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[Picture: View of the Temple of Bouddhama]
AN ACCOUNT OF
THE KINGDOM OF NEPAL
AND OF THE TERRITORIES
ANNEXED TO THIS DOMINION BY THE
HOUSE OF GORKHA.
_FRANCIS BUCHANAN HAMILTON_, M.D.
* * * * *
ILLUSTRATED WITH ENGRAVINGS.
* * * * *
TO
THE MOST NOBLE
RICHARD MARQUIS WELLESLEY, K.G.
_&c._, _&c._, _&c._
THE FOLLOWING WORK IS INSCRIBED,
AS A MARK OF THE AUTHOR’S ESTEEM,
RESPECT, AND GRATITUDE.
CONTENTS.
Page
INTRODUCTION. 1
CHAPTER FIRST.
_Of the Tribes inhabiting the Territories of Gorkha._
Original Inhabitants—Hindu Colonies, their 9
period—Brahmans, History—Colony from Chitaur—Colony of
Asanti—Success of Colonization in the West, in the
East—Colony of Chaturbhuja—Hindu Tribes east from the
River Kali—Language—Brahmans, Diet, Festivals,
Offspring—Rajputs, adopted, illegitimate—Low
Tribes—General Observations on the Customs of the Mountain
Hindus east from the Kali—Of the Hindus west from the
Kali—Of Tribes who occupied the Country previous to the
Hindus—Manners—Magars—Gurungs—Jariyas—Newars—Murmis—
Kiratas—Limbus—Lapchas—Bhotiyas
CHAPTER SECOND.
_Nature of the Country._
Division into four regions from their relative 61
elevatiom—First, or Plain Region, or
Tariyani—Soil—Productions, Animal and
Vegetable—Cultivation—Climate—Rivers—Second, or Hilly
Region—Productions—Minerals—Forests—Birds—Vallies called
Dun—Cultivation—Climate—Third, or Mountainous
Region—Elevation—Climate—Diseases—Cultivation—Pasture—
Sheep and Cattle—Minerals—Spontaneous
Vegetables—Extent—Fourth, or Alpine
Region—Vallies—Mountains—Productions, Mineral, Animal, and
Vegetable
CHAPTER THIRD.
_Laws and Government._
Parts east from the Kali—Courts, and Forms of 101
Proceeding—Punishments—Provincial Government—Revenue and
Endowments—Officers of State—Military
Establishment—Differences in the parts west from the River
Kali—Revenue and Civil Establishment—Military
Establishment
PART SECOND.
ACCOUNT OF THE PARTICULAR STATES WHICH FORMERLY EXISTED, AND OF THE
FAMILIES BY WHICH EACH WAS GOVERNED.
INTRODUCTION. 117
CHAPTER FIRST.
OF THE STATES EAST FROM THE RIVER KALI.
SECTION FIRST.
_Country of Sikim._
Inhabitants—Government—Extent—History—Geography 118
SECTION II.
_Dominions of the Family descended from Makanda Sen, Raja of
Makwanpur._
General History—Branch of Lohango which occupied the 128
Country of the Kiratas—History—Former Government—Military
Force, Police, and Revenue, and Justice—Present
State—District of Morang—District of Chayenpur—District of
Naragarhi—District of Hedang—District of Makwanpur—Western
Branch, which occupied chiefly the Country of
Palpa—History—Description—Tanahung Family and its
Possessions, and Collateral Branches—Rising, Ghiring, and
Gajarkot
SECTION III.
_Nepal Proper._
Name—History previous to the Conquest by the 186
Gorkhalis—Extent and
Topography—Population—Buildings—Revenue—Trade—Coins—
Weights—Measures—Agriculture—Tenures—Crown Lands—Lands
held for Service—Charity
Lands—Tenants—Implements—Crops—Manufactures—Price of
Labour—Slaves—Diet
SECTION IV.
_The Countries belonging to the Chaubisi and Baisi Rajas._
Chaubisi Rajas—Pamar Family, impure Branch—Bhirkot, 237
Garahang, Dhor, pure
Branch—Nayakot—Satahung—Kaski—Lamjun—Gorkha, Topography,
History—Prithwi, Narayan—Singha Pratap—Bahadur Sahi—Rana
Bahadur—Bhim Sen—Royal Family—Kala Macwani Family—Gulmi,
Khachi, Argha, Dhurkot, Musikot, Isma—Family of Bhingri
and Khungri—Family of Piuthana—Family of Poin—Malihang
Family—The Samal Family; Malebum; Galkot; Rugum; Musikot;
Jajarkot; Bangphi; Gajal; Dharma; Jahari; Satatala;
Malaneta; Saliyana; Dang; Chhilli—The Baisi Rajas—Dalu
Dailek—Duti—Yumila—Taklakot, with the adjacent parts of
Thibet subject to China
CHAPTER SECOND.
_Of the Countries west from the River Kali._
Kumau; History, State—Garhawal; History, 291
State—Sirmaur—Twelve Lordships—Besar—Hanur
SUPPLEMENT TO THE ACCOUNT OF NEPAL.
_Some Information respecting the petty Chiefs who still remain
independent to the west of the Dominions of Nepal or Gorkha._
Kangra—History—State—Kahalur—Bhomor—Kottahar—Yasawal— 309
Datarpur—Gular—Nurpur—Chamba—Kullu—Mundi—Sukhet
REGISTER OF THE WEATHER, from February 1802 to March 1903 318
CALCULATION OF THE ALTITUDES of some of the Snowy 346
Mountains from the Valley of Nepal. By Colonel CRAWFORD
INDEX. 347
DIRECTIONS FOR PLACING THE PLATES.
I. View of the Temple of Bouddhama,
to front the title-page.
II. View of Kathmandu, to front page
209.
III. Himaliya Mountains, Plate 1. )
IV. Himaliya Mountains, Plate 2. )
V. Do. do. Plate 3. ) at the end of the
volume.
VI. Do. do. Plate 4. )
VII. Do. do. Plate 5. )
VIII. Map of the Dominions of Gorkha )
INTRODUCTION.
This Account, which is intended to describe the country as it stood
previously to the war with the British, commencing in the end of the year
1814, is derived chiefly from the following sources.
In the first place, during the years 1802 and 1803, I passed fourteen
months in the country, mostly in the vicinity of Kathmandu, the capital;
and I was accompanied by Ramajai Batacharji, an intelligent Brahman, from
Calcutta, whom I employed to obtain information, so far as I prudently
could, without alarming a jealous government, or giving offence to the
Resident, under whose authority I was acting.
In the next place, assisted by the same person, I passed two years on the
frontier, collecting information, both from the Company’s subjects, and
from numerous refugees and travellers from the dominions of Gorkha. The
following are the persons to whose information I am chiefly indebted:
The account of Sikim is chiefly taken from a Lama, or priest of Buddha,
who, with part of his flock, had fled into the district of Puraniya, to
escape from the violence of the Gorkhalese, and who constructed a map of
the country, which I have deposited in the Company’s library. Besides
the Lama, I consulted many of the natives of the Company’s territory, who
had visited the lower parts of Sikim, and several of the Gorkhalese, and
other people of Nepal; and Mr Smith, of Nathpur, favoured me with several
particulars, collected by a Mr Pagan for the information of government.
Concerning the country between Sikim and Nepal Proper, my information is
chiefly derived from the following persons:
1_st_, Agam Singha, hereditary chief of the Kirats, a tribe bordering
immediately on Nepal, and last Chautariya, or prime minister, of the
princes who governed that people.
2_d_, A Brahman, who was the Munsuf, or civil judge of Bahadurgunj, a
territory in the district of Puraniya belonging to the Company. His
ancestors were hereditary Dewans to the princes who governed the
territory between Nepal and Sikim, that is, the Brahman’s family managed
the princes’ revenue.
3_d_, From Narayan Das, a scribe, (Kayastha,) whose ancestor Janardan
accompanied Lohanga, founder of the late dynasty; and whose descendants
enjoyed the hereditary office of Neb, or second minister to the
successors of that chief, until their final expulsion from the mountains.
4_th_, A slave of the Raja of Gorkha, who entered into my service in
order to bring plants from the Alpine regions; but, finding him very
intelligent, and a great traveller, I employed him to construct a map,
which I have deposited in the Company’s library. In order to enable
himself to execute this with more care, he refreshed his memory by
several journeys in different directions.
5_th_, A Kirat from Hedang, near the Arun river, gave me another map,
which has also been deposited in the Company’s library. It contains only
the eastern parts of the territory in question.
These two maps, together with that of the Lama, as might be expected, are
very rude, and differ in several points; but they coincide in a great
many more, so as to give considerable authority to their general
structure; and, by a careful examination of the whole, many differences,
apparently considerable, may be reconciled. The general authority of the
whole is confirmed by our maps, so far as they go, and by the
intelligence which Colonel Crawford obtained in Nepal.
The account of Nepal Proper is chiefly derived from my own observations,
assisted by those of Ramajai above mentioned and by some communications
with which I was favoured by Colonel Crawford, now Surveyor-General in
Bengal. He favoured me, in particular, with several drawings of the
snowy mountains; and, by orders of the Marquis Wellesley, then
Governor-General, I was furnished with copies of Colonel Crawford’s
valuable geographical surveys and maps of the country.
In one point respecting these maps, I consider myself bound to do justice
to the researches of Colonel Crawford. From a treatise on the sources of
the Ganges, given by H. T. Colebrooke, Esq. in the 11th volume of the
Asiatick Researches, page 429, etc. it might be possibly inferred,
although this, perhaps, was not intended to be expressed, that Colonel
Colebrooke and his kinsman were induced to reject the authority of
D’Anville respecting the sources of the Ganges, merely from examining the
authorities, upon which the course of the Ganges above Haridwar had been
laid down in the geographical charts then in use. Now, the fact is, that
Colonel Colebrooke had other grounds for rejecting the authority of
D’Anville, and especially one of the above-mentioned maps, which had been
officially communicated to him by Colonel Crawford. In this map the
sources of the Ganges are laid down from the reports of pilgrims; nor has
the survey, carried on by the suggestion of Colonel Colebrooke, added any
thing material, so far as relates to the general outlines of these
sources. By this observation I by no means intend to depreciate the
labours of Mr Webb, by whom the survey was conducted; nor the judgment
and love of science evinced in the recommendation of Colonel Colebrooke
to employ him. So long as the matter rested entirely on the report of
pilgrims, doubts would exist; and the survey has not only entirely
removed these, but has given us many details of a country previously
unknown.
Concerning the country between Nepal Proper and the river Kali, I follow
chiefly the authority of the following persons: 1_st_, a Brahman, named
Sadhu Ram Upadhyaya, whose family was in hereditary possession of the
office of priest (Purohit) for the Raja of Palpa, one of the principal
chiefs in this district; 2_d_ and 3_d_, Prati Nidhi Tiwari, and Kanak
Nidhi Tiwari, two brothers of the sacred order, the former very learned,
and the latter a man of business. Their family had been long Mantris, or
advisers of the same chiefs, but came originally from Kumau; 4_th_, Samar
Bahadur, uncle to the Raja of Palpa, now in exile.
Two maps of these parts, now in the Company’s library, were prepared by
Sadhu Ram and Kanak Nidhi, with the assistance of Kamal Lochan, one of
the natives attached to the survey of Bengal, on which I was engaged.
Although they differ in some points, they agree in so many more,
especially in the eastern parts, that considerable reliance may be placed
on their giving some tolerable idea of the country.
Finally, concerning the parts west of the river Kali, in the rainy season
1814 I proceeded up the Ganges, with a view of going to Haridwar, where I
expected to procure intelligence; but, fortunately, I met at Futtehgur
with a person well qualified for the purpose. This was Hariballabh, a
Brahman born in Kumau, but who has been long in the service of the
Garhawal Rajas, and has travelled much in the adjacent parts. A map of
the western parts of the dominions of Gorkha, now also in the Company’s
library, was composed by Hariballabh, with the assistance of Kamal
Lochan. The same person gave me another map explaining the country,
which extends some way west from the Sutluj, and of which a short account
will be found in the Appendix.
I regret, that, on the banks of the Karanali, there intervenes a space,
with which none of my informants were well acquainted, its communications
being entirely with the country belonging to the Nawab Vazir.
I shall have very frequent occasion to mention the account of Nepal by
Colonel Kirkpatrick; and, although I often differ from him in opinion,
and think it my duty to state these points fully, yet no one can be more
sensible, knowing well the difficulties he encountered, of the merits of
his work, which is, on the whole, perfectly conformable to his well-known
thirst for information and judgment in the acquisition of knowledge. I
must here, however, in a general way, caution the reader to place little
confidence in the names given in the printed work. I have no doubt, that
the numerous errors in the names are to be attributed to the printing of
the work having been entrusted to some person entirely ignorant of the
native language; and who, therefore, could not be led, by a knowledge of
this, to read the names in the manuscript with accuracy. But, besides
this source of error, in some degree, perhaps, unavoidable, the printer
seems to have been uncommonly careless in reading even those names that
are known to Europeans. Thus, (in page 131,) speaking of the birds of
Nepal, he has as follows: “The two last belong to the genus of pheasants,
the damphia being of the golden, and the monal of the argheer, or spotted
sort.” There can be no doubt, that Colonel Kirkpatrick wrote argus, and
not argheer, which has no meaning.
The utmost negligence may be also observed in a matter of more
importance; for, in the route from Kathmandu to Beni, the capital of
Malebum, given in page 290, all the stages from Deoralli 1st, to Ragho
Powa, both inclusive, are evidently transposed, as going through the
territory of Lamjun and Kaski, after having entered Malebum at
Kusmachoor, while both Lamjun and Kaski are between Kathmandu and
Malebum. I suspect, also, that the person entrusted with the printing
has introduced some matter of his own about the Hindu religion, several
passages on that subject being unlike the sentiments of a person of
Colonel Kirkpatrick’s known sense and observation.
PART FIRST.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
INTRODUCTION.
Nepal, a name celebrated in Hindu legend, in a strict sense, ought to be
applied to that country only which is in the vicinity of Kathmandu, the
capital; but at present it is usually given to the whole territory of the
Gorkha Rajas, which occupies about thirteen degrees of longitude, and
five of latitude. It is my intention now to give an account of the whole
of this territory, so far as has come to my knowledge.
East from the territory called Nepal Proper, the mountains were chiefly
occupied by a tribe called Kirat or Kichak, who, in remote times, seem to
have made extensive conquests in the plains of Kamrup and Matsya, now
constituting the districts of Ranggapur and Dinajpur. Although these
conquests had long been lost to the Kirats, yet Father Giuseppe, who
witnessed the conquest of Nepal by the Gorkhalese, and gives a good
account of the horrid circumstances attending that event, {7} considers
the Kiratas (Ciratas) in the year 1769 as being an independent nation.
Now, although this would not appear to be strictly exact, as the Kirats
had then been long subject to Rajput princes; yet the Father is
abundantly justifiable in what he has advanced; for the Kirats formed the
principal strength of these Rajput chiefs, their hereditary chief held
the second office in the state, (Chautariya,) and the Rajputs, who were
united with them, did not presume to act as masters, to invade their
lands, or violate their customs. These Kirats are frequently mentioned
in Hindu legend as occupying the country between Nepal and Madra, the
ancient denomination in Hindu writings for the country which we call
Bhotan.
Towards the west again, the country between Nepal and Kasmir, over which
the present rulers of the former have far extended their dominion, in the
ancient Hindu writings is called Khas, and its inhabitants Khasiyas. I
am told, that, wherever mentioned in ancient records, like the Kirats,
their neighbours to the west, the Khasiyas are considered as abominable
and impure infidels.
CHAPTER FIRST.
OF THE TRIBES INHABITING THE TERRITORIES OF GORKHA.
Original Inhabitants.—Hindu Colonies, their period.—Brahmans,
History.—Colony from Chitaur.—Colony of Asanti.—Success of Colonization
in the West,—in the East.—Colony of Chaturbhuja.—Hindu Tribes east from
the River Kali.—Language.—Brahmans, Diet, Festivals, Offspring.—Rajputs,
adopted, illegitimate.—Low Tribes.—General Observations on the Customs of
the Mountain Hindus east from the Kali.—Of the Hindus west from the
Kali.—Of Tribes who occupied the Country previous to the
Hindus.—Manners.—Magars.—Gurungs.—Jariyas.—Newars.—Murmis.—Kiratas.—
Limbus.—Lapchas.—Bhotiyas.
The numerous valleys among the prodigious mountains, of which Nepal in
its extended sense consists, are inhabited by various tribes, that differ
very much in language, and somewhat in customs. All that have any sort
of pretensions to be considered as aboriginal, like their neighbours of
Bhotan to the east, are, by their features, clearly marked as belonging
to the Tartar or Chinese race of men, and have no sort of resemblance to
the Hindus.
The time when the Hindus penetrated into these regions is very uncertain.
Bhim Sen, the son of Pandu, is said to have penetrated into these parts,
and probably was the first who introduced any sort of improvement. He
still continues to be a favourite object with the rude tribes, not only
on the mountains, but in their vicinity. Probably at no great distance
from the time of that prince, and about the commencement of our era,
Sakya, the last great teacher of the Bouddhists, passed through the
country, and settled at Lasa, where he is supposed to be still alive in
the person whom we call the Grand Lama. His followers seem to have
acquired a great ascendancy over all the tribes of Nepal, as well as in
Thibet and Bhotan, which they retained until a subsequent colony of
Hindus settled in the first of these countries, and introduced the
Brahmans, who have had considerable success in destroying the heretical
doctrines, although these have still numerous votaries.
Colonel Kirkpatrick, or perhaps rather his editor, seems to have
entertained a very different opinion concerning the period when the
Hindus penetrated into Nepal. Speaking of Sambhunath, he says, {10}
“After all, it is highly probable that the sanctity of this spot might be
safely referred to a period very anterior both to the Newar and Khat
Bhotiya dynasties (who preceded the Newars) of Nepaul, since the sacred
books of the Hindus leave scarcely any room to doubt, that the religion
of Brahma has been established from the most remote antiquity in this
secluded valley, where there are nearly as many idols as inhabitants,
there not being a fountain, a river, or hill within its limits, that is
not consecrated to one or other of the Hindu deities.” What idea the
author may have held of the terms Hindu and religion of Brahma, I cannot
say. If he meant by Hindu whatever colonists may have come from the
plains, I agree with him, and have stated, that Bhim Sen and Sakya Singha
seem, in early ages, to have penetrated into the mountains, and to have
introduced civilization. But I think him mistaken, if, by Hindu, he
means the followers of the present Brahmans, introduced into India from
Saka Dwip by the son of Krishna, contemporary with Bhim Sen; and if, by
the religion of Brahma, he means the doctrine taught by these Brahmans,
who do not, however, worship that deity. In the first place, I have been
assured, that, in the sacred books of the Hindus, that is to say, in the
Puranas attributed to Vayasa, the Khas and Kiratas, the ancient
inhabitants of the mountains, are always spoken of as impure infidels.
Again, the number of idols and places consecrated in Nepal to the Hindu
gods is no sort of proof that the doctrines of the Brahmans have existed
long in the country; for the Bouddhists, who follow the doctrine of
Sakya, admit of the worship of the same inferior deities (Devatas) with
the Brahmans, both having probably adopted their worship from sects that
had previously existed. Farther, the changes in the names of places,
since the Hindu conquest, has been rapid almost beyond conception; for
instance, the capitals of the three principalities into which Nepal was
divided, and which are now called Kathmandu, Lalita Patana, and Bhatgang,
and which, in 1802, I always heard called by these names, were, during
the Newar government, which ended in 1767, called Yin Daise, Yulloo
Daise, and Khopo Daise. {11} To these circumstances, explanatory of the
author’s mistake, I must add the statements, which will follow, and which
reduce the arrival of the present Hindu colonies to a modern period, or
to the fourteenth century of the Christian era.
According to the traditions most commonly current in Nepal, the Hindus of
the mountains (Parbatiya) left their own country in consequence of an
invasion by the Muhammedan king of Dilli, who wished to marry a daughter
of the Raja of Chitor, or Chitaur, celebrated for her beauty. A refusal
brought on the destruction of her father and his capital city; and, to
avoid a hateful yoke, many of the people fled to the hills. A somewhat
similar story, related in the translation of Fereshtah by Dow, would seem
to verify the truth of the tradition, and fix its date to the 1306 year
of our era.
In opposition to this tradition, very generally received at Kathmandu,
and throughout the eastern parts of the Nepalese dominions, Hariballabh
contends, that there was a certain Asanti, a prince descended of
Shalivahana in the seventh or eighth generation, and who, therefore,
should have lived in about the second or third century of the Christian
era, but whom Hariballabh supposes to have lived seven or eight hundred
years ago, in which case the Shalivahana from whom he was descended must
have been different from the prince whose name has been given to an era.
Asanti came to these mountains, and established a kingdom extending from
Pesaur to Morang, and having for its capital Karuvirpur, a town near
Almorha. His descendants were called Suryabangsi Rajputs, and with them
came pure Brahmans, whose doctrines gradually gained ground by the
addition of colonists, and the progress of generation. This progress
would appear to have been very slow, for I cannot find, even in Kumau,
the seat of the first colonists, that there are now any other Brahmans,
except those called the Brahmans of Kumau, a colony avowedly introduced
from Kanoj by Thor Chandra, who lived after the middle of the fifteenth
century of the Christian era, and, therefore, subsequent to the colony
from Chitaur. The country had previously been inhabited by Jars, Magars,
and other impure and infidel tribes, and great numbers of these continued
under the descendants of Asanti as cultivators; but, west of the Soyal,
there was no Raja who was not of pure birth, although the barbarous
chiefs continued to hold most of the country east from thence, tributary,
however, to the descendants of Shalivahana. Hariballabh remembers the
names of only the three first of Asanti’s successors, namely, Basanti,
Dham Deva, and Brahma Deva; but his descendants continued, for a
considerable time, to enjoy a supremacy over the chiefs of the hills,
although their power was much reduced by family dissensions, and by
appanages granted to collateral branches. Various turbulent chiefs, that
successively came from the low country, took advantage of this weakness
to reduce the authority of the descendants of Asanti to a jurisdiction
nearly nominal; and, in the reign of Akbur, the government of Karuvirpur
was totally overturned by the petty chief of Kumau, who pretended to be
of the ancient family of the moon, and whose ancestors, a few generations
before, had succeeded, by an abominable act of treachery, in obtaining a
settlement in the hills. Indeed, it is generally admitted, even by
themselves, that all, or at least most of the chiefs, who came from the
low country, used similar means, that is, entered into the service of the
mountaineers, and, having gained their confidence by a superior knowledge
and polish of manners, contrived to put them to death, and to seize their
country.
