though she denied that

she had ever written directly to Madame de Pompadour, it is certain that

she allowed her ministers to make use of the favourite's influence over

the French king. When fate decided against her in the Seven Years' War she

bowed to the inevitable, and was thenceforward a resolute advocate of

peace.

In her internal government she showed herself anxious to promote the

prosperity of her people, and to give more unity to an administration

made up by the juxtaposition of many states and races with different

characters and constitutions. Her instincts, like those of her enemy

Frederick and her son Joseph II., were emphatically absolutist. She

suspended the meetings of the estates in most parts of her dominions.

She was able to do so because the mass of her subjects found her hand

much lighter than that of the privileged classes who composed these

bodies. Education, trade, religious toleration, the emancipation of the

agricultural population from feudal burdens--all had her approval up to

a certain point. She would favour them, but on the distinct condition

that nothing was to be done to weaken the bonds of authority. She took

part in the suppression of the Jesuits, and she resisted the pope in the

interest of the state. Her methods were those of her cautious younger

son, Leopold II., and not of her eldest son and immediate successor,

Joseph II. She did not give her consent even to the suppression of

torture in legal procedure without hesitation, lest the authority of the

law should be weakened. Her caution had its reward, for whatever she did

was permanently gained, whereas her successor in his boundless zeal for

reform brought his empire to the verge of a general rebellion.

In her private life Maria Theresa was equally the servant of the state

and the sovereign of all about her. She was an affectionate wife to her

husband Francis I.; but she was always the queen of Hungary and Bohemia

and archduchess of Austria, like her ancestress, Isabella the Catholic,

who never forgot, nor allowed her husband to forget, that she was

"proprietary queen" of Castile and Leon. She married her daughters in

the interest of Austria, and taught them _not_ to forget their people

and their father's house. In the case of Marie Antoinette (q.v.), who

married the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., she gave an extraordinary

proof of her readiness to subordinate everything to the reason of state.

She instructed her daughter to show a proper respect to her husband's

grandfather, Louis XV., by behaving with politeness to his mistresses,

in order that the alliance between the two courts might run no risk. The

signing of the peace of Teschen, which averted a great war with Prussia,

on the 13th of May 1779, was the last great act of her reign, and so

Maria Theresa judged it to be in a letter to Prince Kaunitz; she said

that she had now finished her life's journey and could sing a _Te Deum_,

for she had secured the repose of her people at whatever cost to

herself. The rest, she said, would not last long. Her fatal illness

developed in the autumn of the following year, and she died on the 28th

of November 1780. When she lay painfully on her deathbed her son Joseph

said to her, "You are not at ease," and her last words were the answer,

"I am sufficiently at my ease to die."

See A. von Arneth, _Geschichte Maria Theresas_ (Vienna, 1863-1879) and

J. F. Bright, _Maria Theresa_ (London, 1897); also the article

AUSTRIA.

MARIAZELL, a village of Austria, in Styria, 89 m. N. of Graz. Pop.

(1900), 1499. It is picturesquely situated in the valley of the Salza,

amid the north Styrian Alps. Its entire claim to notice lies in the fact

that it is the most frequented sanctuary in Austria, being visited

annually by about 200,000 pilgrims. The object of veneration is a

miracle-working image of the Virgin, carved in lime-tree wood, and about

18 in. high. This was presented to the place in 1157, and is now

enshrined in a chapel lavishly adorned with objects of silver and other

costly materials. The large church of which the chapel forms part was

erected in 1644 as an expansion of a smaller church built by Louis I.,

king of Hungary, after a victory over the Turks in 1363. In the vicinity

of Mariazell is the pretty Alpine lake of Erlafsee.

See M. M. Rabenlehrer, _Mariazell, Österreichs Loreto_ (Vienna, 1891);

and O. Eigner, _Geschichte des aufgeshobenen Benedictinerstiftes

Mariazell_ (Vienna, 1900).

