[1] The name Mordecai denotes "belonging to Marduk."
MARE, the English term for the female of any animal of the family
_Equidae_, of the ass, or zebra, but particularly of the horse. It is
also used of the camel. To find a "mare's nest" is an old proverbial
saying for a purely imaginary discovery. In "night-mare," an oppressive
or terrifying dream, the termination is a word appearing as _mar_,
_maer_ and _mara_ in various Teutonic languages for a goblin, supposed
to sit on a sleeper's chest and cause these dreams: cf. elf. This
Teutonic word also appears in the French _cauchemar_, the first part
being from _caucher_, to tread or trample upon, Lat. _calcare_.
MARE CLAUSUM and MARE LIBERUM (Lat. for "closed sea" and "free sea"), in
international law, terms associated with the historic controversy which
arose out of demands on the part of different states to assert exclusive
dominion over areas of the open or high sea. Thus Spain laid claim to
exclusive dominion over whole oceans, Great Britain to all her
environing narrow seas and so on. These claims gave rise to vigorous
opposition by other powers and led to the publication of Grotius's work
(1609) called _Mare liberum_. In _Mare clausum_ (1635) John Selden
endeavoured to prove that the sea was practically as capable of
appropriation as territory. Owing to the conflict of claims which grew
out of the controversy, maritime states had to moderate their demands
and base their pretensions to maritime dominion on the principle that it
extended seawards from land.
A formula was found by Bynkershoek in his _De dominio maris_ (1702) for
the restriction of dominion over the sea to the actual distance to which
cannon range could protect it. This became universally adopted and
developed into the three-mile belt (see TERRITORIAL WATERS). In recent
times controversies have arisen in connexion with the Baltic, the Black
Sea and more especially the Bering Sea. In the latter case the United
States, after the purchase of Alaska, vainly attempted to assert
dominion beyond the three-mile limit. Still more recently the hardship
of treating the greater part of Moray Firth as open sea to the exclusion
of British and to the advantage of foreign fishermen has been raised
(see NORTH SEA FISHERIES CONVENTION; TERRITORIAL WATERS).
Conventions for the suppression of the slave trade, including the
Brussels General Act of 1885, and the North Sea Fisheries Convention,
have placed restrictions on the freedom of the high sea, and possibly,
in the general interest, other agreements will bring it further under
control, on the principle that what is the property of all nations must
be used without detriment to its use by others (see HIGH SEAS).
(T. Ba.)
MAREE, LOCH, a fresh-water lake in the county of Ross and Cromarty,
Scotland. Its name--of which Maroy and Mourie are older variants--does
not, as is often supposed, commemorate the Virgin, but St Maelrubha, who
came from Bangor in Ireland in 671 and founded a monastery at Applecross
and a chapel (now in ruins) on Isle Maree. Trending in a south-easterly
to north-westerly direction, the lake has a length of 13½ m. from
Kinlochewe at the head of the dam erected in the 16th century (or
earlier) by the iron-smelters of the Cheardach Ruardh, or Red Smiddy, on
the short but impetuous river Ewe by which it drains to the sea. It lies
at a height of 32 ft. above sea-level; the greatest breadth is just over
2 m. at Slattadale, the mean breadth being 9/10 of a mile; and the
greatest depth, 367 ft., occurs in the upper basin, the mean depth being
125 ft. Its waters cover an area of fully 11 sq. m., and its islands
nearly 1 sq. m., while the drainage area is 171 sq. m. A remarkable
feature is the large number (more than 30) and considerable area of the
islands. Excepting Loch Cròcach, a small lake in the Assynt district of
Sutherlandshire, its insularity (i.e. the ratio of the total area of the
islands to that of the water surface) is higher than that of any other
lake in Great Britain, Loch Lomond coming next. Nearly all the islands
lie north and east of Slattadale, the largest being Eilean Subhainn, or
St Swithin's Isle, which contains a small lake 750 ft. long, 300 ft.
broad and 64 ft. deep. For two-thirds of its length the loch is flanked
by magnificent mountains. On the north-east the principal heights are
Ben Slioch (3217 ft.), whose sugar-loaf form dominates the landscape,
Ben Lair (2817) and Ben Airidh-a-Char (2593), and, on the south-west,
the peaks of Ben Eay, four of which exceed 3000 ft.
MAREMMA (a corruption of _Marittima_, "situated on the sea"), a marshy
region of Tuscany, Italy, extending from the mouth of the Cecina to
Orbetello and varying in breadth from 15 to 20 m. In Etruscan and Roman
times the Maremma was a populous and fertile coast plain, with
considerable towns situated on the hills--Populonia, Russellae, Cosa,
&c., and was drained by a complete system of subterranean canals which
were brought to light by the excavations made in connexion with the
railways passing through the district. But the decline of agriculture at
the end of the Republic led to a conversion of the land to pasture, and
later the unsettled state of affairs consequent on the fall of the Roman
Empire resulted in neglect of the watercourses. Leopold II. of Tuscany
(1822-1844) made the first successful efforts to counteract the malaria
which has affected the district, by drainage, the filling up of swamps,
and the establishment of new farms, and since his time continuous
efforts have been made with considerable success.
MARENGO, a village of north Italy, on the road between Alessandria and
Tortona, and 4¾ m. E.S.E. of the gates of the former. It is situated on
the Fontanone brook, a small affluent of the Tanaro which marks the
western edge of the plain of Marengo, the scene of the great victory won
by Napoleon over the Austrians under Baron Melas (1729-1806) on the 14th
of June 1800. (The antecedents of the battle are described under FRENCH
REVOLUTIONARY WARS).