This conduct is justified, in their opinion, by their having abolished
the impure and abominable customs that previously existed among the
mountaineers; and, in conformity with this common principle, all the
chiefs west of the river Kali glory in having either totally expelled or
extirpated the original inhabitants, and in having established, in its
full height, the purity of the Hindu doctrines.
To the east of the Kali river, the chiefs have not been actuated by so
pure a zeal, and not only have permitted many of the mountain tribes to
remain and practise their abominations, but have themselves relaxed, in
many essential points, from the rules of cast, and have debased their
blood by frequent intermixtures with that of the mountaineers; while such
of these as chose to embrace the slender degree of purity required in
these parts, have been admitted to the high dignities of the military
order.
Perhaps, in the parts west from the river Kali, the Hindus from the south
have not, in fact, been so bad as they pretend; and, although no one is
willing to acknowledge a deficiency of zeal, or a descent from
barbarians, yet, in fact, they may have permitted to remain such of the
cultivators as chose to adopt the rules of purity, and to take the name
of Sudras. I have not seen a sufficient number of the people from that
part of the country to enable me to judge how far this may have been the
case; for all the original tribes of the mountains, as already stated,
have strongly marked Chinese or Tartar countenances, when the breed has
not been improved by a mixture with people of more elegant features.
According to Sadu Ram and Samar Bahadur, when the colony from Chitaur,
mentioned above, arrived at the mountains east from the Kali, in the
beginning of the fourteenth century of the Christian era, they found the
whole occupied by impure or infidel tribes, nor for some time did any of
the sacred order, nor any descendants of the colony, extend beyond the
limits of their conquests. Gradually, however, the descendants of the
colony, and especially the members of the sacred order, who indulged very
much in promiscuous amours, spread wide over the mountainous region, and
multiplied exceedingly, introducing everywhere, as much as possible, the
modern doctrines of purity and law, modified, however, a good deal, to
accommodate it to the licence which the mountaineers exercised in the
intercourse of the sexes, and in eating. In this conversion the Brahmans
have had great success, and most of the chiefs of the highland tribes
have adopted the rules of purity, and are called Rajputs, while various
fables and genealogies have been contrived to gratify their vanity, by
connecting their history with Hindu legend.
Concerning the colony from Chitaur I received another account, from the
Mahanta, or prior of the convent of Janmasthan, at Ayodhya. He alleges,
that Chaturbhuja, a prince of the Sisaudhiya tribe, having left Chitaur,
conquered Kumau and Yumila, where he established his throne, from whence
his family spread to Palpa Tanahung and the Kirats. The supremacy very
lately admitted by all the eastern mountain chiefs to the Rajas of
Yumila, is a strong presumption in favour of this opinion. Many chiefs,
and especially the Palpa Tanahung and Makwanpur families, pretend to be
descended of the Chitaur princes; but it is very doubtful whether they
have any claim to a descent so illustrious, for the Mahanta said, that,
after some generations, all the hill chiefs rebelled, and paid only a
nominal obedience to the Raja of Yumila, nor does Samar Bahadur, uncle of
the Palpa Raja, claim kindred with that chief, while one of the branches
of his family still remains impure. But, if this tradition be
well-founded, the Yumila, or Kumau principality, or at least its
possession by the Rajputs, must have been subsequent to 1306, which will
not admit of above twenty-five generations, instead of the fifty or sixty
which the Brahmans of that country allot for the arrival of Asanti. This
difference may, however, be explained. Chaturbhuja, as well as a
fortunate Brahman, who obtained Malebum, as will be afterwards mentioned,
may have married the daughter of the former chief of Yumila, and thus
succeeded to the power; and the fifty or sixty generations, in both
cases, may include both the original family, and those who succeeded by
marriage. But, if the Mahanta is right, the Yumila or Karuvir family, in
place of being descended of Shalivahana, was descended of the princes of
Ajmir and Chitaur.
In giving an account of the tribes now occupying the dominions of Nepal,
I shall first commence with these Hindu colonists, as having acquired the
predominance; but I must premise, that very considerable differences
prevail in their customs in different parts, and especially that those in
the countries east from the Kali differ much from those who live west
from that river. I shall commence with the former, with whom I am best
acquainted.
The language spoken by the mountain Hindus in the vicinity of Kathmandu,
is usually called the Parbatiya basha, or mountain dialect; but west from
the capital, it is more commonly known by the name of Khas basha, or
dialect of the Khas country, because it seems to have been first
introduced into the territory of that name. I have lodged in the
Company’s library a copious vocabulary of this dialect, from whence the
learned may judge how far it is probable that it came from Chitor; for
there can be no doubt, that it is a dialect of the Hindwi language, and
it is making rapid progress in extinguishing the aboriginal dialects of
the mountains.
The character in which this language is written is evidently derived from
the Nagri, and may be found in Colonel Kirkpatrick’s Account of Nepaul,
opposite to page 220; and in the twenty-eight following pages may be seen
a short vocabulary.
East from the Kali, the Brahmans, who are of pure birth, are only few in
number, there being no means for their subsistence, as they confine
themselves mostly to the duties of the sacred order. They are of the
Kanoj nation, and the sect of the Saktis, following chiefly the doctrine
of the books called Tantras. Where the chiefs who pretend to have come
from Chitaur settled, many of them were men of great learning. In other
parts, very few have made any sort of progress in grammar, law, or
philosophy; but they are considered as profound astrologers. Although
very few have taken service either from men or in temples, they
contaminate themselves by uncommon liberties in the gratification of
their appetites. They are divided into three ranks that do not
intermarry. The highest are called Jayurbedi, from the sacred book which
they profess to follow, and they assume the title of Upadhyaya. These
are the instructors (Gurus) and priests (Purohits) for Brahmans and
Rajputs, and eat goats, sheep, and some kinds of wild fowl, but abstain
from venison. The two lower orders are called Kamiya and Purubi, and act
as instructors and priests for the lower orders. These not only eat the
same animals as those of the highest rank, but many of them rear fowls
and swine for their tables.
The sixteen principal festivals observed by the mountain Hindus have been
described by Colonel Kirkpatrick, {17} nor have I any additional
information to offer.
All the Brahmans may keep widows of their own class as concubines, and
the spurious offspring of such connections are called Jausis. These,
having betaken themselves to agriculture and commerce, have become
exceedingly numerous, and are reduced to perform every kind of drudgery.
Among the poor people whom I observed coming to the markets in the
Gorakhpur district, loaded with goods even from the distant hills of
Malebum, at least a half stated themselves to be of this class. These,
although of illegitimate extraction, are not called Khas; but, until the
present dynasty seized on the government, were considered as entitled to
all the immunities and privileges of the sacred order, as were also the
children of Brahmans by widows of their own rank.
The descendants of Brahmans by women of the lower tribes, although
admitted to be Khas, or impure, are called Kshatris or Khatris, which
terms are considered as perfectly synonymous, and have now formed two
tribes, Pauriyal and Sili; but some proper Khatris, called Dewkotas and
Lahauriyas, from Bareli and Lahaur, have settled in the country, and
intermarry with the Pauriyal and Sili, all of whom wear the thread, and
are considered as belonging to the military tribes.
The Rajputs that are, or that even pretend to be, descended of the colony
which came from Chitaur, are very few in number; but the families of the
mountain chiefs, who have adopted the Hindu rules of purity, and even
some who have neglected to do so, are now universally admitted to be
Rajputs; and the Chitaur family have so often married the daughters of
the former, that several members of it have acquired the Tartar
countenance, while some of the mountain families, by intermarriages with
pure but indigent Rajputs, have acquired oval faces and high noses. Not
only the colony, therefore, from Chitaur, if the Palpa family be such,
but all the descendants of the hill chiefs, are now called Rajputs; and,
until the absorption of all power in the Gorkha family, the Rajputs held
all the principal civil and military offices of the petty states into
which the country was subdivided. It would also appear, that, when the
princes of the mountaineers were persuaded to follow the doctrines of the
Brahmans, many of their subjects or clans were induced to follow the
example of their chiefs, and thus have established tribes called Thapas,
Ghartis, Karkis, Majhis, Basnats, Bishtakos, Ranas, and Kharkas, all of
whom are called Khasiyas, or natives of Khas, but they wear the thread,
and live pure like Kshatris, and, in fact, are included among the
fencibles or military power of the country, and are very much employed in
the government of the family of Gorkha, under which some of them enjoy
the highest dignities of the state; for Bhim Sen, who is now vested with
the whole power of the kingdom, is by birth a Thapa, as is also Amar
Singha Karyi, who commands the army beyond the Yamuna. Among those
called Khasiyas, thus adopted into the military order, there may be many
others, of which I did not hear; but it would not appear, even when they
adopted fully the rules of purity, that the whole of these tribes
obtained so elevated a rank, which is almost equal to that of the sacred
bastards. The Thapas, for instance, are of two kinds, Khas and Ranggu;
yet the latter, although they live pure, and have pure Brahmans to give
them instruction, and to perform their ceremonies, are not permitted to
wear the military badge, nor to intermarry with those who enjoy this
privilege. The Ghartis, also, are of two kinds, Khas and Bhujal. The
former are admitted to the military dignity; but the latter wallow in all
the abominations of the impure Gurungs, and do not speak the Khas
language. The Ranas, also, are divided into two kinds, the Khas and
Magar. The latter are a branch of the Magar tribe, and totally neglect
the rules of Hindu purity. It is not even, as I have said, all the
Rajputs that have adopted the rules of purity, and some branches of the
same families were pure, while others rejected the advice of the sacred
order, and eat and drank whatever their appetites craved.
All these military tribes, including the Khasiyas, descended of Brahmans
or Khatris, who are more numerous than all the others, the Rajputs,
Thapas, etc. have again had children by widows of their own cast, and by
concubines of lower tribes, and these children are also called Khasiyas,
who, although they live equally pure, and observe equally the laws of the
Brahmans, are not permitted to wear the thread of distinction; but must
toil in ignoble professions. They are considered as of so little
consequence, that, of whatever descent they may be by the male line, they
may all freely intermarry. They speak the Khas language.
The low tribes, which also speak this language, are all supposed to form
part of the colony from Chitaur; but here there is a considerable number
of a tribe called Khawas, who are slaves, and accompanied the chief as
his domestic servants, having been in slavery at Chitaur. They are
reckoned a pure tribe, and their women are not abandoned to prostitution
like the slaves of the mountain tribes called Ketis. The Khawas adhered
to the chiefs of the Chitaur family, and were employed in confidential
offices, such as stewards; while these chiefs soon indulged in the luxury
of having mountain slaves round their persons. Next in rank, in the
following order, are,
1. Nai, or barbers. A Brahman may drink their water.
2. Karmi, who build and thatch houses, and Chunra, or carpenters. These
have degraded Brahmans as instructors.
3. Kami, miners and workers in iron and copper; Sarki, tanners and
shoemakers; Damai, tailors and musicians. All these are vile, and have
no priests but of their own cast. Any Musulman or Christian, however,
who should cohabit with a Damai woman, would suffer death, and the woman
would be severely punished; but, according to the Hindu law, a female,
however low in rank, cannot for any crime be deprived of life. When any
woman has been discovered with a Musulman, the whole kingdom is thrown
into confusion. Even if she has been of the lowest cast, she may have
given water to some person of the cast immediately above her own. He may
again have given it to a higher, and thus the whole inhabitants may have
been involved in sin and disgrace. This can only be expiated by a
ceremony called Prayaschitta, in which the prince washes in the river
with great ceremony, and bestows large sums on the Brahmans, who read the
expiatory prayers proper on the occasion. The expense of an expiation of
this kind, which was performed during our stay in this country, was, by
my Brahman, estimated at two thousand rupees; but the natives alleged
that it amounted to ten times this sum.
Colonel Kirkpatrick {21a} mentions the Dhewars as husbandmen and fishers
of the western district, from which circumstance we may conclude that
they belong to the Hindu colony; but I did not hear of them, as my
account of the Parbatiya tribes was chiefly derived from the central
parts. From the condition of similar tribes on the plains, these Dhewars
probably belong to the third of the ranks above enumerated, although the
Majhis, (Mhanjhees,) whom Colonel Kirkpatrick joins with the Dhewars,
were represented to me as a tribe of original Khas, which has been
converted by the Hindus, and admitted into the military order.
Colonel Kirkpatrick then states, {21b} “That Nepaul, having been ruled
for many centuries past by Rajput princes, and the various classes of
Hindus appearing in all periods to have composed a great proportion of
its population, we are naturally prepared to find a general resemblance
in manners and customs between this part of its inhabitants, and kindred
sects established in adjacent countries; accordingly, the differences are
so faint as to be scarcely discernible in a single instance.” Now, I
must here observe, that Nepal, in the proper sense of the word, when
Colonel Kirkpatrick wrote, had not been governed for half a century by
chiefs, who even pretended to be descended of a Hindu colony, for the
Rajas of Nepal were Newars, who deny this extraction. They indeed called
themselves Rajputs, that is, the descendants of princes, but so does the
king of Ava, although no one ever imagined that he is descended of the
Rajputs in Hindustan. I shall afterwards have occasion to show, that the
various classes of Hindus, that is, of the natives of India, who have
adopted the Brahmans for spiritual guides, have not in all periods
composed a great proportion of the population, nor have even entered any
part of the country as residents. At present, indeed, in most parts of
the kingdom, except in Nepal itself, they, or converts to their doctrine,
form a large proportion of the inhabitants; and the more recent the
importation, I should expect the greater resemblance between the
colonists and the inhabitants of the plains of India; but, in fact, the
resemblance, though strong, is not so complete as Colonel Kirkpatrick’s
short stay amongst them induced him to suppose, as will appear from what
I shall afterwards state.
These mountain Hindus appear to me a deceitful and treacherous people,
cruel and arrogant towards those in their power, and abjectly mean
towards those from whom they expect favour. Their men of rank, even of
the sacred order, pass their nights in the company of male and female
dancers and musicians, and, by an excessive indulgence in pleasure, are
soon exhausted. Their mornings are passed in sleep, and the day is
occupied by the performance of religious ceremonies, so that little time
remains for business, or for storing their minds with useful knowledge.
Except a few of the Brahmans, they are, in general, drunkards, which,
joined to a temper uncommonly suspicious, and to a consciousness of
having neglected the conjugal duties, works them up to a fury of jealousy
that frequently produces assassination. For this they are all prepared,
by wearing a large knife in their girdle, and the point of honour
requires them never to rest, until they have shed the blood of the man
who has been suspected of a criminal intercourse with their wives. The
jealous man watches his opportunity for months, and even for years,
should his adversary be on his guard; and, having at length found a
favourable time, with one stroke of his knife in the throat of his rival,
he satisfies his revenge. This is considered as so commendable, that, at
Kathmandu, the police, in other respects very strict, does not at all
interfere, although the murderer is often actuated merely by suspicion.
The higher ranks, whenever not compelled by the most urgent necessity,
conceal their women; and their widows ought to burn themselves with their
husbands’ corpse. Many, however, refuse, nor did I learn that force is
ever used. The custom seems, however, more prevalent than in any part of
India where I have been, the vicinity of Calcutta excepted.
The appearance and dress of the lower orders of these Parbatiya Hindus is
represented in the plate opposite to page 40 of Kirkpatrick’s Nepaul,
where the figure, behind those seated, is a porter of this tribe.
In these eastern parts of the dominions of Nepal, the mountain Hindus are
far from having extirpated the aboriginal tribes, most of which, until
the accession of the Gorkha family, enjoyed their customs and religion
with little or no disturbance, and they are still numerous and powerful,
as will be afterwards mentioned; but, west from the Kali river, there is
a great difference. The whole people in Kumau, and Garhawal at least, as
well as their language, are called Khasiyas, as having settled in the
Khas country; but all pretend to be descended of colonists from the
south, and disclaim every connection with the original impure barbarians.
West from Garhawal, the term Khas is altogether rejected, and it is
pretended that this impure race never held the country. Each cast, west
from the Kali, preserves its race with the utmost care; nor are widows of
the high cast permitted to become concubines. Except in a very few
places, near the passes through the snowy mountains, the aboriginal
inhabitants are alleged to have been obliged entirely to conform to the
rules of Hindu purity, and to reject their ancient forms of worship; for
I hope that the colonists from the south are not so bad as they pretend,
and that religious zeal has not had such a victory over humanity as they
allege; for the fear of being thought in any degree contaminated by the
infidel Khas, would make them carefully conceal whatever indulgence
humanity may have wrung from intolerance. To such a height is caution on
this subject required, that the people, who have settled near the passes
in the snowy mountains, although acknowledged as of the same tribes with
those nearer the plain, and although they use the same language and
manners, are called Bhotiyas, and are no longer permitted to intermarry
with the people who can have no intercourse with these impure infidels.
On account of this strictness, the Rajputs of the western districts are
as much courted by those of the plains, as those east from the Kali are
scouted.
The mountain tribes, which I consider aboriginal, as I have said, have
Chinese or Tartar faces, but each spoke a peculiar language. Some used a
written character altered from the Nagri, so as to enable it to express
their utterance; others had not the use of letters. Before the arrival
of Hindu colonies, they had no idea of cast; but some of the tribes
confined their marriages to their own nation, while others admitted of
intermarriages with strangers. The women in all seem to enjoy great
indulgence, and are allowed, as in Europe, to form a choice for
themselves, after they have arrived at mature years.
In all these hill tribes the women were weavers, and seem to have enjoyed
great privileges; but the plurality of husbands had not been introduced
with the religion of Thibet. Until the arrival of the Rajputs, they seem
all to have eaten every kind of animal food, and still do so whenever
they are at liberty to indulge their inclinations. They still continue
to drink spirituous liquors. Each tribe appears originally to have had a
priesthood and deities peculiar to itself, although the worship of Bhim
Sen, the son of Pandu, seems to be very general, and to have been that
which preceded the doctrine of the Buddhas; but first the Lamas, or,
perhaps, rather the Zogis, and then the Brahmans, have made
encroachments, and at the same time introduced many new customs. They
have not yet introduced the custom of inoculation for the small-pox, and
those who are seized are put into a separate hut, to which the friends
daily convey water and food, but do not enter; and the sick is allowed to
take his chance. They are all very slovenly and dirty.
The tribes, which, on the arrival of the colonies from Hindustan,
occupied the country east from the Kali river, (for those to the west
have been extirpated or abolished,) were chiefly Magars, Gurungs,
Jariyas, Newars, Murmis, Kirats, Limbus, Lapchas, and Bhotiyas. Colonel
Kirkpatrick {25} mentions also people called Nuggerkoties and Hawoos, of
whom I have not heard. All these tribes he calls Hindus of the meanest
cast; but on what foundation, unless that they are Pagans, and neither
Christians nor Muhammedans, I do not know.
The Magars, called Mungurs by Colonel Kirkpatrick, occupied a great
proportion of the lower hills in the western parts, seem to have received
the Rajput chiefs with much cordiality, and have now adopted a great part
of the ferocious customs of these mountain Hindus. They eat copiously
the flesh of hogs, goats, sheep, ducks, and fowls, but now abstain from
beef. They are much addicted to intoxication, and are excessively cruel
and treacherous; but they are men of great bodily vigour and mental
activity. They have, in general, submitted to the guidance of the same
Brahmans and Sannyasis that instruct the Rajputs; but formerly had
priests of their own tribe called Damis, and seemed to have worshipped
chiefly ghosts. They marry only one wife.
The family of Gorkha which now governs Nepal, although it pretends to
come from Chitaur, according to Sadu Ram, a good authority, is, in
reality, of the Magar tribe; and, at any rate, these people are now
firmly attached to its interests, by having largely shared in the sweets
of conquest; and by far the greatest part of the regular troops of that
family is composed of this nation. Colonel Kirkpatrick {26a} has given a
short vocabulary of its language, which has no affinity to the Parbatiya
or Sangskrita. In the vocabulary which I have deposited in the Company’s
library, will be seen a more full specimen of the Magar language, which
now, at least, is written in the Nagri character. By many of the
soldiery, owing to their frequent absence from home, for the purpose of
attending at court, it has been entirely forgotten. In a short time,
therefore, it is highly probable that this people may unite with the
mountain Hindus, and be considered as one of their casts. When I was at
Kathmandu, indeed, I found that many people were then of this opinion;
and Colonel Kirkpatrick {26b} includes them among the Kshatriya or
military cast. But hitherto the tribe has been so powerful, that many
people in the west speak its language although they do not belong to it;
and by far the greatest number adhere to the original impurity of life
which their ancestors embraced. Before the arrival of the Rajputs, it is
said, that this nation consisted of twelve Thums, or clans, the whole
members of each being supposed to have a common extraction in the male
line; and a man and woman of the same blood could not intermarry. Each
Thum was governed by a chief, considered as the head of a common family.