MARIE AMÉLIE THÉRÈSE (1782-1866), queen of Louis Philippe, king of the

French, was the daughter of Ferdinand IV., king of Naples, and the

archduchess Maria Carolina, daughter of the empress Maria Theresa, and

belonged to the house of Bourbon. She was born at Caserta, on the 26th

of April 1782, and received a careful education which developed the

naturally pious and honourable disposition that earned for her in the

family circle the nickname of La Santa. Driven from Naples in 1798, the

Neapolitan royal family fled to Palermo, and the years from 1800 to 1802

were spent by Marie Amélie with her mother at the Austrian court. In

1806 they were again in flight before the armies of Masséna, and it was

during the second residence of her father's court at Palermo that she

met the exiled Louis Philippe, then duke of Orleans, whom she married in

November 1809. Returning to France in 1814, the duke and duchess of

Orleans had barely established themselves in the Palais Royal in Paris

when the Hundred Days drove them into exile. Marie Amélie took refuge

with her four children in England, where she spent two years at Orleans

House, Twickenham. Again in France in 1817, her life at Neuilly until

1828 was the happiest period of her existence. Neither then nor at any

other time did she take any active share in politics; but she was not

without indirect influence on affairs, because her strong royalist and

legitimist traditions prevented the court from including her in the

suspicion with which her husband's liberal views were regarded. Her

attention was absorbed by the care and education of her numerous family,

even after the revolution of 1830 had made her queen of the French, a

position accepted by her with forebodings of disaster justified by her

early experience of revolutions. During her second exile, from 1848 to

the end of her life, she lived at Claremont, where her charity and piety

endeared her to the many English friends of the Orleans family. Marie

Amélie died at Claremont, on the 24th of March 1866.

See A. Trognon, _Vie de Marie Amélie_ (1872); A. L. Baron Imbert de St

Amand, _La Jeunesse de Marie Amélie_ (1891), _Marie Amélie au Palais

Royal_ (1892), _Marie Amélie et la cour de Palerme_ (1891), _Marie

Amélie et la cour des Tuileries_ (1892), _Marie Amélie et l'apogée de

règne de Louis Philippe_ (1893), _Marie Amélie et la société française

en 1847_ (1894), and _Marie Amélie et la duchesse d'Orleans_ (1893).

MARIE ANTOINETTE (1755-1793), queen of France, ninth child of Maria

Theresa and the emperor Francis I., was born at Vienna, on the 2nd of

November 1755. She was brought up under a simple and austere régime and

educated with a view to the French marriage arranged by Maria Theresa,

the abbé Vermond being appointed as her tutor in 1769. Her marriage with

the dauphin, which took place at Versailles on the 16th of May 1770, was

intended to crown the policy of Choiseul and confirm the alliance

between Austria and France. This fact, combined with her youth and the

extreme corruption of the French court, made her position very

difficult. Madame du Barry, whose influence over Louis XV. was at that

time supreme, formed the centre of a powerful anti-Choiseul cabal, which

succeeded in less than a year after the dauphin's marriage in bringing

about the fall of Choiseul and seriously threatening the stability of

the Austrian alliance. Thus the young princess was surrounded by enemies

both at court and in the dauphin's household, and came to rely almost

entirely upon the Austrian ambassador, the comte de Mercy-Argenteau,

whom Maria Theresa had instructed to act as her mentor, at the same time

arranging that she herself should be kept informed of all that concerned

her daughter, so that she might at once advise her and safeguard the

alliance. Hence arose the famous secret correspondence of

Mercy-Argenteau, an invaluable record of all the details of Marie

Antoinette's life from her marriage in 1770 till the death of Maria

Theresa in 1780.

Marie Antoinette soon won the affection and confidence of the dauphin

and endeared herself to the king, but her position was precarious, and

both Mercy and Maria Theresa had continually to urge her to conquer her

violent dislike for the favourite and try to conciliate her.

The accession of the young king and queen on the death of Louis XV. (May

10, 1774), was hailed with great popular enthusiasm. But her first steps

brought Marie Antoinette into open hostility with the anti-Austrian

party. She was urgent in obtaining the dismissal of d'Aiguillon, and did

all in her power to secure the recall of Choiseul, though without

success. Thus from the very first she appeared in the light of a

partisan, having against her all the enemies of Choiseul and of the

Austrian alliance, and was already given the nickname of

"l'autrichienne" by mesdames the king's aunts. At the same time her

undisguised impatience of the cumbrous court etiquette shocked many

people, and her taste for pleasure led her to seek the society of the

comte d'Artois and his young and dissolute circle. But the greatest

weakness in her position lay in her unsatisfactory relations with her

husband. The king, though affectionate, was cold and apathetic, and it

was not till seven years after her marriage that there was any

possibility of her bearing him an heir. This fact naturally decreased

her popularity, and as early as September 1774, was made the subject of

offensive pamphlets and the like, as in the case of the _affaire

Beaumarchais_. (See BEAUMARCHAIS.)