[Illustration: Map.]
The French army, in ignorance of its opponent's position, had advanced
westward from the Scrivia towards Alessandria on the 12th, and its
outposts had reached the Bormida on the evening of the 13th. But contact
with the main Austrian army was not obtained, and on the assumption that
it was moving towards either Valenza or Genoa Napoleon weakened his army
by considerable detachments sent out right and left to find the enemy
and to delay his progress. Unknown, however, to Napoleon Melas's army
was still at Alessandria, and on the morning of the 14th of June it
filed out of the fortress and began its advance into the great plain of
Marengo, one of the few favourable cavalry battle-grounds in north
Italy.
The dispersion of the French army allowed only a fragmentary, though
most energetic, resistance to be offered to the Austrian onset. The
latter, considerably delayed at first by the crossing of the river
Bormida, broke up into two columns,[1] which advanced, the right by the
main road on Marengo, the left on Castel Ceriolo. The former, personally
commanded by Melas, was 20,000 strong, and General Victor, its immediate
opponent, about 10,000, or including some 5000 of Lannes' corps who
fought on his right, about 15,000 strong; the Austrians were, moreover,
greatly superior in guns and cavalry. The French disputed every yard of
ground, holding their first line until they had by fire and
counter-attack forced practically the whole of the Austrian right to
deploy, and two hours passed before the Austrians managed to reach the
Fontanone brook. But Victor's troops, being disorganized and short of
ammunition, had then to retire more rapidly across the plain. The
retreat was orderly, according to Victor's report, and made in échelon
from the centre, and it is certain that at any rate the regiments held
together, for the 6000 Austrian sabres found no opportunity to charge
home. Many guns and wagons were, however, abandoned.
On the French right, opposed to the column of Lieut.-Field-Marshal Ott,
was Lannes, with some 4000 men (excluding Watrin's division which was
with Victor) against 7500. He too was after a time forced to retire,
with heavy losses. Thus, about 11 a.m. the First Consul, who was at some
distance from the field, was at last convinced that he had to deal with
Melas's army. At once he sent out his staff officers to bring back his
detachments, and pushed forward his only reserve, Monnier's division, to
support Lannes and Victor. But before this help arrived Lannes had been
driven out of Castel Ceriolo, and Victor and Watrin forced back almost
to San Giuliano. A little after 2 p.m. Monnier's division (3500) came
into action, and its impetuous advance drove the Austrians out of Castel
Ceriolo. But after an hour it was forced back in its turn, and by 3 p.m.
therefore, the 20,000 French troops, disordered and exhausted, and in
one line without reserves,[2] held a ragged line of battle to the right
and left of San Giuliano. The best that could be expected was a
prolongation of the struggle till nightfall and a fairly orderly
retreat. The Austrian general, believing that the battle was won,
returned to Alessandria, leaving a younger man, his chief of staff Zach,
to organize the pursuit.
Then followed one of the most dramatic events in military history. Of
the two detachments sent away by Napoleon in search of the enemy, one
only received its orders of recall. This was Boudet's division of
Desaix's corps, away to the south at Rivalta and at noon heading for
Pozzolo-Formigaro on the Alessandria-Genoa road. At 1 p.m. a brief
message, "Revenez, au nom de Díeu!" altered the direction of the column,
and between 4 and 5, after a forced march, the division, headed by
Desaix, came on to the battle-field. It was deployed as a unit and moved
forward at the word of command along the main road Alessandria-Tortona,
the sight of their closed line giving fresh courage to the men of Lannes
and Victor. Then, while on the other side Zach was arraying a deep
column of troops to pursue along the main road, Napoleon and Desaix,
themselves under fire, hastily framed a plan of attack. All arms were
combined. First, Marmont with eight of Boudet's guns and ten others (the
rest had been abandoned in the retirement) came into action on the right
of the road, replying to the fire of the Austrian guns and checking
their advanced infantry; close in rear of the artillery was Desaix's
infantry with the remnants of Lannes' and Victor's troops rallying on
its right and left; on Lannes' right, still facing Ott's column, was
Monnier, supported by the Consular Guard of horse and foot; lastly 400
sabres of Kellermann's cavalry brigade, which had already been engaged
several times and had lost heavily, formed up on the right of Desaix.
About 5 p.m. Desaix advanced against the head of the Austrian main
column formed by Zach. He himself fell in the attack, but the onset of
his intact troops drove back the leading Austrians upon their supports,
and at the critical moment when the attack of Boudet's single weak
division had almost spent its force, Kellermann with his 400 sabres
sallied out of the French line. Marmont had brought up two guns to
assist the infantry, and as he fired his last round of case-shot the
cavalry raced past him to the front, wheeled inwards against the flank
of the great column, and rode through and through it. Zach was taken
prisoner with more than 2000 men, and Kellermann, rallying some of his
troopers, flung himself upon the astonished Austrian cavalry and with
the assistance of the Consular Guard cavalry defeated it. The "will to
conquer" spread along the whole French line, while the surprise of the
Austrians suddenly and strangely became mere panic. Lannes, Victor and
Monnier advanced afresh, pushing the Austrians back on Marengo. A few
Austrian battalions made a gallant stand at that place, while Melas
himself, as night came on, rallied the fugitives beyond. Next day the
completely exhausted, but victorious, French army extorted from the
dazed Austrians a convention by which all Italy up to the Mincio was
evacuated by them. The respective losses were: French about 4000,
Austrians 9500.
See the French official _Campagne de l'armée de réserve_, vol. ii., by
C. de Cugnac.