Near the Magars was settled a numerous tribe named Gurung, whose wealth
chiefly consisted in sheep, but whose manners are, in most respects,
nearly the same with those of the Magars, except that, in the course of
their pastoral life, they frequent the Alpine regions in summer, and
return to the valleys in winter. The men also employ themselves in
weaving blankets; but they are a tribe addicted to arms. A chief who
pretended to be of the Hindu colony, and who was Raja of Kaski, having
either settled where these Gurungs were the most predominant tribe, in
the districts of Gangrong Postong and Argong, or being, in fact, of the
Gurung tribe,—these people were strongly attached to his descendants, by
whom they were not disturbed in their religious opinions or customs, and
they continued to follow the doctrines of Sakya, as explained to them by
Lamas of their own tribe, who were supposed qualified to give them
instruction, and to direct their ceremonies. These persons are said
never to have given themselves the trouble of studying the language of
Thibet, and, therefore, were probably not very conversant in the
doctrines of Sakya, which they professed to teach. The Gurungs remain in
these parts in great numbers, and still adhere to the Lamas; nor do I
hear that any of them have been admitted to the dignity of Khasiya,
although perhaps the Ghartis, above mentioned as belonging to that class
of Hindus, may be of this race, as one part of the Ghartis, that still
remains impure, is said to live among the Gurungs, and to have similar
manners. There are, at any rate, several tribes of Gurungs, such as
Nisi, Bhuji, Ghali, and Thagsi. The latter live nearest the snow; but
all the Gurungs require a cold climate, and live much intermixed with the
Bhotiyas on both sides of the snow-covered peaks of Emodus, and in the
narrow valleys interposed, which, in the language of the country, are
called Langna. The Gurungs cultivate with the hoe, and are diligent
traders and miners. They convey their goods on sheep, of which they have
numerous flocks.
The Jariyas formed a very numerous tribe, occupying much of the lower
hilly region between the Kali and Nepal Proper, south from the Gurungs,
and intermixed with the Magars. There can be little doubt that the
Malebum family was of the Jariya tribe; but one of the chiefs having an
only daughter, gave her in marriage to a Brahman, and from this source
spring the families of Malebum, and its numerous collateral branches,
with a large proportion of the Rajputs of this part of the country;
although, where not of a chief’s family, the offspring of a Brahman by a
Sudra is reckoned a Khasiya. I have not heard that any of the Jariyas
continue to be viewed as impure; and I think it probable, that they have
all obtained the rank of Khas, although it is generally admitted, that
they had a dialect peculiar to themselves; but of this I could procure no
specimen.
The Khas Ranas, there is no doubt, were originally Magars; but whether
the Thapas, Karkis, Majhis, Basnats, Bishtakos, and Kharkas, all now
considered as Hindus of the Khas tribe, were branches of the Magar race,
or Jariyas, or Gurungs, I cannot take upon myself to say. I can only
observe, that, in this vicinity, I heard of no tribes but the Magars,
Jariyas, and Gurungs, that spoke languages different from the Khas, and
that there is no reason to suppose the Thapas, etc. to have come from
Chitaur; although, on adopting the religion and laws of that country,
they have also adopted its language, but many of them still speak the
Magar tongue.
The more fertile part of what is called Nepal Proper, was chiefly
occupied by the Newars, a race addicted to agriculture and commerce, and
far more advanced in the arts than any other of the mountain tribes.
Their style of building, and most of their other arts, appear to have
been introduced from Thibet, and the greater part still adhere to the
tenets of the Buddhs; but they have adopted the doctrine of cast, have
rejected the Lamas, and have a priesthood of their own called Bangras.
Their own chiefs, of a family called by the common title of Mal, at the
time when conquered by the Raja of Gorkha, had divided into three
branches, governing Kathmandu, Lalita-Patan, and Bhatgang. During the
government of these chiefs a good many of the Newars had rejected the
doctrine of Sakya, and adopted the worship of Siva, but without changing
their manners, which are chiefly remarkable for a most extraordinary
carelessness about the conduct of their women; neither have they adopted
the Brahmans as their priests. Some of themselves, with the title of
Achar, have assumed the manners and authority of the sacred order.
Thus the Newars, in point of religion, are divided into two sects. A
very small portion has forsaken the doctrine of Buddha, while by far the
most numerous class adhere to the doctrines taught by Sakya Singha.
Colonel Kirkpatrick {29} seems to think, that the worshippers of Buddha
among the Newars, whom he calls Bahauras, (Bangras,) are only a trifling
portion, “who have apostatized in a certain degree from the religious
creed of their countrymen at some period subsequent to their conquest of
Nepaul, or, at least, to have grafted upon it a considerable portion of
the idolatry of Thibet.” If this had been the case, we should have found
the greater part of the Newars adhering to the Brahmans, which is not the
case; and the portion which has adopted the doctrine of the Vedas,
rejecting the sacred order of the Hindus, have the Achars as priests of
their own. The probable cause of Colonel Kirkpatrick’s supposing the
followers of Buddha among the Newars to be small in number is explained
by another passage, {30} where the Bangras are called Bhanras, and are
stated to be a sort of separatists from the Newars, and to amount to
about 5000. He does not seem to have been aware, that these were merely
the priests of this sect, and that such a number in the priesthood
implies a very large proportion of the sect.
The worshippers of Siva among the Newars in their religious opinions
follow the doctrine of the Vedas, as explained by Sankara Acharya; but
they do not receive the Brahmans as their Gurus, or instructors, and in
spirituals are subordinate to a class of Newars, who are called Achars or
Doctors, who are both their instructors (Gurus) and priests, (Purohits,)
and who differ in birth and name only from the Brahmans.
Among the Sivamarg Newars, or those who worship Maha Deva, the Achars are
considered as the highest cast; but their superiority is not acknowledged
by those who worship Bouddha. They officiate as priests (Pujaris) in the
temples of Siva and of the Saktis, and read the prayers (Mantras) that
are appointed to accompany sacrifices; but they do not kill the animal
that is offered. The Achars have among them certain men who perform the
ceremonies necessary to free from sin the souls of those who die on
certain unfortunate days. This ceremony they call Hom. The Brahmans
perform similar rites, which they call Pushkarasanti. The Hindus
believe, that if this ceremony is neglected, all the relations of the
deceased will perish. By this ceremony the officiating priest is
supposed to take upon himself the sin of the departed soul; and if, in
its performance, he commits any mistake, he incurs certain destruction
from the wrath of the Deity. The office is therefore shunned by men of
high rank, both as sinful and dangerous. The Achars who perform this
ceremony are called Gulcul, and cannot intermarry with those of the first
rank. This inferior order performs also any ceremonies that may be
wanted by Newars, who are at a distance from home, and the purity of
whose extraction cannot therefore be ascertained. Poor Achars cultivate
the land with their own hands, from which they are not deterred by a fear
of distressing the ox, as the plough is not used by the Newars. Their
women spin and weave, which is the only point in which they seem to
differ from the Brahmans; the two casts, however, consider themselves as
entirely distinct.
Among the Newars, the Bangras, or Baryesu, are the head of the sect of
Buddhmargas, and are much more numerous than the Achars. They are
divided into two classes. The first are the Gubal Bangras, who are the
instructors, (Gurus,) priests, (Purohits,) and philosophers, (Pandits,)
of all the sect, and are priests (Pujaris) at the temples of Buddh, and
of some of the Saktis. When they perform any ceremony, they wear a
thread like the Brahmans or Achars. They neither eat nor intermarry with
any person of inferior rank. The Bakali Bangras work in gold, silver,
and copper, and are traders and cultivators. We may thus observe, that
the doctrine of cast, and the nature of the priesthood, are essential
differences between the religion of the Burmas and that professed by the
followers of Buddh in Nepal. The doctrines of these people appeared so
shockingly impious to my Brahman, that I could not induce him to converse
on the subject with their learned men. These doctrines also are
essentially different from those taught by the Rahans, or priests of Ava.
The Bangras believe in a supreme being, called Sambhu, or Swayambhu, from
whom have proceeded many Buddhs, or Intelligences, which, by the Tartars,
are called Bourkans. Among these Matsyendranath has the chief
superintendence over the affairs of the world. Under him are a great
many Devatas, or spirits of vast power, among whom Brahma the creator,
Vishnu the preserver, and Siva the destroyer of this earth, do not bear a
very distinguished rank. These spirits are the Tengri of the Tartars,
and the Nat of the Burmas, of which the worship is execrated by the
followers of Buddha in Ava; but is eagerly followed by most of the
Bangras, and still more so by the lower casts of Newars. Sakya Singha is
considered one of the Buddhs, who came on earth to instruct man in the
true worship, and in Nepal is commonly believed to be still alive at
Lasa. His images entirely resemble those of Gautama. As this teacher
has admitted the worship of all the Nat, or Devatas, among whom are
placed the deities worshipped by the followers of the Vedas, we can
readily account for the appearance of these in the temples of the
Chinese. The followers of Buddh in Ava reject altogether the worship of
these beings, so that, when I was in that country, and was unacquainted
with the doctrines of any other sect of Buddhists, I was led into an
erroneous opinion concerning the religion of the Chinese, from knowing
that they worshipped the same Gods with the Brahmans. This, we see, is
allowed by the doctrine of Sakya Singha, nor, on account of finding the
images of Vishnu, Siva, or Brahma, in any temple, can we conclude, that
it was not built by a follower of Buddh. In fact, even in Swayambhunath,
the temple of the supreme deity of the Buddhists, there are a great many
images of Siva.
A kind of mixed breed of Newars are, by the Sivamargas, acknowledged as
of very high rank. I shall, therefore, mention them in this place,
although their pretensions are disputed by the Bangras. They are called
Jausi, and are the only cast that ought to practise medicine; but at
present all ranks profess that art. The Jausis are descended from the
offspring of a Brahman by a Newar woman; and if their mother has been a
Bangra, or an Achar, they wear the thread, and act as instructors (Gurus)
and priests (Purohits) for their brethren of mixed descent. These
privileges are not allowed to such as are descended from low mothers. In
imitation of their fathers, the Jausis are mostly Sivamargas; but in
other matters, they follow the customs of the Newars.
The next in rank among the Newars are the Srishtas, who form a small
cast. They can serve as cooks for all Newars, the Achars and Bangras
excepted, which is a sure mark of their transcendent rank. The
Buddhmargas and Sivamargas of this cast eat together; but a woman, for
her first paramour, always chooses a person of her own persuasion. The
highest rank of Srishtas are called Sira, and are mostly traders. A
lower class, called Sual, act as porters; and a still lower, called
Bagul, cultivate the ground. All these eat together; nor is the
difference of class any restriction in their amours.
The persons of the remaining casts are almost entirely Buddhmargas; but,
being low and ignorant, they will worship almost any thing that is called
a God, which is, indeed, usual with all Hindus of their rank. Some of
our Seapoys, who were Brahmans, immediately on our arrival at
Swayambhunath, took flowers and consecrated water, and went round the
hill offering some to every image which they saw, and, among others, to
that of Sakya Singha. I happened to be standing near it with Ramajaya,
my Brahman, who asked them if they knew what they were doing, and
informed them that they were worshipping Buddh. At this the poor fellows
were much ashamed. However, an old Havildar (serjeant) comforted them,
by observing, that, on the march to Bombay, under General Goddard, they
had often seen this deity, and that their worshipping him seemed to have
been very lucky, as the army had great success.
I shall enumerate the lower casts, according to their respective
dignities.
The Jopu Newars were originally all cultivators; but some of them have
now become traders and porters.
The Uda were all originally traders, and are nearly of the same rank with
the Jopus.
The Bhat procure a living by proclaiming the titles of great men, and
singing their praises on all public occasions,—a vanity in which the men
of power in India take great delight. The Bhat also beg in the name of
the Gods, which, among the Hindus, is always a profession of some
dignity.
The three next casts, Got, Kurmi, and Now, are nearly of the same rank.
The Got are gardeners, and one of them, named Balabhadra, whom I employed
as a collector of plants, repeatedly told me the following curious
circumstances: He said that the Got do not acknowledge the Achars, or
Bangras, as their instructors, (Gurus,) but have certain persons of their
own cast, who, among their brethren, enjoy this privilege. At certain
temples dedicated to Bhawani, which word means merely the Goddess, the
Got attend to dance in masks; and, on these occasions, ten of them
represent Singhini, Vyaghrini, Indrani, Bhairavi, Bhawani, Varahi,
Vaishnavi, Kumari, Brahmani, and Ganesa, while four others represent
Mahakal, Nandiswar, Vindhyiswar, and Nasadeva, who are the instructors
(Gurus) of the other ten deities. From those who come to worship at the
temple, the Got that represent these deities accept of spirituous
liquors, which they drink out of human skulls till they become elevated,
and dance in a furious manner, which is supposed to proceed from
inspiration. In the same manner, they drink the blood of the animals
which are offered as sacrifices. In these temples the priests (Pujaris)
are Achars, who at the sacrifices read the forms of prayer (Mantras)
proper for the occasion, but retire when the animal is about to be killed
by the Got who represents Bhairavi. The shrine, in which the images of
the gods are kept, is always shut, and no person is allowed to enter but
the priest (Pujari) and the Gots, who personate in masks these deities.
Once in twelve years the Raja offers a solemn sacrifice. It consists of
two men, of such a rank that they wear a thread; of two buffaloes, two
goats, two rams, two cocks, two ducks, and two fishes. The lower animals
are first sacrificed in the outer part of the temple, and in the presence
of the multitude their blood is drank by the masked Gots. After this,
the human victims are intoxicated, and carried into the shrine, where the
mask representing Bhairavi cuts their throats, and sprinkles their blood
on the idols. Their skulls are then formed into cups, which serve the
masks for drinking in their horrid rites. I questioned the man
repeatedly on the subject, and he always related the circumstances
without variation, and declared, that at the last sacrifice, which had
been offered nine years previous to our arrival in Nepal, he had
represented Bhairavi, and with his own hands had cut the throats of the
human victims. My Brahman, however, inquired of several persons, who
ought to have known the truth, and who denied altogether the human
sacrifices at this ceremony, which is performed in the Ashtami in the
month Aswin. All ranks of the natives of Nepal pay so very little
attention to the observance of veracity, that I remain in suspense
concerning this circumstance. Balabhadra was a mild attentive creature;
and although he spoke of the human sacrifice with considerable glee, as
being attended with copious potations of spirituous liquor, he was
shocked when I asked him if two bulls made a part of the offering.
The Karmi are bricklayers and carpenters.
The Nau are barbers.
Next follow three casts of nearly the same rank.
Songat, or washermen.
Japu, or potmakers.
Hial, or Sial, who are cow-herds.
Nearly of the same rank are the persons, by the Newars called Dhui, but
whom the Parbatiyas call Putaul. They are the persons who carry the
palanquins of the Raja, and of his family. None but Bakali Bangras will
condescend to act as instructors (Gurus) for a cast so low as this is.
All the casts yet enumerated are considered as pure, and Hindus of any
rank may drink the water which they have drawn from a well; but the
following casts are impure, and a person of any considerable dignity will
be defiled by their touch.
The Salim are oil-makers, and weavers of garlands, at which art the
Newars are very dexterous, and there is a great demand for their work, as
both sexes, of all ranks in Nepal, ornament their hair with flowers.
The Kasulia are musicians, and have a vast variety of ear-rending
instruments. The Hindu music, especially that of the martial kind, is
said by the natives to be in great perfection in Nepal; and in this holy
land are still to be found all the kinds that were to be found in the
army of Rama.
Still lower than these are the Kasai, who are butchers, and palanquin
bearers for the vulgar. The Chhipi, or dyers, are nearly of the same
rank.
Lower again are the two following casts.
Kow, or ironsmiths.
Gotoo, or coppersmiths.
Then follow two military tribes.
Kosar, who are said originally to have been robbers.
Tepai, who can marry, or keep as concubines any Hindu women that have
lost cast by eating unclean things.
Then follow three exceedingly low casts.
Puria, fishermen and basketmakers.
Bala, who remove offals and nastiness.
Chamkal, who are dressers of leather and shoemakers.
These casts can scarcely venture to draw near any other Hindu, but would
consider themselves as much degraded, by eating, drinking, or cohabiting
with a Musulman or Christian; and any of their women who should venture
to commit an act of such uncleanness, would be severely punished, as
would also be the infidel by whom she had been corrupted. This, however,
does not prevent Hindu women of all ranks and casts from being sold as
slaves to either Musulmans or Christians. A master or a parent has the
power of selling his slave or child, whose consent is not asked, who
thereby loses cast, and who has no alternative, but to adopt the religion
of her new master. Such incongruities may astonish a person unacquainted
with Hindus; and what may add to his surprise is, that, while at
Kathmandu, several Hindus, of high cast, among our followers, chose to
embrace the Musulman faith, and thereby subjected themselves to severe
restrictions and disgrace.
Musulmans have become pretty numerous, and are increasing, as they are
zealous in purchasing girls, and in propagating their sect. Christianity
has not been equally successful; and, on our arrival, we found the church
reduced to an Italian Padre, and a native Portuguese, who had been
inveigled from Patna by large promises, which were not made good, and who
would have been happy to have been permitted to leave the country.
These are the various casts of Newars. I shall now give an account of
the customs that are common to the whole nation.
All the Newars burn the dead; all eat buffaloes, sheep, goats, fowls, and
ducks; and all drink spirituous liquors, to the use of which, indeed,
they are excessively addicted. The highest of the Sivamargas kill
animals with their own hands; but the higher orders of the Buddhmargs
abstain from shedding blood, and from eating pork. They all live in
towns or villages, and their houses are built of brick with clay mortar,
and covered with tiles. These houses are three stories high, the ground
floor being appropriated for the cattle and poultry, the second floor for
servants, and the third for the family of the owner. This is in the
houses of the wealthy. Among the poor, a number of families live under
one roof. The rooms are exceeding low, as I could not stand upright in
the principal apartment of what was reckoned the best house in Kathmandu,
the palace excepted. At first sight, however, the houses look well,
especially to a person coming from the towns of Hindustan. In Nepal,
they have numerous large windows, which are shut by wooden lattices
curiously carved, and which, in some measure, hang over the street, the
upper end of the lattice projecting much more than the lower. Within,
the houses are exceedingly mean and dirty, and swarm with vermin, which,
added to all manner of filth, including the offals of the shambles, and
the blood of sacrifices, that is allowed to corrupt in the streets,
renders an abode in any of their towns utterly disgusting.
The following account of the Nepalese, or rather Newar, architecture, I
have taken from papers communicated by Colonel Crawford.
The Nepalese possess a great advantage in having an excellent clay for
making bricks and tiles; and their workmen are very expert. They use
moulds nearly of the size and shape of our common bricks, and have also
others for the bricks that are used in cornices and other ornaments. For
the fronts and ornamental parts of their best houses, they make smooth
glazed bricks, that are very handsome. Their bricklayers and masons are
also good workmen, but labour under a great disadvantage, the want of
lime. The tiles are flat, of an oblong form, and have two longitudinal
grooves, one above and another below, which fit into the adjacent tiles,
and the whole are put on with great neatness.
The houses of towns are in general three stories high, though some in the
cities and large towns rise to four. The lower story has no windows, and
the smoke of their kitchens comes out by the door, which renders the
outside, even of their houses, very black and dirty. The windows of the
second story are always small and nearly square. In each, a wooden
trellis, which is highly ornamented by carving, but which cannot be
opened and shut, admits the air and light, but prevents strangers from
seeing into the apartment. The third or upper story has large windows,
extending a great part of the length of each sitting apartment. Most of
these windows have in front a wooden balcony composed of lattice work, in
general much carved. This slopes outwards from a bench that is a little
elevated from the floor, and joins the edge of the roof, which projects
considerably beyond the wall. The bench is the favourite seat of the
people, who, from thence, command a view of the street. The rooms are
always narrow, the difficulty of carrying large timber from the
mountains, per-venting them from procuring beams of sufficient
dimensions. The beams, which can be usually procured, are fir of about
six inches square. These are placed at about a foot distant from each
other, and their ends project beyond the walls, so that from the street
you can tell the number of beams in each house. The larger houses are
square, with an open court in the centre.
In the villages, the houses are built of unburnt bricks, and often also
consist of three stories disposed of in the same manner as in towns; but
the windows of the upper story are not provided with balconies. Those of
two stories are also very common, and one of them is represented by
Colonel Kirkpatrick in the plate opposite to page 160.
The temples are of two kinds. One, constructed of solid brick, and
peculiar to the worshippers of Buddha, resembles the temples of the same
sect in Ava. The other is common to the Bouddhists and followers of the
Vedas, and has a strong resemblance to the temples of the Chinese. The
temples of this kind are destined to contain idols, and are squares
consisting of from two to five stories, each of which is of smaller
dimensions than the one below, and the last ends in a point. Each story
has a sloping roof, and in some fine temples, these roofs are covered
with gilded copper. The lower [Picture: Temple bell] story is surrounded
by a rude wooden colonnade. From the corners, and sometimes all round
the edges of these roofs, are suspended small bells with slender
clappers, which are considerably longer than the bells, and end in a thin
plate shaped like the ace of hearts, so that a strong wind occasions all
the bells to ring. The roofs are supported by posts, which [Picture:
Temple] project from the middle of the upright wall to the edge of the
slope, and are carved with all the distorted figures of Hindu mythology.
In the larger temples, these posts on the second story are covered with
planks, and on these are fastened all the various offerings that have
been made to the Deity, and which form a strange and ridiculous
assemblage of swords and shields, pots, pans, spinning-wheels, mugs,
jars, buffaloes’ horns, looking-glasses, knives, bracelets, etc. etc.
The view given by Colonel Kirkpatrick {41a} of Kathmandu affords a good
idea of the place, and shows the strong resemblance of its temples to
those of Thibet and China. I cannot but therefore wonder, when he says,
{41b} “These edifices appeared to differ nothing in their figure or
construction from the wooden Mundups, occasionally met with in other
parts of India.” I have never in India seen any such, either in
structure or in materials, every considerable temple there being either
of brick or stone.