The end of the period of mourning for the late king was the signal for a

succession of gaieties, during which the queen displayed a passion for

amusement and excitement which led to unfortunate results. Being

childless, and with a husband who could not command her respect, her

longing for affection led her to form various intimate friendships,

above all with the princesse de Lamballe and the comtesse Jules de

Polignac, who soon obtained such an empire over her affections that no

favour was too great for them to ask, and often to obtain. Thus for the

benefit of Madame de Lamballe the queen revived the superfluous and

expensive office of superintendent of her household, which led to

constant disagreements and jealousies among her ladies and offended

many important families. In frequenting the salons of her friends the

queen not only came in contact with a number of the younger and more

dissipated courtiers, whose high play and unseemly amusements she

countenanced, but she fell under the influence of various ambitious

intriguers, such as the baron de Bésenval, the comte de Vaudreuil, the

duc de Lauzun and the comte d'Adhémar, whose interested manoeuvres she

was induced to further by her affection for her favourites. Thus she was

often led to interfere for frivolous reasons in public affairs,

sometimes with serious results, as in the case of the trial of the comte

de Guines (1776), when her interference was responsible for the fall of

Turgot. At the same time her extravagance in dress, jewelry and

amusements (including the gardens and theatricals at Trianon, of the

cost of which such exaggerated reports were spread about) and her

presence at horse-races and masked balls in Paris without the king, gave

rise to great scandal, which was seized upon by her enemies, among whom

were Mesdames, the count of Provence, and the duke of Orleans and the

Palais Royal clique.

At this critical period her brother, the emperor Joseph II., decided to

visit France. As the result of his visit he left with the queen a

memorandum in which he pointed out to her in plain terms the dangers of

her conduct.[1] He also took advantage of his visit to advise the king,

with such success that at last, in 1778, the queen had the hope of

becoming a mother. For a time the emperor's remonstrances had some

effect, and after the birth of her daughter, Marie Thérèse Charlotte

(afterwards duchesse d'Angoulême) in December 1778, the queen lived a

more quiet life. The death of Maria Theresa (Nov. 29, 1780) deprived her

of a wise and devoted friend, and by removing all restraint on the

rashness of Joseph II. was bound to increase the dislike of the Austrian

alliance and cause embarrassment to Marie Antoinette. Her position was

very much strengthened by the birth (Oct. 22, 1781) of a dauphin, Louis

Joseph Xavier François, and on the death of Maurepas, which left the

king without a chief minister, she might have exerted a considerable

influence in public affairs had she taken a consistent interest in them;

but her repugnance to serious matters triumphed, and she preferred to

occupy herself with the education of her children, to whom she was a

wise and devoted mother,[2] and with her friends and amusements at

Trianon. Personal motives alone would lead her to interfere in public

affairs, especially when it was a question of obtaining places or

favours for her favourites and their friends. The influence of the

Polignacs was now at its height, and they obtained large sums of money,

a dukedom, and many nominations to places. It was Madame de Polignac who

obtained the appointment of Calonne as controller-general of the

finances,[3] and who succeeded Madame de Guéménée as "governess of the

children of France" after the bankruptcy of the prince de Guéménée in

1782.[4] Again, in response to Mercy and Joseph II.'s urgent

representations, Marie Antoinette exerted herself on behalf of Austria

in the affairs of the opening of the Scheldt (1783-1784) and the

exchange of Bavaria (1785), in which, though she failed to provoke

active interference on the part of France, she succeeded in obtaining

the payment of considerable indemnities to Austria, a fact which led to

the popular legend of her having sent millions to Austria, and aroused

much indignation against her. Later, on the recommendation of Mercy and

Vermond, she supported the nomination of Loménie de Brienne in 1787, an

appointment which, though widely approved at the time, was laid to the

queen's blame when it ended in failure.