The Newar women are never confined. At eight years of age, they are
carried to a temple, and married, with the ceremonies usual among Hindus,
to a fruit called Bel, (Ægle Marmelos, Roxb.) When a girl arrives at the
age of puberty, her parents, with her consent, betroth her to some man of
the same cast, and give her a dower, which becomes the property of the
husband, or rather paramour. After this, the nuptials are celebrated
with feasting, and some religious ceremonies. Among the higher casts, it
is required that girls should be chaste till they have been thus
betrothed; but in the lower casts, a girl, without scandal, may
previously indulge any Hindu with her favours; and this licentiousness is
considered a thing of no consequence. Whenever a woman pleases, she may
leave her husband; and if, during her absence, she cohabit only with men
of her own cast, or of a higher one, she may at any time return to her
husband’s house, and resume the command of his family. The only ceremony
or intimation that is necessary, before she goes away, is her placing two
betel-nuts on her bed. So long as a woman chooses to live with her
husband, he cannot take another wife, until she becomes past
child-bearing; but a man may take a second wife, when his first chooses
to leave him, or when she grows old; and at all times he may keep as many
concubines as he pleases. A widow cannot marry again; but she is not
expected to burn herself; and may cohabit with any Hindu as a concubine.
The children, by the betrothed wife, have a preference in succession to
those by concubines; the latter, however, are entitled to some share. A
man can be betrothed to no woman except one of his own cast; but he may
keep a concubine of any cast, whose water he can drink. If the woman’s
cast be lower than his, the children are called Khas, and are considered
as belonging to the cast of the mother, but are somewhat elevated on
account of their father’s birth.
A custom of the Newars, which was observed on the 11th of August by
Colonel Crawford, deserves to be mentioned on account of its oddity.
Each man on that day purchases a small quantity of boiled rice, mashed
into a soft substance, and carries it to the field which he has
cultivated. He then searches the field for frogs, and to every one that
he can discover he gives a small portion of the boiled rice, at the same
time uttering a prayer, and requesting the frog to watch over and protect
his crop.
The Newars are a peaceable people, and not so much addicted to
assassination as the Parbatiyas; but possess all the other vices of that
barbarous race.
Colonel Kirkpatrick {43} doubts, whether the Newars have at any period
been a warlike nation; but the long resistance which they made against
Prithwi Narayan appears to me to indicate abundant courage, while his
success seems to have been more owing to his cunning, and to his taking
advantage of their internal dissensions, than to a superiority in the art
of war.
One vile custom of the Newars of Kathmandu has been described by Colonel
Crawford, from whose papers I have taken the following account. About
the end of May, and beginning of June, for fifteen days, a skirmish takes
place between the young men and boys, of the north and south ends of the
city. During the first fourteen days it is chiefly confined to the boys
or lads; but on the evening of the fifteenth day it becomes more serious.
The opposing parties are drawn up in the broad, level, sandy bed of the
river, which runs between the city and Swayambhunath. In the rear of
each is a rising ground, which prevents either party from being hard
pushed; for, the only weapons used being stones, the ascent gives such an
advantage, that the pursuit of the victorious party is usually checked on
their reaching the hill of their adversaries. The fight begins about an
hour before sunset, and continues until darkness separate the combatants.
In the one which we saw, four people were carried off much wounded, and
almost every other year one or two men are killed: yet the combat is not
instigated by hatred, nor do the accidents that happen occasion any
rancour. Formerly, however, a most cruel practice existed. If any
unfortunate fellow was taken prisoner, he was immediately dragged to the
top of a particular eminence in the rear of his conquerors, who put him
to death with buffalo bones. In remembrance of this custom, the bones
are still brought to the field, but the barbarous use of them has for
many years been abolished. The prisoners are now kept until the end of
the combat, are carried home in triumph by the victors, and confined
until morning, when they are liberated.
The origin of this custom is attributed to two causes. Some allege, that
at one time Kathmandu was subject to two Rajas, and that the skirmishings
first arose among their respective followers, and have ever since been
continued. Others, with more probability, think that the combat is meant
to commemorate a battle between a son of Maha Deva, and a Rakshas, or
evil spirit. Colonel Crawford justly gives a preference to this opinion,
for, if one of the parties obtain the victory, every thing favourable,
seasonable rains, plentiful crops, and fine weather, is augured for the
remainder of the year; the reverse is expected should the opposite party
gain an advantage.
The territory anciently called Mithila, comprehending much of the
northern parts of the district of Puraniya, and all those of Tirahut,
belonged for many ages to a dynasty of princes called Janaka, who resided
at Janakipur in the low country subject to Gorkha. Long afterwards, in
that part of the country there had arisen a dynasty, the seat of whose
government was at Gar Samaran, through the extensive ruins of which, the
present boundary between the Company and the Gorkhalese passes. In the
year 1802, when in this vicinity, I heard an imperfect account concerning
this dynasty, and have mentioned them in the observations on Nepal, which
I then composed. Anxious to procure more accurate information, in 1810 I
sent an intelligent Brahman to inquire after traditions, who discovered a
person residing at Chotoni, whose ancestors had been registers of
Tirahut, and who gave him the following account. In the year of the
Bengal era 496, (A.D. 1089,) Nanyop Dev, of the Kshatria tribe, acquired
the sovereignty of Tirahut, and was the founder of a dynasty, the princes
of which succeeded from father to son in the following order.
Nanyopdev’ governed 36 years.
Ganggadev’ 14
Narasingha dev’ 52
Ramsingha dev’ 92
Sakrasingha dev’ 12
Harisingha dev’ 20
---
226
This person had great power, and is universally acknowledged to have
settled the customs which are now observed by the Brahmans of Mithila.
After his death there was an interegnum of thirty-four years. The
greatest difficulty in this accession arises from the two enormous reigns
of fifty-two and ninety-two years held in succession by father and son.
It is just possible that a grandfather and grandson might reign such a
number of years, and the minute distinction of grandson and son may
naturally enough have escaped the notice of Hindu genealogist; but there
is reason to suspect, that the accession of Nanyop dev is antedated, for
the same authority states, that he took possession of Tirahut on the
death of Lakshman Sen king of Bengal, who, it is well known, had
conquered it in the 1104th year of our era, or twenty-five years after
the accession given to Nanyop, and probably governed it for a good many
years. On the death of that warlike prince, it is very likely that
Nanyop may have wrested Tirahut, or the western parts of Mithila, from
his successor, and may have been the Raja of Oriswa, against whom
Lakshmam II. erected the works of Majurni Khata, for the learned
D’Anville places Oriswa in these parts. When the length of these reigns
is thus curtailed, the story may be sufficiently exact.
The account of this dynasty given by Colonel Kirkpatrick {46} differs
considerably from that which I have above stated. He makes Hari Singha
(Hurr Sinha) the last king of Gar Samaran, and states, that he was driven
from this to Nepal in 1323 by the Patan king Secunder Lodi; but, at that
time, according to Dow’s translation of Ferishta, Yeas ul deen Tuglick
Shaw was the Muhammedan king of India; and the people of Mithila assert,
that Hari Singha, their prince, died in quiet possession of his
birthright. The predecessors of Hari Singha at Gar Samaran, according to
Colonel Kirkpatrick, were,
Nan Dev, (Nanyop Dev’,) who began to reign in the year Sambat 901, (A.D.
843.)
Kamuk Dev, (Gangga Dev’.)
Nersingh Dev, (Narasingha Dev’.)
Ramsing Dev, (Ram’Singha Dev’.)
Bhad Sing Dev.
Kurm Sing Dev.
Nan Dev, the founder of this dynasty, according to Colonel Kirkpatrick,
was descended of Bamdeb of the Surijbunsi, (Suryabangsi,) princes of
Oude, (Ayodhya;) but in the Pauranic lists of these princes I can find
nothing like Bamdeb, unless it be Bhanu or Bhanuman, mentioned both in
the Sri Bhagawata and Bangsa Lots, among the later descendants of
Ramachandra. The objections to this chronology are still stronger than
to that which I received, in so much as it makes it commence still
earlier.
There is, therefore, great room to doubt, whether in reality Nanyopdev
was a Kshatriya. The Brahmans of Mithila, indeed, are totally unwilling
to admit, that a person of any lower rank could have authority to settle
their customs; but in Bengal a person of the medical tribe obtained this
power; and the chiefs of the low tribe called Bhawar trace their origin
to a Nanyopdev who brought the stud of the king of Dilli to pasture in
the plains of Mithila, then entirely waste. Certain it is, that the
Bhawars, about that time, extended their dominion over the Gorakhpur
district as well as Tirahut, and that many petty chiefs of that tribe
continued to occupy the parts adjacent to the hills until long after; and
many of them continue to this day to be objects of worship among the low
tribes. These may have been the descendants of collateral branches of
the Raja’s family, or of the chief officers of their government; and it
must be remarked, that many of them assumed the title of Dev, as all the
princes descended of Nanyop had done.
After the death of Hari Singha it is in Mithila generally admitted, that
a Sivai Singha succeeded; and, although the Bhavans probably then formed
the chief population of Gar Samaran and Tirahut, it is probable, as is
asserted, that Sivai Singh vas a military Brahman of the tribe called
Aniwar. It is alleged by the people of Tirahut, that Sivai having had a
dispute with a brother, this unnatural relation fled to Dilli, and,
having procured an army from the Musulman king, he advanced towards Gar
Samaran with an intention of dethroning his brother. Before he had
reached the Gandaki, Sivai Singha, having heard of the approach of an
army of men that eat beef, was seized with a panic, and after having
reigned twenty-two years, resigned his kingdom to Kangkali, the tutelar
deity of his capital city. He then dedicated his life to God, and,
having assumed the character of a religious mendicant, he passed his days
in wandering about the places which are esteemed holy.
It is said, that about this time the unnatural brother of Sivai Singha
died, and that the Musulman army, after a fruitless attempt on Gar
Samaran, were obliged to retreat, owing, as the Hindus suppose, to the
powerful influence of the tutelar deity. The Musulmans, however, seem to
have seized on all the country near the Ganges, which afterwards
continued subject to them till the establishment of the Company’s
authority.
About the same time, the inhabitants deserted Gar Samaran, for what
reason is not explained. They took with them the image of Kangkali, and
retired with an intention of going to Nepal. On the route they were in
danger of perishing from hunger, when Kangkali appeared to one of their
chiefs in a dream, and told him, that in the morning she would grant a
supply of provisions, and that she gave them permission ever afterwards
to use the kind of food which she was about to send. Accordingly, in the
morning, a large herd of buffaloes appeared, and were killed by the
people, who ever since have indulged in that kind of food, which,
according to the precepts of their religion, they had formerly considered
unclean. They afterwards settled in the valley of Nepal, and are the
people now called Newars.
From Dow’s translation of Ferishta, {49} we learn, that Yeas ul deen
Tuglick Shaw, king of Dilli, in the year of Christ 1322, on returning
from an expedition into Bengal, was passing near the hills of Turhat,
(Tirahut,) when the raja of these parts appearing in arms, was pursued
into the woods. Having cut down these, the royal army arrived at a fort
surrounded by a wall, and by seven ditches filled with water. After a
siege of three weeks the place was taken, and the government of Turhat
conferred upon Achmet Chan. That this is the same story with that
contained in the traditions concerning Sivai Singha and Gar Samaran, I
think there can be little doubt, and the Musulman chronology is that upon
which most reliance can be placed. Some of the Hindu traditions make
Sivai Singha the son of Hari Deva, others make him of another family
which succeeded after an anarchy of 34 years; but in both cases the
period between 1315, the supposed era of Hari Deva’s death, and 1322, the
time of Gar Samaran’s capture, is too short, and the difference between
it and the actual time has probably been added, to make up part of the
enormous reigns of Narasingha and Ramsingha. At any rate, if the people
of Gar Samaran retired to Nepal, and became the Newars, then 1322 (or
1323, as Colonel Kirkpatrick has it,) {50a} is the most probable date of
the event. There is nothing improbable in the circumstance, and the
doctrine of cast prevailing among the Newars is a strong confirmation of
their having come from Hindustan.
It must, however, be confessed, that the Newars themselves totally deny
this origin, and allege, that the only foundation for it is the
resemblance between the names Newar and Aniwar. They consider themselves
as the aboriginal inhabitants of the country which they now occupy, and
their houses have a great resemblance to those of the Bhotiyas, or people
of Thibet, as described by Captain Turner, while in many points their
customs resemble those of the other tribes of the Chinese race. It must
be, however, observed, that their features are not clearly marked as of
that origin, and that many of them have high features, large eyes, and
oval faces; but considering the manners of their women, little reliance
can be put on this mark, and the truth will be best discovered by an
examination of their language, of which I have deposited a copious
vocabulary in the Company’s library. I think, indeed, that I can trace
many coincidences between it and the language of the Murmis, a tribe
undoubtedly of the Chinese race, and it appears to me radically different
from the Hindwi language, although religion has no doubt introduced some
Sangskrita words.
A short vocabulary of this language has been given by Colonel
Kirkpatrick, {50b} and may perhaps suffice to decide the language to
which it has the greatest affinity. The character in which it is written
is evidently derived from the Nagri of India, and will be found opposite
to page 220 in Colonel Kirkpatrick’s Account of Nepaul.
In treating of the Newars, Colonel Kirkpatrick observes, {51} “That this
people differ essentially, so as to prove abundantly that they are an
insulated race of men, whose origin is not to be traced to any of the
nations immediately surrounding them.” Now, if they came from Samaran,
as he supposes, they must have been Hindus; and, if they are descendants
of Thibetians, intermixed with Hindus, as I suppose, still their origin
is to be derived from the nations immediately contiguous. He goes on to
observe, “That the Newars are of a middle size, with broad shoulders and
chest, very stout limbs, round and rather flat faces, small eyes, low and
somewhat spreading noses; yet he cannot agree with those who affirm, that
there is in the general physiognomy of these people any striking
resemblance to the Chinese features.” For my part, I do not well know in
what other terms the Chinese features could be better defined, than in
the description of the Newars thus given by Colonel Kirkpatrick; and, for
a confirmation of a considerable resemblance between the two people, I
may refer to the figures given by this author opposite to pages 185 and
187, which, although called merely natives of Nepal, represent in fact
Newars. In reality, if the morals of the Newar women had been more
strict, I believe that the resemblance between the Chinese or Thibetians
and Newars would have been complete; but since the conquest, the approach
to Hindu countenance is rapidly on the increase, women in most cases
giving a decided preference to rank, especially if connected with arms or
religion. Until the conquest, there was probably little intermixture,
except in the descendants of the governing family, which probably was of
a mixed breed between a Thibetian lady and a raja of Banaras, as will be
afterwards mentioned; and this family had, I believe, multiplied
exceedingly, and composed a numerous and warlike gentry, which, of
course, contributed largely to the propagation of the nation.
The assumption of the military dignity, and of the thread, one of its
badges among the Hindus, and the title Rajput given to all the chiefs of
the mountaineers, seems to have induced Colonel Kirkpatrick to suppose,
that the Kshatriya tribe of India formed a large portion of the
inhabitants in Nepal. Yet he had with accuracy observed, {52} that the
progeny of a Newar female and one of these Kshatriyas may almost be taken
for a Malay, that is, a mixed breed between people of a Chinese race with
Hindus and Arabs; and farther, he accurately noticed, that illegitimate
persons of the reigning family by Newar women, although he supposes their
fathers to have been Rajputs, approach nearer than their mothers to the
Tartars or Chinese. The reason of this, I would say, is, that the royal
family are in fact Magars, a Thibetian race.
In the more rude and mountainous parts of Nepal Proper, the chief
population consisted of these Murmis, who are by many considered as a
branch of the Bhotiyas, or people of Thibet; but, although in religion
and doctrine they followed the example of that people, and all their
priests, called Lamas, studied its language and science, yet it seems
doubtful, whether the two nations had a common origin; but this will be
best ascertained by a comparison of the languages. For this purpose I
have deposited in the Company’s library a copious vocabulary of the Murmi
dialect. The doctrine of the Lamas is so obnoxious to the Gorkhalese,
that, under pretence of their being thieves, no Murmi is permitted to
enter the valley where Kathmandu stands, and by way of ridicule, they are
called Siyena Bhotiyas, or Bhotiyas who eat carrion; for these people
have such an appetite for beef, that they cannot abstain from the oxen
that die a natural death, as they are not now permitted to murder the
sacred animal. They have, therefore, since the conquest, retired as much
as possible into places very difficult of access; and before the
overthrow of Sikim a great many retired to that country, but there they
have not escaped from the power of the Gorkhalese, and have been obliged
to disperse even from that distant retreat, as they were supposed too
much inclined to favour its infidel chief. They never seem to have had
any share in the government, nor to have been addicted to arms, but
always followed the profession of agriculture, or carried loads for the
Newars, being a people uncommonly robust. Their buildings are thatched
huts, often supported on stages, like those of the farther India.
The Kiratas, or Kichaks, have been already mentioned as occupying the
country east from Nepal Proper. They seem always to have been a warlike
and enterprising people, but very rude, although not so illiterate as
many of their neighbours. The Lamas have made great progress in
persuading them to adopt their doctrines; and the Lamas, who gave them
instruction, were skilled in the language of Thibet; but many adhered to
their old customs, and the old priesthood continued to perform the
ceremonies of all. The Rajputs, on obtaining power, induced many to
abandon part of their impure practices, and to employ Brahmans to perform
their ceremonies; but in general this compliance was only shown when they
were at court. The abstinence from beef, which the Gorkhalese enforce,
is exceedingly disagreeable to the Kirats; and, although the Lamas have
been banished, this people still retain a high respect for their memory,
and a longing after the flesh-pots. Agam Singha, the chief of the
nation, now in exile, told me plainly, that, although he received a
Brahman as an instructor, it was only because he could not procure a
Lama, and that he considered the chief Lamas as incarnations of God.
The Kirats, being vigorous beef-eaters, did not readily submit to the
Rajputs. Previous to the invasion of these Hindus they had, it is true,
been compelled to retire to the hills; but there, until the vast power
acquired by the family of Gorkha, they retained, as I have already
mentioned, a great degree of independence.
I have deposited in the Company’s library a full vocabulary of the Kirata
language. They are said to have had a written character peculiar to
themselves; but Agam Singha, their chief, is no penman, and the people
with him, born in exile, have contented themselves with acquiring the
Nagri character. The Kirats are allowed to marry several wives, and to
keep concubines. Their property is divided equally among their sons by
wives; but the sons by concubines are allowed a share, though smaller
than that given to the offspring of a virgin spouse.
Among the Kirats was settled a tribe called Limbu, the manners of which
were very nearly the same, and, indeed, the tribes intermarry; but their
languages are said to be different, and it would not appear that the
Lamas had made any progress in converting the Limbus. Since the
overthrow of the Kirats, and since the reluctance with which they submit
to the Gorkhalese has become evident, it has been the policy of the court
of Kathmandu to show a decided preference to the Limbus, who have not
been disgusted by the loss of power which they never possessed, nor by
the banishment of their priests. They are not, however, reconciled to
the loss of beef; but are certainly less discontented than any other
neighbouring tribe. Their profession is that of agriculture, and they
live in huts. I was unable to procure any vocabulary of their language,
but Colonel Kirkpatrick {55} gives a short list of the words of the Limbu
tongue, which he calls Limbooa. It has no affinity to the Sangskrita.
Another considerable tribe of Nepal, taken in its most extended sense,
are the Lapchas, who occupy the country between the Kankayi and Tista,
and east from that of the Kiratas; but by most Hindus they are included
under this odious name. Their manners were very nearly the same with
those of the Kirats. The Lapchas are a set of vigorous barbarians, about
one half of whom had been deluded by the monkish austerities, and
superior learning of the Lamas.
The Lapchas ate beef, pork, and every other thing reckoned abominable,
and drank strong liquors without shame. Their women did not marry until
after they had arrived at the age of maturity, and had become sensible to
the assiduities of courtship. The Lapchas were chiefly armed with swords
and bows, with which they shot poisoned arrows. Spears were not in use,
being ill fitted for a mountainous country, thickly overgrown with wood,
and where men cannot charge in compact order. They had a few muskets,
but too large to be fired from the shoulder. They were tied to a tree,
and fired by a match.
It must be observed, that the inhabitants of both Thibet, and of what we
call Bhotan or Bootan, are by the natives of India called Bhotiyas, and
their countries Bhotan or Bhot. Some of these people, who inhabit near
Kathmandu, call themselves Sayn; and the same name is given by the Newars
to the whole nation. Thibet, I am inclined to believe, is a Persian
word, totally unknown to the natives. At Kathmandu I had a patient who
had been chief of a territory north from Lassa, and who had been
dispossessed by the Chinese; and, so far as I could learn from him, the
native appellation, at least of the territory subject to Lassa, is Borka,
from whence Bhotiya is perhaps a corruption; but I could not ascertain
any general name for the countries which we call Thibet. These, however,
and also Bhotan, are inhabited by kindred tribes of people, who resemble
each other strongly in features, complexion, language, and manners. In
the plate opposite to page 40 of Kirkpatrick’s Nepaul, are well
represented, in a sitting posture, two persons of this nation, although,
by some mistake, probably in the publisher, they are called natives of
Nepal.
The Lamas are the priests of the sect of Bouddh, in Thibet and the
adjacent territories, and are monks, who have nominally at least forsaken
the pleasures of the world. They totally reject the doctrine of cast,
and a person of any nation may be admitted into the order. The whole, at
least of those at a distance, consider themselves as under the authority
of Sakya Gomba, who came from India about the time of Jesus Christ, and
has ever since resided at Lassa, where he remains in perpetual youth. On
this account he is not considered as an incarnation, (Avatar.) There
are, however, many personages of this sect who are considered as
incarnations of different Buddhas, or persons who have obtained divinity.
These enter into the bodies of children, and inspire them through life;
and when the body dies, the deity enters into another. Of this nature is
the Dharma Raja, or spiritual chief of what we call Bhotan; and still
more celebrated is the Tishu Lama, who resides at Degarchi, and is the
spiritual guide of the Chinese emperors. This class of supposed deities
seems to be pretty numerous, as, in the territory of the Lapcha and
Kirats, their number would appear to have been at least twelve, as so
many were known to my informant, who was only well acquainted with the
former territory. The ordinary lamas pretend only to be saints. The
best account I have seen of their doctrine is that given by the learned
Pallas, which is much more complete than any I could procure in Nepal.
The followers of Buddh have had five great lawgivers, and a sixth is
daily expected. As each of these is supposed to have been an incarnation
of a Buddh or Bourkan, and as all have been usually taken as one person,
we may readily account for the difference that prevails in the opinions
concerning the era when this sect arose. Gautama is the fourth of those
lawgivers, and his doctrine alone is received by the priests of Ava, who
reject the fifth as a heretic; but by the Bouddhists of Nepal, Thibet,
Tartary, and China, he is named Sakya. Gautama, according to the best
authorities, lived in the sixth century before the Christian era, and
Sakya in the first century after the birth of our Lord.
Although there is no distinction of cast among the Sayn or Bhotiyas, yet
they are not without differences in religious opinions; for some of them
in Nepal worship at Swayambhunath, while others prefer a temple of
Bouddhama, which is situated near Pasupanath. The doctrine of Sakya
Singha differs most essentially from that of Gautama. The Bhotiyas,
following the former, worship all the spirits, that by the Burmas are
called Nat, a practice which is held in abhorrence by the Rahans of Ava.
They also consider the Buddhs as emanations from a supreme deity, view
many of their Lamas as incarnations of a Buddh, and accordingly worship
them as living Gods, although they do not consider them as equal to
Sakya, who is the Lama of Lassa. There is among the Lamas no prohibition
against the laity from studying any character or any book; but they must
have wonderfully degraded the human understanding, when they can induce
the people to swallow the belief in the deities living among them. It is
true, that these are in all probability very much secluded, and rarely
shown to the vulgar, except at a very great distance, and in obscurity;
but still this seems to be nearly the utmost height of human imbecility.
The belief of Sakya having lived among them since about the commencement
of the Christian era, is probably confined to Nepal, and other remote
parts, where no means of knowing the contrary exists. Such an absurdity
could scarcely pass among actual observers, however degraded in
understanding, and in Thibet the Lama of Lassa is probably considered as
merely an incarnation of Sakya.
Besides the countries which we call Thibet and Bootan, the Bhotiyas
occupy, every where between the Kali and the Tista, the Alpine region
adjacent to the snowy peaks of Emodus, on both sides of that chief of
mountains, where none of the highland tribes above mentioned can endure
the cold of winter any more than the Bhotiyas can suffer the moderate
summer heats of Kathmandu. This induces me to think, that the present
highland tribes, although of the same race with the people of Thibet, had
originally occupied the plains, and, on the invasion of the present
Hindus, had retired to the mountains, so far as they considered the
temperature of the air tolerable, just as a colony of Hindus had retired
to the same quarter, to avoid Mohammedan intolerance. In a region so
extended, as that occupied by the Bhotiya nation, it is probable, that
there exists a great variety of custom and dialect, for I heard of many
different kinds, even among those who inhabit the southern face of
Emodus; but the accounts given by people of different tribes and
languages, differed so much, that I can say nothing satisfactory on the
subject, especially as the season, when I resided on the frontier, was
totally insufferable to a Bhotiya, so that I had no opportunity of
conversing with them; the Lama from whom I received an account of the
Lapchas being by birth a Murmi.
I have already said that the Murmis are by many considered as a kind of
Bhotiyas, but this the Lama denied, and the languages seem to have little
affinity. I heard, besides, of Khat, Sirmi, and Kutung or Kutiya
Bhotiyas, but cannot venture to speak of the nature of these
distinctions, farther than to state, that the Khat Bhotiyas are mentioned
by Colonel Kirkpatrick {59} as having long governed Nepal before the
Newars, and as at this time occupying the lower parts of Bhotan,
(Kachar,) on which subject I have already given my opinion. The
resemblance to be traced between the Newar and Murmi languages, induces
me to suppose that these two tribes are originally the same, and the
historical hints given by Colonel Kirkpatrick induce me to draw the
conclusion, that the Newars are Khat Bhotiyas, who have adopted some new
customs in consequence of a greater connection with the Hindus. I never,
indeed, heard the Murmis and Khat Bhotiyas mentioned as the same; but the
former I have often heard named Siyena Bhotiyas, which is very likely to
be another appellation for the Khat Bhotiyas, one name implying wild or
forest Bhotiyas, and the other implying Bhotiyas who eat carrion like
jackalls.
The Bhotiyas, at least the greater part of those in Thibet, neglect
agriculture, and, like the Dasnami Sannyasis of Puraniya, chiefly pursue
commerce and a life of monkish austerity, but occasionally they wield the
sword; and the principal support of the country is in its mines, and its
numerous and various herds of cattle. The quantity of grain is said to
be very inconsiderable, and both it and the herds of cattle are probably
reared by some inferior tribe; but on this subject I have not yet had
sufficient information. I have only learned, that the highest and proper
Bhotiyas confine their attention entirely to religion, commerce, and
arms, and it is in the first alone that they have had much success.
One circumstance relative to the Bhotiyas is remarkable, and seems to me
to decide a matter that has long been agitated concerning the natural
history of man. All those that I have seen at Kathmandu, not only from
the territory of Gorkha, but from Mostong, Kuti, Lasa, and Degarchi, are
as black as the natives of Canton or Ava. Climate is not, therefore,
able to change the colour of a nation; but it seems to have a greater
effect on the temperament. Cold can produce a change of temperament from
the melancholic and choleric to the phlegmatic and sanguine, and heat
acting on the human frame, is capable of producing a contrary revolution.
Hence, rosy cheeks and lips are frequently observed among the mountain
Hindus of Nepal, although they are very little fairer than those of
Madras.
Such are the principal tribes that occupy the mountains subject to the
dominion of Nepal, or rather of Gorkha. In the plains adjacent to the
mountains, and subject to the same prince, are several other tribes; but
it is my intention to treat of them when I describe the Company’s
provinces, where the greater part of these tribes is now found.
CHAPTER SECOND.
NATURE OF THE COUNTRY.
Division into four Regions from their relative elevation.—First, or Plain
Region, or Tariyani.—Soil.—Productions, Animal and
Vegetable.—Cultivation.—Climate.—Rivers.—Second, or Hilly
Region—Productions.—Minerals.—Forests.—Birds.—Vallies called
Dun.—Cultivation.—Climate.—Third, or Mountainous
Region.—Elevation.—Climate.—Diseases.—Cultivation.—Pasture.—Sheep and
Cattle.—Minerals.—Spontaneous Vegetables.—Extent.—Fourth, or Alpine
Region.—Vallies.—Mountains.—Productions, Mineral, Animal, and Vegetable.
I shall next proceed to give a general view of the appearance, soil,
climate, and productions of the country, and for this purpose I must
divide it into four stages of elevation. My actual observations are
confined to the three lower of these, and I have seen these only in the
vicinity of the capital. What I say concerning the highest region is,
therefore, entirely from report, and what I mention concerning the
others, so far as I write from actual observation, is strictly applicable
only to the parts near the capital; but inquiries have enabled me to
judge, that a great similarity prevails over the whole territory, and
whatever differences have come to my knowledge shall be mentioned either
in this part, or when I come to treat of the different principalities,
which have now been subjected to the chief of Gorkha.
The lowest region is a part of the great plain of Hindustan. In a few
places the Company’s territory extends to the foot of the mountains which
bound the great plain on the north, which are called Himadri, Himachul,
Himalichul, or Himaliya, and which form the Emodus of the ancients: but
in most parts the dominions of Gorkha extend about twenty miles into the
plain, and it seems in general to have been the policy of the princes of
India to allow the mountain chiefs, even when very petty, to retain at
least this extent of the low country, as being too obnoxious to their
incursions to be of a value adequate to defray the expense of its
defence. At times, some of the mountain tribes, which had acquired
power, have been able to extend their authority over the plains much
farther, and as none of them have ever equalled in power the chiefs of
Gorkha, these have for some time been eager in taking every opportunity
of encroachment; but although powerful, they have been opposed by a force
vastly more formidable than was ever before known in India, and this has
checked their power, which might have been very formidable to an
undisciplined state however extensive.
This low region is called Tariyani, Tarai, or Ketoni, and, as I have
said, is, in general, about twenty miles in width. In this space there
are a few scattered small hills, and much poor high land overgrown with
trees and bushes of little value; but there is, also, a very large
proportion of rich land, and on the whole the soil is much better than in
the adjacent parts of the Company’s territory.
I do not intend here to enter into a detailed account of its productions;
because they are nearly the same with those of the Company’s adjacent
territory, of which it is my intention to give hereafter a full account,
only being less cultivated, there are in the Tariyani more wild beasts,
especially elephants and rhinoceroses. The breed of the former is
considered as uncommonly bad, and it has been lately remarked to me by Mr
Venour, the surgeon at Puraniya, that every one of them has a toe of some
one of its feet very much lengthened, which gives the foot an unseemly
appearance. So far as I have been able to observe since, the remark of
Mr Venour is accurate; but the number of elephants of this kind that I
have seen is not great. In the dry season the elephants retire to the
lower ranges of hills; but in the rainy season they abandon these
forests, and are then very destructive to the crops, which, indeed,
prevents the natives from being so attentive to the cultivation of rice
as they otherwise would be, so that, although the country is best adapted
for the culture of this grain, the farmers content themselves chiefly
with winter crops of wheat, barley, and mustard. The Raja reserves to
himself the sole right of catching the elephants, and annually procures a
considerable number. They are sold on his account at 200 Mohurs, or 86
rupees, for every cubit of their height; but five cubits of the royal
measure are only six English feet. As few merchants are willing to give
this price for elephants which have not been seasoned, the Raja generally
forces them on such persons as have claims on the court, who sell their
elephants in the best manner they can. Tigers are not so numerous as
might have been expected in a country so uncultivated. Black bears of a
great size are more numerous, and are very troublesome. Wild hogs,
hog-deer, hares, foxes, and jackalls, are to be found in abundance.
In the waste lands of the Tariyani, the most common trees are the
_Palas_, (_Erythina monosperma_, Lamarck,) and the _Simul_, (_Bombax
heptaphyllum_, Lamarck;) but by far the greater part of these wastes is
covered with long grass or reeds, which once a year are burned, in order
to keep the country clear, and to improve the pasture. Owing to the
moisture and coolness of the air, the fields, at all seasons, preserve
some verdure, but the grass seems to be of a very bad quality, as the
cattle, although abundantly supplied with it, are to the last degree
wretched; still, however, in the heats of spring, very large herds are
sent from the Company’s provinces to these wastes. In these, also, there
grows a great quantity of the species of _Ischæmum_ called _Sabe_, of
which ropes are made, and of which a good deal is exported to the
territory of the Company.
Before the conquest by the Nepalese, the petty Rajas, who governed its
different portions, were so much afraid of their neighbours, that they
did not promote the cultivation of this low land. They rather encouraged
extensive woods, and contented themselves, in a great measure, with the
produce of the forests in timber, elephants, and pasture; even then,
however, many rich spots were occupied, and very productive; but they
were so buried in the forests as to be little observable. The
Gorkhalese, being more confident, have cleared much of the country,
although still a great deal remains to be done. Even now they export a
considerable quantity of grain; and, were property somewhat more secure,
this territory is capable of yielding considerable resources. Its
tobacco is said to be uncommonly good, and the reddish cotton wool is
said to be very thriving.
In the annexed register of the weather, the state of the atmosphere,
during the two months stay which I made in the country, will be seen.
The climate is considerably cooler and moister than that in the vicinity
of Patna; and the hot winds, according to report, are almost a month
later in commencing, than they are at that city. Our residence in the
Tariyani was at the most favourable season; but about the time (1st
April) at which we advanced towards Nepal, the country becomes very
unhealthy, good water for drinking becomes very scarce, and, till the
cold season, the people are very subject to fevers and disorders in the
bowels, which by the natives of Nepal are attributed to the Ayul, or a
poisonous air, which many of them imagine proceeds from the breath of
large serpents, supposed to inhabit the forests of the northern
mountains. The existence of such serpents in any considerable number, is
very doubtful, and rational men assign a more natural origin to the Ayul
or bad air. They say, that the ground in the forests, during spring, is
covered with fallen leaves, which are rotted by the first rains of the
hot season, and, by their putrefaction, corrupt the air. They
accordingly allege, that the climate continues healthy, until the first
rain after the commencement of the hot season, after which the unhealthy
season begins, and continues until the cold weather, although it abates
considerably of its virulence with the heavy rains which happen after the
solstice.
The Tariyani is intersected by numerous small rivers, which not only
serve for watering the crops in the latter end of the dry season; but,
when they are swollen by rain, become navigable, and enable the farmer to
send the produce of his fields to a good market. These rivers also serve
to float down the valuable timber that abounds in the forests, by which
the hills are skirted. The term Tariyani, indeed implies the country’s
being navigable.
Fish are found in abundance in the rivers of the Tariyani; and the
mullet, which I call Mugil Corsula, and the carp, which I call Cyprinus
Rohita, are of an excellent quality.
Bounding the above mentioned plain on the north, is a region of nearly
the same width. It consists of small hills, rising, however, gradually
towards the north, and watered by many small rivers, which spring from
the southern faces of the first lofty mountains, to which these hills
gradually unite.
The channels of these rivers or torrents, even when they have no
communication with the high mountains, are filled with fragments of
granite and shistose mica; but the hills themselves are in general
composed of clay, intermixed with various proportions of sand, mica, and
gravel. This mixture contains many masses of rock, and is disposed in
strata, that are either horizontal, or dip towards the north with an
angle less than 25 degrees. In many places, these heterogeneous
materials have been indurated into stone of considerable hardness. But
besides those, I observed many rocks in these hills, especially in deep
vallies, where they were disposed in vertical strata, running easterly
and westerly, and consisting of limestone, hornstone, and aggregates,
usually called primitive. These parts abound in incrustations, formed by
the deposition of calcareous matter; but I have not been able to hear of
the exuviæ of marine animals, except such as are washed down by the
Gandaki, and are loose in its channel. The calcareous matter has either
formed itself in crusts, covering the surface of rocks, or has assumed
the form of the mosses, lichens, and other such plants, that it has
covered.
On the bank of the Kosi, near Varaha Chhatra, is found a singular black
ferruginous earth, of which the elephant is said to eat greedily, when
indisposed; and the natives use it, rubbed with a little water, to supply
the place of ink.
The lower part of these hills, and some of the adjacent plains, are the
grand seat of the Sal {67a} forests, among which are many trees of the
species of _Dalbergia_, called _Sisau_, {67b} and of the _Cedrella_,
which at Calcutta, is called _Tungd_, (_toon_ of the English,) but which
in the forests adjacent to Puraniya, is called _Chilli kath_. Higher up,
the hills are covered with a vast variety of trees, nearly resembling
those of _Goyalpara_, of which I intend hereafter to give an account; but
in the hills of the North, there are many pines (_Pinus longifolia_,)
which the mountain Hindus call _Salla_, {67c} and an abundance of the
_Mimosa_ (_Khaira_,) of which catechu is made. A great many people are
employed in preparing this drug. A few of them belong to the company’s
territory, but by far the greater part are the subjects of Gorkha. Each
man pays a duty to the Raja, of from three to five rupees, and during the
fair season makes from eight to ten _mans_ of the Calcutta weight, which
is nearly 82 lbs. The merchants, who advance money for subsistence,
usually give the workman four rupees a man, that is, from 32 to 40 rupees
for six months work; but from this the tax must be deducted. The greater
part is sent to Patna and Banaras.
In these woods, a vast number of these kinds of birds which are tamed by
the natives on account of their singing or imitating the human voice,
form their nests, which are considered as the property of the Raja.
These birds are,
Mayna, Gracula religiosa, Latham.
Amrita chela.
Madna, Kajla, Two parakeets nearly allied to the Psittacus gingianus of
Latham.
Tetiya, Psittaca torquata, Brisson.
Chandana, a parakeet not described by Latham.
Sugi, Psittacus gingianus, Latham.
Latkan, a small short-tailed parakeet, nearly allied to the Psittacus
galgulus.
The right of taking the young birds from the nest is farmed to men, who
again employ people to climb the trees, when the birds are first fledged.
These people keep the birds for two months, and then deliver one half to
the renter, and take the remainder to themselves. Petty dealers come
from the low country, purchase the birds, and disperse them through
Bengal.
In several places, these low hills are separated from the high mountains
by fine vallies of a considerable length, but a good deal elevated above
the plain of Hindustan. In the country west from the Ganges, these
vallies are called by the generic name Dun, analogous to the Scottish
word Strath; but towards the east, the word Dun is unknown, nor did I
hear of any generic term used there for such vallies, although there are
very fine ones in that part of the country.
These Duns or Straths are tolerably cultivated by the same tribes that
dwell in the great plain of Hindustan. But among the spurs and ridges of
these hills, there are many narrow vallies, or what in Scotland would be
called Glens, and both these, although their soil is rich, and the
surrounding hills, are almost totally neglected. A few straggling
villages are however scattered through the woods, especially in the
higher parts, and their inhabitants cultivate cotton, rice, and other
articles, with the hoe, after having cleared away parts of the forest, as
practised by the Garos of Ranggapur. The chief reason of the desert
state of this part of the country, seems to be its extreme unhealthiness,
and this again, in a great measure, in all probability, depends on the
want of cultivation; for Vijaypur Chatra and some other places, that must
be included in this division, are abundantly healthy, having been well
cleared.
Some estimate of the temperature of this region may be formed from the
heat of a spring at Bichhakor, having, in the end of March, been found
74° of Fahrenheit’s scale, the latitude being 27° 16′ N.
On arriving at what may be called the mountains, though they are not
separated from the low hills by any distinct boundary, we have a very
elevated region, consisting of one mountain heaped on another, and rising
to a great height, so that, when any fall happens in winter, their tops
are for a short time covered with snow. The inhabited vallies between
these are in general very narrow, and are of very various degrees of
elevation, probably from 3000 to 6000 feet of perpendicular height above
the plains of Puraniya. Of course, they differ very much in their
temperature; so that some of them abound in the ratan and bamboo, both of
enormous dimension, while others produce only oaks and pines. Some ripen
the pine-apple and sugar-cane, while others produce only barley, millet,
and other grains.
Some estimate of the climate of this region may be formed by means of the
accompanying register of the weather kept near Kathmandu, although it is
very imperfect, from that want of convenience which must attend
travellers in so remote a country. The winter we passed in Nepal, was
reckoned uncommonly mild; and in place of the rain, which we had at that
season, in most years snow falls at Kathmandu. A more accurate estimate
of the average heat of the valley may be obtained from that of its
springs, which by repeated trials at a fine spring nearly on a level with
Kathmandu, I found to be 64° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer; but in a spring
near Thankot, the heat in April was 59½°; in one at Chitlong it was a
degree lower; and at Bhimphedi, on the skirts of the lower hills, it was
63°. This cold, so uncommon in the latitude of between 27° 30′, and 26°
41′, must be attributed to the great elevation of the country, for the
neighbourhood of the snowy peaks of Emodus could produce little effect,
as the winds were very seldom from that quarter. We have no data upon
which we can calculate the height of the valley of Nepal with any
considerable accuracy. The nearest approach I can make to it, is by the
difference of the average height of the barometer observed during the
month of February 1802, in the Tariyani, and during the February
following at Kathmandu. The average height at the former place was 29,60
inches, while at the latter it was 25,25 inches. The difference of the
logarithms of these numbers, rejecting the index, and taking only the
four next figures, will give 690 fathoms, 4140 feet, for the height of
Kathmandu above the Tariyani. The observations with the thermometer, for
the proper correction of those made with the barometer, are not complete;
but they are not of great consequence, considering that the fundamental
observations were not simultaneous, and were therefore liable to great
error.
The periodical rains extend to Nepal, and are nearly of the same violence
and duration with those in Behar. Colonel Kirkpatrick {70} thinks, and
perhaps justly, that they commence a little earlier. Water spouts are
common, which shows that their cause is quite unconnected with the sea.
On the whole I am inclined to believe, that the climate of the valley is
healthful, although, immediately before our arrival, the inhabitants had
been much troubled with fevers, and, for the first three months after our
arrival, the whole of our native attendants were exceedingly sickly. The
complaints to which they were chiefly subject, were fevers of the
intermittent kind, and fluxes, attended with a very copious secretion of
slimy matter, which, by the natives, is attributed to Bayu or wind; and
which was brought on by very slight indulgences in eating. In the fevers
emetics seemed much more efficacious than the cathartics which are
usually employed at Calcutta; and, indeed, a dose of emetic tartar very
frequently cut the fever short, as usual in temperate climates. The
fluxes were not attended with much pain, and both these and the tendency
in the bowels to the slimy secretions, seemed to require the frequent
exhibition of spirituous bitters and small doses of opium. In such
cases, I found the chirata tolerably efficacious, but I thought other
bitters more powerful, especially the infusion of chamomile flowers, and
the compound tinctures of Gentian and Peruvian bark. Our people probably
suffered from having passed through the forest too late in the season;
but the natives of Hindustan do not support a change of air, and on our
first arrival they were not well provided with means to resist the
weather, which to them was uncommonly cold.