Two more children were born to her; Louis Charles, duke of Normandy,

afterwards dauphin, on the 27th of March 1785, and Sophie Hélène Beatrix

(d. June 19, 1787), on the 9th of July 1786. In 1785-1786 the affair of

the Diamond Necklace (q.v.) revealed the depth of the hatred which her

own follies and the calumnies of her enemies had aroused against her.

The public held her responsible for the bankrupt state of the country;

and though in 1788, following the popular outcry, she prevailed upon the

king to recall Necker, it was impossible for him to avert the

Revolution. The year 1789 was one of disaster for Marie Antoinette; on

the 10th of March her brother Joseph II. died, and on the 4th of June

her eldest son. The same year saw the assembling of the States-general,

which she had dreaded; the taking of the Bastille, and the events

leading to the terrible days of the 5th and 6th of October at Versailles

and the removal of the royal family to the Tuileries. Then began the

negotiations with Mirabeau, whose high estimate of the queen is

well-known (e.g. his famous remark, "The king has only one man on his

side, and that is his wife"). But the queen was violently prejudiced

against him, believing him among other things to be responsible for the

events of the 5th and 6th of October, and he never gained her full

confidence. She was naturally incapable of seeing the full import of the

Revolution, and merely temporised with Mirabeau. She dreaded the thought

of civil war; and even when she had realized the necessity for decisive

action the king's apathy and indecision made it impossible for her to

persuade him to carry into effect Mirabeau's plan of leaving Paris and

appealing to the provinces. Her difficulties were increased by the

departure of Mercy for the Hague in September 1790, for Montmorin who

now took his place in the negotiations had not her confidence to the

same extent. Feeling herself helpless and almost isolated in Paris, she

now relied chiefly on her friends outside France--Mercy, Count Axel

Fersen, and the baron de Breteuil; and it was by their help and that of

Bouillé that after the death of Mirabeau, on the 8th of April 1791, the

plan was arranged of escaping to Montmédy, which ended in the flight to

Varennes (June 21, 1791).

After the return from Varennes the royal family were closely guarded,

but in spite of this they still found channels of communication with the

outside world. The king being sunk in apathy, the task of negotiation

devolved upon the queen; but in her inexperience and ignorance of

affairs, and the uncertainty of information from abroad, it was hard for

her to follow any clear policy. Her courageous bearing during the return

from Varennes had greatly impressed Barnave, and he now approached her

on behalf of the Feuillants and the constitutional party. For about a

year she continued to negotiate with them, forwarding to Mercy and the

emperor Leopold II. letters and memoranda dictated by them, while at the

same time secretly warning her friends not to accept these letters as

her own opinions, but to realize that she was dependent on the

Constitutionals.[5] She agreed with their plan of an armed congress, and

on this idea both she and Fersen insisted with all their might, Fersen

leaving Brussels and going on a mission to the emperor to try and gain

support and checkmate the _émigrés_, whose desertion the queen bitterly

resented, and whose rashness threatened to frustrate her plans and

endanger the lives of her family.

As to the acceptance of the constitution (Sept. 1791), "tissue of

absurdities" though the queen thought it, and much as she would have

preferred a bolder course, she considered that in the circumstances the

king was bound to accept it in order to inspire confidence.[6] Mercy was

also in correspondence with the Constitutionals, and in letter after

letter to him and the emperor, the queen, strongly supported by Fersen,

insisted that the congress should be formed as soon as possible, her

appeals increasing in urgency as she saw that Barnave's party would soon

be powerless against the extremists. But owing to the lengthy

negotiations of the powers the congress was continually postponed. On

the 1st of March 1792 Leopold II. died, and was succeeded by the young

Francis II. Marie Antoinette's actions were now directed entirely by

Fersen, for she suspected Mercy and the emperor of sacrificing her to

the interests of Austria (_Fersen_, i. 251; Arneth, pp. 254, 256, &c.).

The declaration of war which the king was forced to make (April 20)

threw her definitely into opposition to the Revolution, and she betrayed

to Mercy and Fersen the plans of the French generals (Arneth, p. 259;

_Fersen_, ii. 220, 289, 308, 325, 327). She was now certain that the

life of the king was threatened, and the events of the 20th of June

added to her terrors. She considered their only hope to lie in the

intervention of the powers and in the appeal to force, and endorsed the

suggestion of a threatening manifesto[6] which should hold the National

Assembly and Paris responsible for the safety of the king and royal

family. Immediately after Brunswick's manifesto followed the storming of

the Tuileries and the removal of the royal family to the Temple (Aug.

10). During all these events and the captivity in the Temple Marie

Antoinette showed an unvarying courage and dignity, in spite of her

failing health and the illness of her son. After the execution of the

king (Jan. 17, 1793) several unsuccessful attempts were made by her

friends to rescue her and her children, among others by Jarjayes, Toulan

and Lepître, and the "baron de Batz," and negotiations for her release

or exchange were even opened with Danton; but as the allied armies

approached her trial and condemnation became a certainty. She had

already been separated from her son, the sight of whose ill-treatment

added terribly to her sufferings; she was now parted from her daughter

and Madame Elizabeth, and removed on the 1st of August 1793 to the

Conciergerie. Even here, where she was under the closest guard and

subjected to the most offensive espionnage, attempts were made to rescue

her, among others Michonis' "Conspiration de l'oeillet."

On the 14th of October began her trial, her defence being entrusted to

Chauveau-Lagarde and Tronson-Ducourdray. Her noble attitude, even in the

face of the atrocious accusations of Fouquier-Tinville, commanded the

admiration even of her enemies, and her answers during her long

examination were clear and skilful. The following were the questions

finally put to the jury:--

(1) Is it established that manoeuvres and communications have existed

with foreign powers and other external enemies of the republic, the

said manoeuvres, &c., tending to furnish them with assistance in

money, give them an entry into French territory, and facilitate the

progress of their armies?

(2) Is Marie Antoinette of Austria, the widow Capet, convicted of

having co-operated in these manoeuvres and maintained these

communications?

(3) Is it established that a plot and conspiracy has existed tending

to kindle civil war within the republic, by arming the citizens

against one another?

(4) Is Marie Antoinette, the widow Capet, convicted of having

participated in this plot and conspiracy?

The jury decided unanimously in the affirmative, and on the 16th of

October 1793 Marie Antoinette was led to the guillotine, leaving behind

her a touching letter to Madame Elizabeth, known as her "Testament."

As to the justice of these charges, we have seen how the queen was

actually guilty of betraying her country, though it was only natural for

her to identify the cause of the monarchy with that of France. To civil

war she was consistently opposed, and never ceased to dissociate herself

from the plans of the _émigrés_, but here again her very position made

her an enemy of the republic. In any case, all her actions had as their

aim--firstly, the safeguarding of the monarchy and the king's position,

and later, when she saw this to be impossible, that of securing the

safety of her husband and her son.

For a bibliographical study see: M. Tourneux, _Marie Antoinette devant

l'histoire. Essai bibliographique_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1901); id.

_Bibliogr. de la ville de Paris ..._ (vol. iv. 1906), nos.

20980-21338; also _Bibliogr. de femmes célèbres_ (Turin and Paris,

1892, &c.). The most important material for her life is to be found in

her letters and in the correspondence of Mercy-Argenteau, but a large

number of forgeries have found their way into certain of the

collections, such as those of Paul Vogt d'Hunolstein (_Correspondance

inédite de Marie Antoinette_, (3rd ed., Paris, 1864), and F. Feuillet

des Conches _Louis XVI., Marie Antoinette et Madame Élisabeth, lettres

et documents inédits_ (6 vols., Paris, 1864-1873), while most of the

works on Marie Antoinette published before the appearance of Arneth's

publications (1865, &c.) are based partly on these forgeries. For a

detailed examination of the question of the authenticity of the

letters see the introduction to _Lettres de Marie Antoinette. Recueil

des lettres authentiques de la reine, publié pour la société

d'histoire contemporaine, par M. de la Rocheterie et le marquis de

Beaucourt_ (2 vols., Paris, 1895-1896); also A. Geffroy, _Gustave III.