I have seen no country where the venereal disease is so common as in
Nepal, nor so generally diffused among all classes of the people, who are
indeed very dissolute. During my stay I had application for medical
assistance from all ranks labouring under the venereal disease; and I
observed that the men did not consider it as extraordinary or shameful,
when they found their wives afflicted with this malady. The dissolute
manners of the inhabitants are carried to such a length, that a great
many of the young men of rank, by the age of twenty-five, are
debilitated, and have recourse to stimulants. The preparation of these
forms a chief source of emolument to the medical men, and they are
sometimes taken to a quantity that proves fatal.
Cutaneous disorders, and especially the itch, are also very common, and
almost as prevalent as in Hindustan. The leprosy, in which the joints
drop off, is as common as in Bengal; but in Nepal it cannot be attributed
to the lowness of the country, nor to a fish diet, to which the people of
Kathmandu have little or no inclination. Some of the persons afflicted
with this horrid disorder, I found to be of considerable rank, and quite
removed from the want of a nourishing diet. I am almost certain that
this disease is not infectious, as I know an instance of a woman, who has
lost all her toes and fingers, and who, in that state, has had a child,
which she nursed. The child is two years old, and is very healthy. The
natives consider the disease as hereditary, and allege that the child
will become its victim.
The same kind of swelling in the throat that is common among the
inhabitants of the Alps, prevails in Nepal, and, indeed, is frequently
seen every where north from Patna. It might at first sight be supposed,
that this disease does not derive its origin from the people drinking the
water which came from mountains covered with perpetual snow, the cause to
which in Europe it has been usually attributed. No water of this kind,
however, flows through Nepal; for, although some of the inhabitants of
the northern part of Bahar, who live near the Ganduki and Kausiki, drink
the water springing from perpetual snow; yet by far the greater part of
them drink the water of the various branches of the Vagmati, all of which
arise in sub-alpine regions. It must, however, be observed, that the
springs by which these rivers are fed may be supplied by the melted snow,
which may sink into the earth of the Himalaya mountains, and not come to
light till it reaches the lower hills.
As the seasons resemble those of Bengal, and the periodical rains occupy
the greater part of summer, the country is not favourable for many kinds
of fruit: the heats of spring are not sufficient to bring them to
maturity before the rainy season begins, as is the case in Bengal.
Peaches grow wild by every rill; but the one side of the fruit is rotted
by the rain, while the other is still green. There are vines, but
without shelter from the rain the fruit will always be bad. Two kinds of
fruit, however, come to the utmost perfection; the pine apple, in the
warmer vallies, is uncommonly fine; and the orange, as it ripens in
winter, is nowhere better.
From the abundance of rain in the warm season, the country, considering
the inequality of its surface, is uncommonly productive of grain.
Wherever the land can be levelled into terraces, however narrow, it is
exceedingly favourable for transplanted rice, which ripens after the
rains have ceased, so that the harvest is never injured; and, as most of
these terraces can be supplied at pleasure with water from springs, the
crops are uncommonly certain. This is by far the most valuable land, and
is that in which all the officers and servants of the Crown are paid, and
from whence all endowments are made. In some parts the same land gives a
winter crop of wheat and barley; but in most places this is most
judiciously omitted.
Where the land is too steep to be conveniently formed into terraces, or
where this operation has been neglected, the fields are called Kuriya,
{74} and are generally cultivated after fallows, by any person that
chooses to occupy them, on paying a certain sum by the head, and not
according to the extent of land. The hoe is chiefly used, and the
produce is rice, sown broadcast, maize, cotton, _kurthi_, _bhot mash_,
and _mash kalai_, three kinds of pulse, that, without seeing, I cannot
pretend to specify; _ture_, a kind of mustard, which I cannot specify;
_manjit_, or Indian madder, wheat, barley, and sugar cane.
The manjit, or Indian madder, seems to be of two kinds; the _Rubia
cordata_ of Wildenow, and a species of Rubia, not described in the common
systems of botany. Both seem to be equally fit for the purpose, and grow
in the same manner. It is cultivated exactly as cotton is among the
hills. The ground is cleared and laboured in spring, and, when the first
rains commence, the field is sown broadcast with rice, having intermixed
the seed of manjit or of cotton. When the rice ripens, it is cut. The
manjit is allowed to grew four or five years; and, after the second year,
the stems are annually cut down to the root. They are four or five
cubits long, and lie flat on the ground. When cut, they are stript of
the leaves, and rolled up for sale.
Besides these, a most valuable article of cultivation, in these
mountainous parts, is a large species of cardamom, of which I have as yet
seen no description. The fruit is larger than that of the _Cardamomum
minus_ of Rumph, and has membraneous angles; but, in other respects, the
two plants have a strong resemblance. In Hindustan, the cardamom of
Nepal is called the Desi Elachi, while the small cardamom of Malabar
(_Amomum repens_, W.) is called the Gujjarati Elachi, as having usually
come by the way of Surat. The plant in question is a species of amomum,
as that genus is defined by Dr Roxburgh, and differs very much from the
cardamom of Malabar. The natives call it merely Elachi. It is raised in
beds, that are levelled, and surrounded by a small bank, like a field of
rice; for it requires to be constantly in water. In spring, cuttings of
the roots are planted in these beds, at about a cubit’s distance from
each other, and must be carefully weeded and supplied with water, so that
the soil is always covered two or three inches. In about three years the
plants begin to produce, and ever afterwards, in the month Bhadra, give
an annual crop. The heads, which spring up among the leaves, are
plucked, and, at the same time, old withered stems and leaves and weeds
are carefully removed. The capsules are then separated, dried, and
packed for sale.
In the country between Nepal Proper, and the Kali river, ginger is also a
valuable article of cultivation.
On the whole, one-half of the cultivation among the mountains may be said
to consist in transplanted rice. The remainder is composed of the
various articles above mentioned, sown on the Kuriya, or steep land. For
a more particular account of the agriculture, I must refer to the third
section of the first chapter of the second part, where I have detailed
all that I know on this subject, so far as relates to Nepal Proper.
The pasture on these mountains, although not so harsh and watery as that
of the low country, is by no means good, and seems greatly inferior to
that even on the heaths of Scotland.
The Gurung and Limbu tribes, already described, are, however, shepherds
provided with numerous flocks. In winter they retire to the lower
mountains and vallies; but in summer they ascend to the Alpine regions,
which bound the country on the north, and feed their herds on some
extensive tracts in the vicinity of the regions perpetually frozen, but
which in winter are deeply covered with snow. The sheep which these
people possess are said to be very large, and are called Barwal, and
their wool is said to be fine. It is woven into a cloth, which is finer
than that of Bhotan. The sheep of this breed give also much milk, with
which, if I understand the account of the natives right, they make a kind
of cheese. Whether or not the Barwal is of the same breed with the sheep
employed to carry loads, and afterwards to be mentioned, I do not exactly
know.
There is another kind of sheep called San-Bhera, which are never sent to
the Alpine pastures.
The cattle of the ox kind resemble those of the low country, and are not
numerous.
Buffaloes are brought from the low country and fattened for slaughter,
but are not bred. The same is the case with hogs and goats, although the
country seems admirably adapted for the latter kind of cattle.
Horses are imported from Thibet, for they do not breed on the south side
of the Alps. The same is the case with the Chaungri cattle, (_Bos
grunniens_,) and the goat which produces the wool from whence shawls are
made.
This part of the country consists in many places of granite, and contains
much iron, lead, and copper, with some zinc (_Dasta_) and a little gold
found in the channels of some rivers. The specimens which I procured of
the ores were so small, that I can say little concerning their nature.
The copper ore which I saw adhered to whitish hornstone, or earthy
quartz. The iron ore is a dark red stony substance, with a fine grain.
I have not seen any of the lead or zinc ores. The following details
respecting the management of these mines, will enable the reader to judge
concerning their value.
The copper mines seem to be quite superficial, and the ore is dug from
trenches entirely open above, so that the workmen cannot act in the rainy
season, as they have not even sense to make a drain. Each mine has
attached to it certain families, who seem to be a kind of proprietors, as
no one else is allowed to dig. These miners are called Agari. Each man
in the month digs, on an average, from two to four _mans_ of the ore,
that is, about 30 _mans_ in the year. The _man_ is 40 _sers_ of 64
_sicca_ weight, so that the total ore dug by each man may be about 1970
lb. This is delivered to another set of workmen, named Kami, who smelt,
and work in metals. These procure charcoal, the Raja furnishing trees,
and smelt the ore. This is first roasted, then put in water for two or
three days, then powdered, and finally put in small furnaces, each
containing from two to three _sers_, or from three to five pounds of the
powdered ore. Two _sers_ of ore give from one to one and a half _ser_ of
metal, or, on an average, 62½ per cent. The total copper, therefore,
procured by one miner’s labour is 1232 lb. Of this, the man takes ⅓ =
410⅔ lb., the Raja takes as much, the smelter takes 1/5 = 246⅔ lb. The
remainder, 164-3/11 lb. is divided equally between the Raja, the miner,
and a person called Izaradar, who keeps the accounts, usually advances a
subsistence to the whole party, and often gives loans even to the Raja,
the system of anticipation being universally prevalent. The miner,
therefore, makes about 465 lb. of copper in the year, and the Raja, for
each miner, has as much. The smelter gets about 300 lb. but one smelter
suffices for about two miners, so that he makes better wages. It must be
observed, that copper bears in India a much greater value in proportion
to silver than it does in Europe, so that the profits of the miner are
high.
The iron ore is also found near the surface, and the mines of it are
nearly on the same footing as those of copper, only the same persons
(Kami) dig and smelt, and are allowed one third of the whole produce,
while the Raja and superintendent (Izaradar) receive each as much. I
have received no estimate of the amount of each man’s labour. The iron
of different mines is of very different qualities, some being so
excellent, that, even without being converted into steel, it makes knives
and swords.
Only two mines of lead are at present wrought, because all the metal is
reserved for the Raja’s magazines; but, so far as I can learn, lead is
found in a great many places quite on the surface. These, however, are
concealed with care by those who observe them, and who are thus able to
work in private.
Colonel Kirkpatrick {78a} was informed, that the people, owing to want of
skill, could not smelt their lead ore, and procured the metal from Patna;
but it would be extraordinary, if a people who could smelt iron and
copper, should be unable to smelt lead. He, in the same place, observes,
that the lead of Nepal, as usual, contains silver.
Colonel Kirkpatrick had received information of mines of antimony and
mercury, but considered the information vague. I am well assured of the
existence of the latter in the form of a native cinnabar, which is called
_Sabita_ by the natives, and is exported to the low country for sale.
The position of such of the mines as have come to my knowledge, will be
seen in the maps.
Mines of sulphur are said to be numerous in these regions. Colonel
Kirkpatrick {78b} says, that the government of Gorkha was obliged to
desist from working them, on account of their deleterious qualities.
This was probably owing to an admixture of arsenic, which he says is also
found.
Corundum of the compact kind, such as is found in the western provinces
under the presidency of Bengal, is called Kurran by the Hindus of the
mountains, and is found in great quantities on the hills of Isma and
Musikot; and at Kathmandu, I was shown some of a coarse nature, said to
be brought from the surrounding mountains; but what is most esteemed in
that capital is said to come from Thibet. In both the Company’s
territory and in Nepal, it is always found in detached rounded masses
lying on the surface, but often of considerable size. In Nepal, these
masses seldom exceed four or five pounds, but in the Company’s provinces
they are much larger.
I saw masses of the Agalmatolite, used in China to make images, and in
Ava for pencils. They were said to be brought from the mountains in the
vicinity of Kathmandu.
I have seen very fine specimens of Talc brought from Nepal as a medicine;
but I have no information concerning the place where it is found.
On the banks of the Gandaki, at Muktanath, is a precipice, from which the
river is supposed to wash the Salagrams or black stones, which are
considered by the Hindus as representatives of several of their deities,
and which are the most common objects of worship in Bengal, where images
are scarce. They are of various kinds, and accordingly represent
different deities. Pilgrims, who have been at the place, say, that the
stones are found partly in the precipice, and partly in the bed of the
river, where it has washed down the earth. On account of its containing
these stones, this branch of the river is usually called the Salagrami,
and the channel every where below Muktinath, until it reaches the plain
of India at Sivapur, abounds in these stones. All the Salagrams consist
of carbonate of lime, and are in general quite black, but a few have
white veins. Their colour is probably owing to some metallic
impregnation, which also occasions their great specific weight. They
rarely exceed the size of an orange, and they are rounded, I suppose, by
the action of water. Most of them are what naturalists call
petrifactions, and by far the most common are Ammonites, half imbedded in
a ball of stone, exactly of the same nature with the petrified animal.
Others, which are reckoned the most valuable, are balls containing a
cavity formed by an Ammonite, that has afterwards decayed, and left only
its impression, or they are what Wallerius calls _Typolithi Ammonitarum_.
The Ammonites or their impressions are called the Chakras or wheels of
the Salagrams, but are sometimes wanting. The stone is then a mere ball
without any mark of animal exuviæ. Some balls have no external opening,
and yet by rubbing away a portion of one of their sides, the hollow wheel
(_chakra_) is discovered. Such Salagrams are reckoned very valuable.
In many parts of these mountains, the substance called _Silajit_ exudes
from rocks. I have not yet satisfied myself concerning its nature; but
intend hereafter to treat the subject fully, when I describe the natural
productions of Behar, where I had an opportunity of collecting it, as it
came from the rock.
The valley of Nepal Proper, which contains Kathmandu, or, as many call
it, Kathmaro, Lalita Patan, and Bhatgang, is the largest in the dominions
of Gorkha, and in this plain there is not naturally a single stone of any
considerable size. The whole, so far as man has penetrated, consists of
what is called alluvial matter, covered by soil. In some places the
alluvial matter consists of thick beds of fine gravel and sand, much of
which is micaceous. Among these beds are found concretions of the same
materials, united into balls, about the size and shape of a turkey’s egg.
At one end these are generally perforated with a small hole, and some,
but not all of them, are hollow. The Newars call them Dungoda; but can
give no account of their formation, nor did I observe any thing that
could lead to an explanation.
A large proportion of the alluvial matter consists of a blackish
substance resembling clay. It seems to approach nearer to the nature of
turf than any thing with which I am acquainted, and I have no doubt is of
vegetable origin. It is called Koncha by the Newars, who dig out large
quantities, and apply it to their fields as a manure. The beds, in which
it is disposed, are often very thick and extensive; and it is always much
intermixed with leaves, bits of stick, fruits, and other vegetable
exuviæ, the produce of plants, similar to those now growing on the
neighbouring hills.
The various rivers that pass through the above-mentioned Koncha, have
washed from its strata another harder and blacker substance, but still
having so strong a resemblance, that it is called _Ha Koncha_. This is
most commonly found in the channels of the rivers, and by the natives is
supposed to be decayed charcoal; but the great size of some of the masses
seems to me incompatible with the truth of this opinion.
A kind of blue martial earth, the earthy blue iron ore of mineralogists,
by the Newars called Ong Shigulay, is also found commonly intermixed with
the Koncha. It is never in large masses, and, in my opinion, has derived
its origin from some vegetable substance that has been gradually
impregnated with iron. Cones of the pine may be traced in all stages,
from those retaining a half of their vegetable nature, to those entirely
converted into martial earth, and only distinguishable by their shape as
having once been vegetable productions. The half-formed specimen that I
procured is a cone of the _Pinus strobus_; but the more common ones are
exuviæ of the _Pinus longifolia_.
In the alluvial matter of the plain of Nepal are also found large strata
of clay, fit for the potter and brickmaker.
The greater part of the mountains which enclose the valley of Nepal
consists of grey granite, of which the surface is very much decayed
wherever it has been exposed to the air. On the south side of
Chandangiri, about four miles west from Pharphing, is a very large
stratum of fine white sand, which the Parbatiyas call _Seta mati_, or
white earth. It seems to me to be nothing more than decayed granite; and
I think it probable, that the sandstone found on Sambhu, and the
neighbouring hill towards Hilchuck, is composed of this granitic sand
reunited into rock. This sandstone is used in a few buildings, but I
have seen no large blocks, and the difficulty, or impracticability, of
procuring such, has probably occasioned this stone to be in general
neglected.
The stone usually employed in Nepal for building is a rock containing
much lime, which is so impregnated with other matters, that, though it
effervesces strongly with acids, and falls to pieces in a sufficient
quantity of these liquids, yet, by calcination, it cannot be reduced to
quicklime fit for use. It is disposed in vertical strata, is very fine
grained, has a silky lustre, cuts well, can be procured in large masses,
and powerfully resists the action of the weather, so that it is an
excellent material for building.
Limestone is so scarce, that clay is the only mortar used by the natives.
We, however, visited a quarry on the mountain called Nag Arjun, where the
people obtain lime for white-washing their houses, and for chewing with
betel. It is a vertical stratum, about two feet wide, and running
parallel with the other strata of the mountain. It consists of small
irregular rhombic crystals, which agree with the character given by
Wallerius of the _Spathum arenarium_.
In the lower part of the hills, which borders immediately on the plain,
are found large masses of a hard red clay, considered by some
naturalists, to whom I have shown it, as decomposed schistus. It is
called Lungcha by the Newars, and used by them for painting the walls of
their houses.
The whole of this mountainous region is copiously watered by limpid
streams and springs, and the vegetable productions are of most remarkable
stateliness, beauty, and variety. Except at the summits of the
mountains, the trees are uncommonly large; and every where, and at all
seasons, the earth abounds with the most beautiful flowers, partly
resembling those of India, but still more those of Europe.
I have already mentioned the vegetable productions of the mountains, so
far as they are objects of cultivation. I shall now mention a few of its
spontaneous plants that are applied to use.
The timber trees consist of various oaks, {83a} pines, firs, walnut,
{83b} chesnut, hornbeam, yew, laurels, hollies, birches, Gordonia, {83c}
Michelias, etc, most of them species hitherto unnoticed by botanists; but
some exactly the same as in Europe, such as the yew, holly, hornbeam,
walnut, Weymouth pine, (Pinus strobus, W.) and common spruce fir, (Pinus
picea, W.) As, however, the greater part are of little value, from the
inaccessible nature of the country, I shall only particularize a few
kinds.
The _Malayagiri_ is a tree, of which I have only seen a branch with
leaves, and I cannot with any certainty judge what its botanical
affinities may be. It has a pale yellow wood, with a very agreeable
scent, and on this account might be valuable for fine cabinet work, and
might bear the expense of carriage.
The _Tinmue_, or _Taizbul_ of Colonel Kirkpatrick, {84a} is a species of
_Fagara_. In the mountains of Nepal I have only seen the shrubby kind;
but, on the lower hills, I observed another species, which grows to be a
tree, and which is probably the larger sort alluded to by the Colonel.
The male _Sinkauri_, or _Silkauli_ of the mountain Hindus, is a species
of Laurus, which is either the _Laurus japonica_ of Rumph, {84b} or
approaches very near to that plant. Both its bark and leaves have a fine
aromatic smell and taste, and this quality in the leaves is strengthened
by drying. They are carried to the low country, and sold under the name
of _Tejpat_; but the tree is of a different species from the Tejpat of
Ranggapur.
The female Sinkauri, or Silkauli, like the male, is another tree nearly
related to the cinnamon; but its aromatic quality resides in the bark of
the root, which has a very permanent fragrance, and would probably give a
very fine oil. The specimens brought from the mountains of Morang,
appeared to differ in species from the plant of similar qualities that
has been introduced into Ranggapur from Bhotan.
Both male and female Sinkauli are considered by Colonel Kirkpatrick as
one species, which he calls _Singrowla_, {85a} probably by a
typographical error.
The _Lalchandan_, or Red Sandal, is a timber tree, the foliage and
appearance of which have some resemblance to the Laurels. It seems to be
a fine timber for the cabinetmaker, but has little smell, and is not the
Red Sanders or Sandal of the shops.
The _Siedburrooa_, mentioned by Colonel Kirkpatrick, {85b} as the plant
from which the Nepalese make paper, is a species of Daphne, very nearly
allied to that which botanists call _odora_.
The _Karphul_, mentioned also by Colonel Kirkpatrick, {85c} as a small
stone fruit, resembling a cherry, is a species of _Myrica_.
The _Jumne mundroo_ of Colonel Kirkpatrick {85d} I consider as a species
of _Leontice_, although it is a small tree, and has strong affinities
with the _Berberis_. Its leaves are pinnated; but each division, as the
Colonel notices, has a strong resemblance to the leaves of the holly.
The _Chootraphul_ of Colonel Kirkpatrick {85e} is, in fact, a species of
barberry, to which the Colonel compares it.
There are two species of the _Chirata_, a bitter herb, much and
deservedly used by the Hindu physicians in slow febrile diseases, as
strengthening the stomach. The smaller is the one most in request. I
have not seen its flowers, but the appearance of the herb agrees with
some short notices in manuscript, with which I was favoured by Dr
Roxburgh, of the plant sent to him as the Chirata, and which he considers
as a species of gentian. The larger Chirata is a species of _Swertia_,
but approaches nearer in appearance to the common Gentian of the shops
than to any other plant that I know. Its root, especially, has a great
resemblance, and might probably be a good substitute, were not the herb
of the smaller Chirata a better medicine. Both species, however,
approach so near to each other, that they are often sold
indiscriminately.
The dried scales of a tuberous root are imported from these mountains
into the Company’s territory, and the druggists there call them _Kshir
kangkri_ or _Titipiralu_. Some people of the mountains, whom I employed,
brought me the living bulbs, certainly of the same kind, and these had
young stems then very thriving, but which soon withered from the heat.
They had every appearance of being a species of _Lilium_, and the people
who brought them said, that they were the _Titipiralu_, while the _Kshir
kangkri_, according to them, is a plant of the cucurbitaceous tribe.