et la cour de France_ (2 vols., Paris, 1869), vol. ii., appendix. Of

the highest importance are the letters from the archives of Vienna

published by Alfred von Arneth and others: A. von Arneth, _Maria

Theresia und Marie Antoinette, ihr Briefwechsel_ 1770-1780 (Paris and

Vienna, 1865); id., _Marie Antoinette, Joseph II. und Leopold II. ihr

Briefwechsel_ (Leipzig, Paris and Vienna, 1866); id. and A. Geffroy,

_Correspondance secrète de Marie-Thérèse et du comte de

Mercy-Argenteau_ (3 vols., Paris, 1874); id. and J. Flammermont,

_Correspondance secrète du comte de Mercy-Argenteau avec Joseph II. et

le prince de Kaunitz_ (2 vols., Paris, 1889-1891); for further letters

see Comte de Reiset, _Lettres de la reine Marie Antoinette à la

landgrave Louise de Hesse-Darmstadt_ (1865); id. _Lettres inédites de

Marie Antoinette et de Marie-Clotilde, reine de Sardaigne_ (1877). See

also _Correspondance entre le comte de Mirabeau et le comte de la

Marck, 1789-1791, recueillie ... par F. de Bacourt_ (3 vols., Paris,

1857), and Baron R. M. de Klinckowström, _Le Comte de Fersen et la

cour de France_ (2 vols., Paris, 1877-1878). _Memoirs_: See most

contemporary memoirs, e.g. those of the prince de Ligne, Choiseul,

Ségur, Bouillé, Dumouriez, &c. Some, such as those of Madame Campan,

Weber, Cléry, Mme de Tourzel, are prejudiced in her favour; others,

such as those of Besenval, Lauzun, Soulavie, are equally prejudiced

against her. M. Tourneux (_op. cit._) discusses the authenticity of

the memoirs of Tilly, Cléry, Lauzun, &c. The chief of these memoirs

are: Mme Campan, _Mémoires sur la vie privée de Marie Antoinette_ (5th

ed., 2 vols., Paris, 1823, Eng. trans. 1887), the inaccuracy of which

is clearly demonstrated by J. Flammermont in _Études critiques sur les

sources de l'histoire du xviii^e siècle: Les Mémoires de Mme Campan_,

in the _Bulletin de la Faculté des lettres de Poitiers_ (4th year,

1886, pp. 56, 109); J. Weber, _Mémoires concernant Marie Antoinette_

(3 vols., London, 1804-1809; Eng. trans., 3 vols., London, 1805-1806);

_Mémoires de M. le baron de Besenval_ (3 vols., Paris, 1805);

_Mémoires de M. le duc de Lauzun_ (2nd ed., 2 vols., Paris, 1822); E.

Bavoux, _Méms. secrets de J. M. Augeard, secrétaire des commandements

de la reine M. Antoinette_ (Paris, 1866); Mme Vigée-Le-Brun, _Mes

souvenirs_ (2 vols., Paris, 1867); _Mémoires de Mme la duchesse de

Tourzel_, ed. by the duc de Cars (2 vols., Paris, 1883); _Mémoires de

la baronne d'Oberkirch_ (2 vols., Paris, 1853).

GENERAL WORKS:--See the general works on the period and on Louis XVI.,

and bibliographies to articles LOUIS XVI. and FRENCH REVOLUTION. A.

Sorel, _L'Europe et la Rév. fr._ (ii. _passim_) contains a good

estimate of Marie Antoinette. See also E. and J. de Goncourt,

_Histoire de Marie Antoinette_ (Paris, 1859); P. de Nolhac, _Marie

Antoinette, dauphine_ (Paris, 1897); id. _La Reine Marie Antoinette_

(8th cd., 1898), which gives good descriptions of Versailles, Trianon,

&c.; M. de la Rocheterie, _Histoire de Marie Antoinette_ (2 vols.,

Paris, 1890); A. L. Bicknell, _The Story of Marie Antoinette_; R.

Prölss, _Königin Marie Antoinette, Bilder aus ihrem Leben_ (Leipzig,

1894); G. Desjardins, _Le Petit-Trianon_ (Versailles, 1885). For her

trial and death, see E. Campardon, _Marie Antoinette à la

Conciergerie_ (1863). H. Belloc's _Marie Antoinette_ (London, 1909) is

very biassed and sometimes misleading. (C. B. P.)