Other hill people, however, brought for the Titipiralu a species of
_Pancratium_, which I cannot trace in the works of botanists; but it has
a great resemblance to the _Pancratium maritimum_. This is certainly not
the plant sold by the druggists of Nathpur.
The same druggists gave me a medicine which they called _Jainti_ or
_Bhutkes_. Some of the hill people said, that it grows among the mosses,
on large stones, on the higher mountains, and is evidently the lower part
of the stems of one of the _orchides_ of that kind of _epidendra_, which
have an erect stem, many of which, I know, grow in Nepal in such
situations. Others of the mountaineers alleged that this was not the
true Bhutkes, or Bhutkesar, which they say differs from the Jainti; and,
in fact, they brought me from the snowy mountains a very different plant,
which they called _Bhutkesar_.
_Singgiya Bikh_, or _Bish_, is a plant much celebrated among the
mountaineers. The plant was brought to me in flower, but was entirely
male, nor did I see the fruit, which is said to be a berry. So far as I
can judge from these circumstances, I suppose that it is a species of
_Smilax_, with ternate leaves. To pass over several of its qualities
that are marvellous, the root, which resembles a yam, is said to be a
violent poison. The berries also are said to be deleterious, but, when
applied externally, are considered as a cure for the swelling of the
throat, which resembles the goitre of the Swiss, and is very common among
the mountaineers.
The _Jhul_ is imported by the druggists of the Company’s territory, and
what was brought as such to me, consisted of four kinds of Lichen,
intermixed with some straggling Jungermannias. By far the greater part,
however, of the Jhul consisted of two kinds of Lichen, the furfuraceus,
and one very like the farinaceus. These grow on stones among the
mountains.
With respect to the breadth of this mountainous region, there is reason
to think, from the observations of Colonel Crawford, that, immediately
north and east from Kathmandu, the horizontal direct extent may be from
thirty to forty British miles; but farther west, the breadth of this
region probably exceeds that extent. I have, however, no solid grounds
for judging; as days’ journies, given by travellers on routes, in such a
country, can give but a very imperfect notion of horizontal distance.
The alpine region belonging to the chiefs of Gorkha, which bounds the
mountainous district on the north, is probably of nearly an equal
breadth; that is to say, over a space of thirty or forty miles from north
to south, there are scattered immense peaks covered with perpetual snow,
before we reach the passes at the boundary of Thibet, where almost the
whole country is subject to everlasting winter. Between these scattered
peaks there are narrow vallies, some of which admit of cultivation, and,
being of the same elevation with the higher parts of the mountainous
region, admit of similar productions.
It is indeed said by Colonel Kirkpatrick, {88a} that, in the alpine
vallies occupied by the Limbus, there is raised a kind of rice called
_Takmaro_, which he thinks may be probably found to answer in the climate
and soil of England. Whether or not this Takmaro may be the same with
the grain called _Uya_, which will be farther mentioned in the account of
_Malebum_, I cannot take upon myself to determine, although I think it
probable, from the situation in which both are said to grow, that Uya and
Takmaro are two names for the same grain. In this case the grain may
probably be rye, although this also is uncertain.
By far the greatest part, however, of the Alpine region, consists of
immense rocks, rising into sharp peaks, and the most tremendous
precipices, wherever not perpendicular, covered with perpetual snow, and
almost constantly involved in clouds. No means for ascertaining the
height of the central, and probably the highest peaks of Emodus, have
come to my knowledge; but, while at Kathmandu, Colonel Crawford had an
opportunity of observing the altitude of several of the detached peaks,
the situations of which will be seen from the accompanying map, copied
from one of this excellent geographer. {88b} The accompanying table also
will give the result of his estimate of the height of these peaks above
the valley of Nepal. In the five wooden plates, taken from drawings by
Colonel Crawford, a view of these mountains from Oba Mohisyu, in the
valley of Nepal is represented, and will give an idea of their
appearance, as well as that of the valley of Nepal itself, although a
better judgment may be formed of this from the two copperplates that will
be afterwards mentioned.
The southern face of these alps differs very much from those of
Switzerland; for the rains being periodical, and falling in the hottest
season of the year, the snow continues almost always stationary. It is
only the few showers that happen in winter, and the vapours from
condensed clouds, that dissolve in the beginning of summer, and occasion
a small swell in the rivers, which spring from the south side of these
alps.
The country on the north side of these lofty peaks, so far as I can
learn, more resembles Europe. It is exceedingly high and bare, and is
far from being mountainous. The rains, however, are not periodical, and
the greatest falls happen in summer, so that, although several Indian
rivers come from thence, they do not swell much by the melting of snow in
the heats of spring.
The ridge of snowy alps, although it would appear to wind very much, has
few interruptions, and, in most places, is said to be totally
insuperable. Several rivers that arise in Thibet pass through among its
peaks, but amidst such tremendous precipices, and by such narrow gaps,
that these openings are in general totally impracticable. By far the
widest is on the Arun, the chief branch of the Kosi, where Maingmo on the
west, and Mirgu on the east, leave a very wide opening occupied by
mountains of a moderate height, and which admit of cultivation. Even
there, however, the Arun is so hid among precipices, that it is
approachable in only a few places, where there are passes of the utmost
difficulty. Again, behind this opening in the snowy ridge, at a
considerable distance farther north, is another range of hills, not so
high and broken as the immense peaks of Emodus, but still so elevated as
to be totally impassable in winter, owing to the depth of snow; for the
road is said to be tolerable, that is, it will admit of cattle carrying
loads. Somewhat similar seems in general to be the nature of the other
few passages through these alpine regions.
It is about these passages chiefly, and especially beyond Maingmo and
Mirgu, that there is the greatest extent of the alpine pastures, which I
have already mentioned; but in every part, bordering on the perpetual
snow, these occur more or less.
Colonel Kirkpatrick {90} thinks, that there are two distinct ranges of
Emodus or Himaleh; the lower of which, separating Nepal from Thibet, is
only streaked with snow, while the highest separates Kuchar, or the lower
Bhotan, from Thibet. He also thought, that, from the summit of the Lama
Dangra hills above Chisapani, he saw the highest ridge. Now, in the maps
which I obtained from the natives, three ridges may in some measure be
traced, as proceeding from about the lake Manasarawar, which may be
considered as the centre of Emodus. The summits of even the most
southern of these ridges, which is probably the lowest, are not covered
with mere patches of snow, as Colonel Kirkpatrick seems to have thought,
but on them the snow is perennial to a very great extent.
The most northern ridge, which is probably the highest, as it is nowhere
penetrated by rivers, approaches Hindustan only at the lake Manasarawar,
where the remarkable peak called Kailasa may be considered as its centre.
This peak may perhaps be visible from the southward, although there
exists no certainty of its being so; but the portions of this ridge,
which extend west and east from Kailasa, bordering on the north, the
upper part of the Indus, and Brahmaputra rivers, are certainly invisible
from every part of Hindustan, and very little is known concerning them.
The middle ridge of Himaleh, which separates Thibet from Hindustan,
taking this word in its most extended sense as including Kasmir, the
dominions of Gorkha, etc. extends probably to the Chinese Sea along the
northern frontier of the provinces of Quangsi and Quantong, lowering
gradually as it advances to the east. Although, so far as connected with
Hindustan, it is of enormous height, yet it is perforated by many rivers,
such as the Indus, Sutluj or Satrudra, Karanali or Sarayu, Gandaki, Arun,
Brahmaputra, etc.
Mr Colebrooke, indeed, {91} doubts of any rivers crossing this chain; for
he says, “It is presumable that all the tributary streams of the Ganges,
including the Sarayu, (whether its alleged source in the Manasarawar lake
be credited or discredited,) and the Yamuna, rise on the southern side of
the Himaliya;” and again he says, “From the western side of the
mountains, after the range, taking a sweep to the north, assumes a new
direction in the line of the meridian, arise streams tributary to the
Indus, or perhaps the Indus itself.” On this I would remark, that all
the rivers I have enumerated, no doubt, arise from Thibet, and penetrate
this chain. If, indeed, the Sarayu, or rather Karnali, arises from the
lake Manasarawar, which is undoubtedly on the north side of the Himaleh
ridge, how could Mr Colebrooke’s position be maintained? He is also
probably wrong in supposing that the central Himaliya ridge bends to the
north. There is rather reason to think that it passes straight west,
after it is penetrated by the Indus, and reaches to the Hindoo Coosh of
the Honourable Mr Elphinston; while it is the western extremity of the
northern ridge, first mentioned, that turns to the north, and separates
Samarkhand and Bokhara from Kashgar. These rivers, which penetrate the
central Himaliya ridge, do not appear to me to arise from any remarkable
ridge of mountains, but spring from detached eminences on the elevated
country of Thibet, and pass through interruptions or chasms in the
central ridge of Emodus. It is very possible, that Colonel Kirkpatrick
saw this ridge from Lama Dangra; but I am very doubtful, whether any part
of it is visible from the plains of Hindustan; or, at least, that any of
the more distinguished peaks visible from thence belong to it. All the
peaks measured by Colonel Crawford were, no doubt, to the southward of
the central ridge, and I suspect that all the snow-clad mountains visible
from the plains, like those seen by Colonel Crawford, are either detached
peaks, or belong to the southern ridge.
There is also reason to think, that the peak measured by Lieutenant Web,
and which was one appearing conspicuous from the plains of Rohilkhand,
{92a} is that laid down by Mr Arrowsmith, about 40 miles south from
Litighat, that is, from the central chain, and must therefore be near the
southern edge of the alpine region. Contrary, therefore, to the opinion
of Mr Colebrooke, {92b} I think it very much to be doubted, whether the
snowy mountains, visible from Rohilkhand, are the highest ground between
the level plains of India, and the elevated regions of southern Tartary,
by which I presume he means Thibet.
The third or southern ridge forms the southern boundary of the alpine
region above described. In many parts, the whole space between this and
the central ridge is thickly covered with immense peaks, so as to leave
no separation between the ridges; but in other parts, there exists an
intermediate, more level, and habitable portion, interposed between the
central ridge and the southern peaks, which in these parts form a very
distinct ridge. This is particularly the case in the Chamba country,
towards Kasmir, in the Taklakhar country on the Karnali, and in the
Kirata country on the Arun, as will be afterwards described.
Of the productions of this part I shall now proceed to treat, confining
myself to those of the southern face, where there are but a very few of
the cattle, (Bos grunniens,) whose tails form the Chaungri of India, and
the badges by which the Turkish Bashaws are distinguished; nor are there
any of the goats which produce the fine wool from whence the shawls are
made; nor are there mines of gold, nor, one excepted, of salt, nor of
borax. All these, so far as I can learn, are almost entirely the produce
of the country beyond the alps.
An account of the Chandra or shawl-wool goat has been given by Colonel
Kirkpatrick, {93} who suspects it to be rather scarce, even in Thibet,
since it is not without the greatest difficulty that a perfect male of
this species can be procured, owing to the jealous vigilance employed by
the Thibetians to prevent their being conveyed into foreign countries.
The editor, in a note, thinks this opinion unfounded, because Captain
Turner brought several of these animals from Thibet to Bengal, from
whence he sent a few to England. I do not see that the reasoning of
either Colonel Kirkpatrick, or his editor, is here conclusive. If the
people of Thibet are jealous, the difficulty of procuring a perfect male
for exportation can be no proof of the species being scarce. Neither can
Captain Turner’s having been allowed to bring several of these animals to
Bengal be considered as a proof of the want of jealousy. A great many
wethers of this breed are annually brought to market at Kathmandu, and
may be readily procured, nor does it appear that those brought by Captain
Turner were entire males. Those remaining in the Governor General’s park
in 1803 were all wethers. That both entire males and females may be
procured, we know from the exertions of Mr Moorcroft; but that the people
of Thibet are very jealous in preserving the monopoly, I have been
assured by that gentleman, as well as by the people of Nepal.
I have already mentioned, that I believe sulphur, and perhaps talc, are
found in these alpine regions, and there can be no doubt that they abound
with Mica (_Abrak_) in large plates, and in rock crystal (_Belor_) of a
large size. It is probably in reference to this mineral, that some parts
of this great alpine chain, towards the north-west, has been named Belor
Tag, although Mr Elphinston gives another derivation, and changes the
final _r_ into a _t_, in order to accommodate the word to his meaning,
which may, however, be quite correct. Besides these mineral productions,
the alpine region has several metallic veins, especially lead and zinc,
or tutenague.
The most valuable production of the southern face of these mountains is
the animal which produces musk, of which vast numbers are annually
killed. The only other large animal found there is a kind of wild sheep
of great size. The accounts which I have received concerning it are very
imperfect, and I have only seen one skin, which was in a very bad state
of preservation. It may possibly be the same animal that our zoologists
have described by the name of _Argali_.
These frigid regions are the constant abode of two of the finest birds
that are known, the Manal {95a} and Damphiya. {95b} To me both seem
evidently to have the closest affinity with each other, in size, manners,
and form, and the females of the two species are not easily
distinguishable; yet the former, (Meleagris satyra, L.) by the best
ornithologists, has been most unaccountably classed with the turkey, and
the latter (Phasianus Impeyanus) with the pheasant, to which the
resemblance is very trifling.
Along with these two fine birds, according to Colonel Kirkpatrick, {95c}
is found the _Chakor_, or _Chiukoar_, according to his orthography. He
states, that this bird “is well known to the Europeans in India by the
name of fire-eater. It is a species of partridge, (_Perdix rufa_,) and
derives its English name from its reputed power of swallowing fire. The
fact, according to the people of Nepal, is that in the season of love,
this bird is remarkably fond of red or _chean_ (Cayenne) pepper, after
eating two or three capsules of which, it will eat a red coal if offered
to it.” This account of the Nepalese deserves no credit; for, in its
native frozen mountains, where is the Chakor to procure Capsicum or
Cayenne pepper? and I know that the birds will pick at sparks of fire,
where no capsicum has been given to them.
The vegetable productions of these mountains are, however, the greatest
object of curiosity, and it is with infinite regret that I not only have
not had it in my power to visit them, but that the disturbances existing
between the two governments, when I was on the frontier, have prevented
me from procuring complete specimens and seeds of many of the most
interesting objects, for which arrangements had been made, when the
disputes put a stop to communication. While at Nathpur, I had indeed
previously procured young plants of most of the kinds, but although kept
in a very cool house, not one of them resisted the summer heats. I shall
now mention some of the most remarkable.
The _Dhupi_ is a species of juniper. Its wood has a beautiful grain, a
fine mahogany colour, and a remarkably pleasant scent, a good deal
resembling that of the pencil cedar, but stronger, and I think more
agreeable. Planks of this are sent to Thibet, from whence they are
probably carried to China. A man, whom I sent from Nathpur to Thibet, in
order to procure plants, says, that the Dhupi grows to be a very large
tree, in which case it would be a valuable acquisition in Europe, in the
northern parts of which it will no doubt thrive.
The _Thumuriya Dhupi_ is another species of juniper, which is a low bush,
like the kind common in the north of Europe. Its branches and leaves
have an agreeable smell, and are used in fumigations.
The _Hingwalka Chhota saral_, or small alpine fir, so strongly resembles
the common fir of the south of Europe, (_Pinus picca_, W.) that I can
perceive no difference in the foliage; but I have not seen the cones.
There is, however, probably some difference, for it is said never to grow
to a considerable size, and the leaves, if I can trust to memory, have a
much more agreeable smell than those of the common fir.
The _Hingwalka bara Saral_, or large alpine fir, is in fact the yew tree;
and although I have seen it in all its stages, I can perceive no very
essential difference between it and the tree of Europe. Its leaves,
however, are rather larger, and bent, (_falcata_.) Like the yew in the
north of Europe, it grows to a great size.
The _Bhuryapatra_ or _Bhurjapatra_ is a species of birch, the bark of
which resembles that of the tree common in Europe, in being separable
into fine smooth layers; but these are of a fine chesnut colour. This
bark is imported into the low country in considerable quantity, and is
used both in the religious ceremonies of the Hindus, and for constructing
the flexible tubes with which the natives smoke tobacco.
The _Sanpati_ is a small Rhododendron, which has a considerable affinity
with the kinds described in the Encyclopédie by the names of R.
linearifolium and ferrugineum. It is a shrub much like our sweet gale in
Europe, and its leaves are very odorous, and, even when dried, retain
their fragrance. It is used in fumigations, and sent to the low country.
The _Bhairopati_, although I have not seen the flower, is, I have no
doubt, another similar species of the Rhododendron, which has a great
resemblance to the kind called Chamæcistus. Its qualities are similar to
those of the former, but it is less fragrant. The man whom I sent to
Thibet brought, as the _Bhairopati_, a totally different plant, of which
the specimens so strongly resemble branches of the Cypressus sempervirens
meta convoluta, that I should have no doubt of its being this plant, were
it not that the man describes it as a shrub, and that its dried leaves
have a disagreeable sulphurous smell. It is, however, the Rhododendron
which is always sold in the shops of Hindustan as the _Bhairopati_.
There seems to be some difficulty in fixing the nomenclature of the
_Jatamangsi_, a plant celebrated among the natives as a perfume, and of
which large quantities are sent from these Alps to the plains of India.
What I procured at the shops in Nathpur, and recently imported from the
Alps, was the species of Valerian described by Dr Roxburgh in the
Asiatick Researches, and supposed by Sir William Jones to be the
spikenard of the ancients. As there can be no disputing about taste, I
cannot take upon myself to say how far the encomiums bestowed on the
fragrance of the spikenard are applicable to this valerian; and the
native women, no doubt, consider the smell very agreeable, because most
of such as can afford it use oil impregnated with this root for perfuming
their hair. All I can say is, that, if this root was the spikenard of
the Roman ladies, their lovers must have had a very different taste from
the youth of modern Europe. A still greater difficulty attends the
nomenclature of the _Jatamangsi_. A person whom I employed to bring me
the growing plant from the mountains, produced a root totally different
from the former. It strongly resembled the root of the Anthamantha meum;
but when fresh had an uncommonly fragrant smell. From the appearance of
the leaves, I have no doubt that it is an umbelliferous plant.
I have already mentioned the doubts that exist about the plant called
_Bhutkesar_, which is imported from the mountains, and used as a
medicine. What was brought to me from the snowy mountains was a thick
woody root, on the top of which were many stiff bristles, and from among
these the young leaves were shooting. These were three times divided
into three, and resembled these of a Thalictrum, of which I know there
are several species in the lower mountains of Nepal.
The term _Bish_ or _Bikh_, according to the pronunciation of the same
letters on the plains, and in the mountains, is applied to four different
plants with tuberous roots, all in great request. I have already
mentioned the _Singgiya Bish_, as found on the lower mountains and hills,
and supposed it to be a species of Smilax. The others have not the
smallest resemblance to it, but are so strongly marked by a resemblance
to each other, that I have no doubt of their all belonging to the same
genus, although I have only seen the flower and fruit of one. This is
called _Bishma_ or _Bikhma_, and seems to me to differ little in
botanical characters from the _Caltha_ of Europe. The _Bishma_ or
_Bikhma_ is also, I believe, called _Mitha_, although I am not certain
but that this name may be also given to the following species, which
deserves the most serious attention, as the _Bikhma_ is used in medicine,
is a strong bitter, very powerful in the cure of fevers, while the plant
that will be next mentioned is one of the most virulent poisons.
This dreadful root, of which large quantities are annually imported, is
equally fatal when taken into the stomach, and applied to wounds, and is
in universal use throughout India for poisoning arrows; and there is too
much reason to suspect, for the worst of purposes. Its importation would
indeed seem to require the attention of the magistrate. The Gorkhalese
pretend, that it is one of their principal securities against invasion
from the low countries; and that they could so infect all the waters on
the route by which an enemy was advancing, as to occasion his certain
destruction. In case of such an attempt, the invaders ought, no doubt,
to be on their guard; but the country abounds so in springs, that might
be soon cleared, as to render such a means of defence totally
ineffectual, were the enemy aware of the circumstance. This poisonous
species is called _Bish_, _Bikh_, and _Hodoya Bish_ or _Bikh_, nor am I
certain whether the _Mitha_ ought to be referred to it, or to the
foregoing kind.
The _Nirbishi_ or _Nirbikhi_ is another plant of the same genus, and,
like the first kind, has no deleterious qualities, but is used in
medicine. The President of the Asiatick Society, in a note annexed to Dr
Roxburgh’s account of the Zedoary, gives the _Nirbisha_ or _Nirbishi_ as
a Sangskrita or Hindwi name of that plant, which has not the smallest
resemblance to the _Nirbishi _of the Indian Alps. In fact, the
nomenclature of the _materia medica_ among the Hindus, so far as I can
learn, is miserably defective, and can scarcely fail to be productive of
most dangerous mistakes in the practice of medicine. For instance, the
man whom I sent to Thibet for plants brought, as the species which
produces the poison, that which was first brought to me as the
_Nirbishi_, or kind used in medicine.
The _Padam chhal_ is a plant with a thick cylindrical root, that is used
in medicine, and brought to the low country for that purpose. The
specimen that I procured had one large heart-shaped rough leaf, and had
somewhat the appearance of an Anemone.
The _Kutki_ is another officinal plant with a woody root, and a stem
containing many alternate leaves, toothed on the edges, and shaped like a
spathula. It has much the appearance of a saxifrage. The roots are
brought for sale.
The _Brim_ appears to be one of the orchides, and has a root used in
medicine.
CHAPTER THIRD.
LAWS AND GOVERNMENT.
Parts east from the Kali.—Courts and Forms of
Proceeding.—Punishments.—Provincial Government.—Revenue and
Endowments.—Officers of State.—Military Establishment.—Differences in the
parts west from the River Kali.—Revenue and Civil Establishment.—Military
Establishment.
Having thus described, in a general manner, the inhabitants and country
of the territory subject to the chief of Gorkha, I shall now give a
similar view of the form of government which existed under the petty
chiefs, to whom it was formerly subject, and of the changes which have
been introduced since its union under one head.
I shall only premise a very just observation of Colonel Kirkpatrick, who
says, {101} “that the government, taking its colour, for the most part,
from the character and temporary views of the ruling individual, must
necessarily be of too fugitive a nature to admit of any delineation
equally applicable to all periods and circumstances.” This may serve to
explain many differences between his account and mine, without supposing
the information received by either to be erroneous.
The management of affairs in all the petty states was in many points the
same, and differed chiefly in the names applied to similar officers, and
in the nature of the military establishment in the two countries to the
east and west of the river Kali. I have already mentioned, that in the
former the Hindu rules of purity and law had been established with much
less rigour than in the latter; but, in other points, such as the names
of officers, and the form of government, the eastern parts followed more
nearly the ancient Hindu system, while the western more fully imitated
the Muhammedans.
In the parts east of the Kali, for each small territory or manor called a
Gang, or, where these were small, for every two or three, there was an
officer called an Umra Mokudum or Mahato, and over from ten to twenty
gangs there was a higher officer named Desali or Chaudhuri, assisted by a
Mujumdar or accountant. In cases of disputes or petty offences, one or
other of these officers, called a kind of jury, (Pangchayit,) and
endeavoured to settle the affair, so as to avoid farther trouble; but, if
one or other of the parties was dissatisfied, he might go to the Raja’s
court. There an officer, called Bichari in the east, and Darogah in the
west, received an account of the affair from the parties, or from the
inferior officers, and endeavoured to settle it. If, however, the cause
was important, or required severe punishment, or if either of the parties
insisted on it, the matter was referred by the Bichari to the minister of
the Raja, called Karyi in the east, and Vazir in the west, either
verbally or by petition, according to its importance. The minister
communicated the affair to the Raja, who ordered the Bichari to try it by
a Pangchayit. This kind of jury made a report, saying, that the parties
were guilty of such or such a crime. The Raja then ordered whatever
punishment he thought fit, but, in doing so, usually consulted an officer
called Dharm’adhikar, or owner of justice, who pointed out the law.
The criminal in the east might appeal from even the Raja’s decision, to
the court called Bharadar, consisting of all the chief officers of
government; but in the west, no such court, I believe, existed. Oaths
were seldom administered. If the parties, however, insisted on this
form, the Haribangsa, a part of the Mahabharat, was put into the
witness’s hand. Ordeals were seldom used, until the Gorkha family seized
the government, since which they have become very frequent.
There were five severe punishments: 1_st_, confiscation of the whole
estate; 2_dly_, banishment of the whole family; 3_dly_, degradation of
the whole family by delivering the members to the lowest tribes; 4_thly_,
maiming the limbs; 5_thly_, death by cutting the throat.
The people of Gorkha have introduced other capital punishments, hanging
and flaying alive. Women, as in all Hindu governments, are never put to
death; but the punishments inflicted on them are abundantly severe. The
most common is the cutting off their noses. Even those of considerable
rank are tortured, by being smoked in a small chamber with the
suffocating fumes of burning capsicum, and by having their private parts
stuffed with this acrid substance.
There were two kinds of fines; Prayaschitta for the neglect of
ceremonies, and those inflicted as punishments for crimes. The latter
went to the Raja, and do so still. The former went to the Dharm’adhikar,
or chancellor; but having been enormously multiplied since the Gorkha
government, their amount is divided into eight shares, of which the Raja
takes one, the collector (Gomashtash) one, the Dharm’adhikar one, and one
goes to each of five families of Brahmans, named Pangre, Pantha, Arjal,
Khanal, and Agnidanda. These families divide their shares equally among
their members, who have multiplied exceedingly. Besides the fine, all
delinquents in matters of ceremony are compelled to entertain a certain
number of these five families; the two first fattening on the wicked of
the country west from the Narayani; and the other three on those east
from that river. The number to be fed is restricted by the sentence, and
the criminal may select those to whom he gives the entertainment, in any
manner he pleases, confining himself strictly to the families entitled to
participate.
Colonel Kirkpatrick, when he visited the country, thought {104} that the
government, on the whole, afforded considerable protection to foreign
merchants, rendering them in all cases as strict and prompt justice, as
the imperfect nature of its general polity will admit. This, perhaps, is
not saying much, as in the subsequent page he mentions, that the trade
between Nepal and Thibet, the principal one in the country, is subject to
very enormous, and at all times arbitrary exactions. In fact, all other
branches of commerce, so far as I could judge, were in a state of decay,
owing partly to these exactions, and partly to the recovery of debts
being now very much neglected in the courts of justice, which seems to be
one of the causes of the increase of trials by ordeal. A poor creditor,
in general, has no resource against a powerful debtor, except sitting
Dherna on him; and unless the creditor be a Brahman, he may sit long
enough before he attract any notice.
Since the government of Gorkha, there has been usually established a
Subah in place of each Raja, and the affairs are generally conducted by
these officers as formerly; so far at least as relates to form; but they
are not allowed to inflict any of the five severe punishments, without
special orders from the Raja or court, to whom a report of the case is
made. There are, however, great complaints of injustice, the Subahs
having power to check all complaints. In the petty states the Raja durst
not neglect justice, having no resource except in his subjects’
affection. Personal acts of extreme violence, in contests for power,
were overlooked in the families of the chief; and no attention was paid
to punish assassination, when committed on pretence of revenging injured
honour.
The Subahs having no power of inflicting severe punishment, few of these
officers have with them a Dharm’adhikar; but, where a person of this kind
is allowed, he is appointed by the Dharm’adhikar of Kathmandu. At that
city there are now four Bicharis, and these appoint an officer of the
same kind for each Subah. Over the Bicharis of Kathmandu is a chief
called Ditha, who does not try causes, but watches over the conduct of
the court.
The Subah is an officer of revenue, justice, and police, and, in fact,
always farms the whole royal revenue of his district. He sometimes
collects the different branches of revenue, on his own account, by means
of subordinate officers named Fouzdars, and sometimes farms them to
Izaradars. The land revenue, under the Fouzdars, is collected by
Chaudhuris or Desalis, and other petty officers above mentioned. None of
these offices are in any degree hereditary, nor does there seem to be any
regular system for their payment. Sometimes the allowances are made in
land, sometimes by a _per centage_ on the rent, and sometimes by monthly
wages. The whole seems to be in a great measure left to the discretion
of the Subah, but, under the name of Khurchah, both he, and every man in
authority under him, takes from his inferiors as much as he can.
The Subah has under his authority some armed men, and these are called
Seapoys; but they are irregulars, like the Burkandaj, which are employed
by the civil authority in Bengal.
The amount paid by the Subah forms by no means the whole of the royal
revenue. On a great variety of occasions, besides the presents that
every one must make on approaching the court, there is levied a Rajangka,
which is a kind of income tax that extends to all ranks, and even to such
of the sacred order as possess free lands. A Rajangka is levied at no
fixed period, but according to the exigencies of the state; and many
districts pay more on this account than the regular revenue, which has
been often almost entirely alienated, by giving the lands as religious
endowments, to various civil officers, and in military tenure for the
support of the army. The Subah does not collect the Rajangka; an officer
for that purpose is especially sent from the court.
When Colonel Kirkpatrick visited the country, he learned, on what he
considered tolerably good authority, that the revenue which reached the
treasury at Kathmandu never exceeded 3,000,000 of rupees, and fluctuated
between that and 2,500,000. The subsequent addition of territory,
although it has increased the means of supporting a large army, has
probably sent little money to the capital.
The ordinary public revenue, consisting of land-rents, customs, fines,
and mines, in the east, was divided among the chief, and the principal
persons and officers of his family, the chief for his own expense
receiving about two-thirds of the whole; but, if there was in the family
any estate on the plain, the chief reserved the whole of this for
himself, although he sometimes bestowed part free of revenue for
services. About a third of the revenue that remained, after grants to
the civil and military establishments, was divided as follows: the
Chautariya, or chief councillor, always the Raja’s brother in the Indian
sense, that is, a near kinsman in the male line, received one fifth. The
Karyi, or man of business, who was always a near relation of the chief,
had an equal share. The Raja’s eldest son, when married, had as much.
The chief’s virgin spouse, when she had children, was allowed as much.
The Serdar, or principal officer, who was not of the chief’s family,
received one-tenth. The Jethabura, a councillor, had one-twentieth.
Finally, the Kaliya, or secretary, obtained as much. All other officers,
soldiers, and even most domestics, were paid in lands, held as long as
they performed the duty, and called Jaygirs, a Persian term. The
occupants either cultivated the lands themselves, or let them as they
pleased. There were, besides, lands appropriated to the support of some
temples, and two kinds of free estates granted in perpetuity to
individuals. The owners of one kind, called Brittiyas, had no
jurisdiction over those living on their estates, which was also the case
with those holding Jaygirs; the others, called Bitalpas, administered
justice to their vassals. They were all Brahmans, and never were
numerous; but by far the greater part of the lands of both Bitalpas and
Brittiyas have been resumed by the chiefs of Gorkha, in order to increase
the military establishment. In other respects they have not much altered
the constitution.
In consequence of their extended dominions, the princes of Gorkha have
increased the number of the chief officers of state, and have four
Chautariyas, four Karyis, and four Serdars.
When Colonel Kirkpatrick visited the country the twelve chief officers,
according to his orthography, {107} were reckoned, one Choutra, four
Kajies, four Sirdars, two Khurdars or secretaries, one Kuppardar or
storekeeper, and one Khuzanchee or treasurer.
These chief officers now form the Bharadar, or great council of the Raja,
which attends him in the Durbar, Rajdani, or palace to transact business,
and which frequently acts without his presence. It ought to consist of
these twelve members; but some of the places are often vacant, and, at
other times, the persons who hold them have so little influence, that
they neglect or avoid giving their attendance. At other times, again, on
business of the utmost emergency, a kind of assembly of notables is held,
in which men who have neither office, nor any considerable influence in
the government, are allowed to speak very freely, which seems to be done
merely to allow the discontents of the nation to evaporate, as there is
not a vestige of liberty in the country, nor does the court seem ever to
be controlled by the opinions advanced in these assemblies.
The first rank of councillors is the only one now confined to the
prince’s family, and is often given to illegitimate kinsmen. The
Chautariya, who is the nearest relation to the reigning prince, is always
considered as the prime minister, although he may have little real
authority. During our stay in Nepal, the first Chautariya was a boy,
brother to the Raja, and never appeared except on occasions of ceremony,
where he was exhibited like a puppet, in the same manner as his
sovereign.
The office of Karyi should be held by persons only of a few very
distinguished families; but many exceptions have been made of late, and
especially in the instance of Bhim Sen, the present ruler of the country,
who holds no higher office than this, to which even his birth does not
entitle him.
The Serdars are chosen from whatever families the chief thinks proper;
but, in public opinion, the giving the office to low men, especially if
these are entrusted with much power, is exceedingly offensive.
Every person who has held the office of Chautariya, Karyi, and Serdar,
continues to enjoy the title for life; and, whenever a man is appointed
to one of these dignities, all his brothers assume the title.
Military officers, named Serdars, frequently are appointed to command
over different portions of the country, and, wherever they are, have a
jurisdiction in all matters over the Subahs. In particular, their
criminal jurisdiction is much more extensive, as they can condemn to
capital punishment, without any reference to the court, while the Subah
requires an order from thence before he can punish any criminal. Still
more are the Subahs under the authority of the higher officers of state,
the Chautariyas and Karyis, when any of these eight great officers of
state are deputed in command to the provinces. The Serdars who visit the
provinces do not always belong to the four great officers of this title,
who with the four Chautariyas and four Karyis compose the great council
of twelve, which assists the Raja to govern the nation. These great
Serdars, like the other great officers of state, are occasionally deputed
on high commands; but some Serdars, such as I have before mentioned, are,
in general, stationary in different parts of the country, and have
authority over all the Subahs and civil officers in their vicinity,
although they are properly military men, for such are the only persons,
Brahmans excepted, who are considered as entitled to any weight in the
state. The Serdar in command at Vijaypur, I understand, receives 7000
rupees a-year, but out of this he pays his establishment. It is to these
persons that communications from our provincial officers should be made,
as the Subahs are considered as inferior characters.
There are thirty-six families of Gorkhalis, who should hold all the
principal offices of government, and, in fact, have always held the
greater part of them. A fuller detail of the condition and privileges of
these families than I procured may be found in Colonel Kirkpatrick’s
account. {110} They are divided into three gradations, and the highest,
consisting of six houses, are considered as having an exclusive right to
the office of Karyi. When I was at Kathmandu, in 1802, by far the most
powerful of these six houses were the Pangres and Viswanaths.
Occasionally a few regulars are sent to act as a guard to the Subahs, but
the Telanggas, or regular troops, are entirely exempt from the authority
of these officers.
The military force among the petty chiefs was always large in proportion
to their means, but consisted of a rabble totally undisciplined and ill
armed, although of good bodily endowments. Much order has been
introduced by the chiefs of Gorkha, although both in arms and discipline
the soldiers are still very far behind Europeans. In Puraniya I was
told, that, in that vicinity, that is, in the country of the Kiratas, the
lands assigned for the support of the military were given to the officers
commanding companies, who were held bound to give regular pay to their
men; nor have I any reason to doubt that such a measure has been carried
into effect in that vicinity; but I was assured at Gorakhpur, as also at
Kathmandu, that each individual in the western parts receives his own
lands.
Each Subahdar commanding a company now receives 400 or 500 rupees a-year,
and 15 khets or fields, each of which is estimated to produce 100 muris
or 234½ Winchester bushels of grain, of which, if the land is let, he
will obtain one-half, worth almost 72 (71⅞) rupees. For every Pati or
squad of from 20 to 25 fuzileers there are one Jumahdar, one Havildar,
and one Amildar. The first of these receives 7 fields of land, and 200
rupees in money. A major keeps the accounts of the company, and has
Jumahdar’s allowances. Each company has five or six squads, besides
officers and music. The privates have each three fields, and 25 rupees
a-year. Such are the accounts that I received. Those given to Colonel
Kirkpatrick {111} differ somewhat, making the allowance of the superior
officers higher, and of the privates lower, than what I have stated.
Each company has a large band of music, amounting to ten men, where there
are six Patis or squads. These have instruments of the most hideous
noise. Each company has, besides, two flags, and a regular establishment
of artificers, so that the army may be considered as perfectly well
arranged; but the soldiers are little versed in tactics, and, considering
the strong country that they possess, this would be of less importance,
were they in habits of more prompt obedience, and more dexterous in the
use of their arms; but they do not load with cartridge. They have all
firelocks, but these are not in the best condition. They do not use the
bayonet, but have all swords, which are, perhaps, better fitted for such
a country, and I believe that the men are dexterous in their use. They
also have in their belt a large knife or dagger, (Khukri,) which serves
as many purposes as that of Hudibras. It is represented in the uppermost
figure of the plate opposite to page 118, in the work of Colonel
Kirkpatrick. When that gentleman visited the country, the troops were
irregularly clothed, some in the same company of guards wearing red, some
green, and some blue. When I saw them, this irregularity had been
remedied, and all were in red, each company having, besides, its peculiar
facings; and, although their arms were not clean, they did not appear so
bad as when Colonel Kirkpatrick saw them, as he states {112} that few of
their muskets appeared fit for service.
In the vicinity of Kathmandu, Bhim Sen is said to have collected 25
companies, and there are probably 15 at Tamsen, under his father. It is
also said, that at each of the capitals of former petty chiefs there are
from one to five companies; and a large body, perhaps from 20 to 25
companies, is under old Amar Singha in advance beyond the Yamuna. In the
western parts, the old irregulars, I believe, have been entirely
discarded, or are only called out occasionally in times of actual
hostility, when they are employed to plunder.
In the parts west from the river Kali, almost the whole revenue, whether
on the mountains or plains, being reserved under the immediate management
of the prince, a fuller establishment was necessary; and that which
existed under the petty chiefs, entirely resembled what is described by
the late Mr Grant, Sereshtahdar of Bengal, as the proper Mogul system.
The actual cultivators, or farmers as they would be termed in England,
only they all occupied very small farms, were called Zemindars, and were
very moderately assessed. In Almora, (and the other estates did not
materially differ,) the rent was fixed by the Visi, which, on an average,
may be taken at 10 Calcutta bigas, or 3-1/5 English acres; but the Visis
varied a good deal in size, especially in such as were exempted from
assessment, which were in general much larger than such as paid it. The
extent of 10 bigas for the Visi is chiefly applicable to the latter. The
rent was paid partly in kind, partly in money. Each Visi in October paid
28 sers of clean rice, (Calcutta weight,) 4 sers of the pulse called
Urid, and 2 sers of Ghiu or oil: in May it paid 28 sers of wheat, 4 sers
of Urid, and 2 of Ghiu: in August it paid one rupee in money. On each of
the two holidays called Dasahara, there was besides a kid offered to the
sovereign for every 10 Visis. The possessions of a convenient number of
Zemindars formed a gram or gang, and one of them held the hereditary
office of Pradhan, entirely analogous to the Umra of the eastern parts.
The Pradhan was allowed a deduction of rent, and enjoyed some honourable
distinctions, and, when the heir was in any manner incapacitated, a
relation was appointed to act for him. The representations of the other
Zemindars or farmers in the same gram, were usually considered as the
most just criterion of this incapacity. Besides the judicial powers and
the magistracy of his territory, the Pradhan kept an account of the other
tenants, and of their payments and debts to government, and, receiving
what was due, transmitted it to the collector. He was also an agent for
the other Zemindars of his village, to represent losses which they had
suffered, and to solicit indulgences on the occasion. Over from twenty
to fifty Pradhans was another hereditary officer named Kamin, analogous
to the Desali of the eastern states. He assisted the Pradhans in
settling their accounts, and in obtaining indulgences on account of
peculiar losses; and it was his duty, in an especial manner, to protect
the Zemindars, and to induce new comers to occupy waste lands. The rents
were never farmed out, but were delivered by the Pradhans to the
messengers of the collector, or Bandari, who received an account of what
was due from the Kanungoe or register, and he made up his accounts from
those forwarded to him by the Pradhans. Where the lordship was petty, no
other officers were necessary; but where large, the country was divided
into pergunahs or taluks, each managed by an officer removeable at will.
In the most important of these districts, especially towards a weak
frontier, were stationed military officers called Foujdars, who had
authority to determine many small suits without appeal, but always with
the assistance of a Pangchayit. In the less important stations, the
officers managing taluks or pergunahs were on the hills named Negis, and
on the plains Adhikars. These also decided causes by means of a
Pangchayit; but there was an appeal to the chief’s court, in which he sat
in person, assisted by his principal officers, the Darogah or judge, and
the Dharm’adhikar or chancellor. These often decided the cause without a
Pangchayit; but this was only when the parties were obstinate, and would
not consent to the use of this kind of jury. The facts in criminal
prosecutions were often investigated by the inferior officers and
Pangchayit on the spot, and the chief and his chancellor judged from
their report, what punishment was due. The Foujdars, Negis, and
Adhikars, besides their duties as judges, magistrates, and military
guardians of the boundary, which the Foujdars were, received from the
Pradhans all the rents, and, having sold those paid in kind, remitted the
proceeds to the (Bandari) collector, or rather store-keeper.
About six parts in ten of the whole lands had been alienated to the
Brahmans and temples, nor do I hear any complaint in this quarter of the
present government having invaded this property; but much of the
Zemindary lands have been granted to the soldiers and officers, on the
same terms as towards the east, and the Zemindars of such lands have in a
great measure been left to the discretion of the new occupants, who have
of course raised considerably the rate of rent. In former times the
chiefs received the whole proceeds, and paid from thence the whole
establishment, civil and military. In comparing the following accounts,
therefore, of the states east and west of the river Kali, particular
attention must be paid to this circumstance. For instance, the revenue
of Gorkha has been stated at 12,000 rupees, and that of Bhajji at 15,000;
but the latter, even in comparison with the former, was altogether petty,
as this 15,000 rupees was the whole sum destined for the support of the
chief and his family, and of his officers, servants, and soldiers;
whereas the 12,000 rupees in Gorkha was entirely disposable for the
personal expense of the chief, and his children; his kinsmen, and even
most of his domestics, as well as the civil and military establishments,
being supported entirely by land.
In the western parts, the chief civil authority was held by the Vazir,
and the chief military command by the Bukhshi, and both were appointed by
the will of the chief; but of course most commonly were conferred on his
kinsmen, although some families of Brahmans often interfered. The
military were of two kinds. Part consisted of adventurers from the low
country, the privates receiving usually five rupees a month, and
remaining constantly on duty. The others were selected from the stoutest
youth in the families of the Zemindars, and were relieved as often as
they pleased, by their parents or kinsmen sending other youths in their
place; for no sort of instruction in military evolution was attempted,
and the only exercise was shooting at a mark. The privates of this class
received daily rations of food, and twice a year from 20 to 100 rupees,
according to their supposed intrepidity. Those, however, who received
more than 25 rupees were few in number. The whole troops were armed with
matchlock, sword, and target.
PART II.
ACCOUNT OF THE PARTICULAR STATES WHICH FORMERLY EXISTED,
AND OF THE FAMILIES BY WHICH EACH WAS GOVERNED.
INTRODUCTION.
I now proceed to give an account of the various states and principalities
which this mountainous region contained, and of the manner in which they
became subject to the chiefs of Gorkha; and I shall commence at the
Eastern extremity, proceeding westward regularly, so far as I can,
without interrupting the account of each family.
CHAPTER FIRST.
OF THE STATES EAST FROM THE RIVER KALI.
SECTION I.
COUNTRY OF SIKIM.
Inhabitants.—Government.—Extent.—History.—Geography.
The most eastern principality, in the present dominions of Gorkha, is
that of the Lapchas, called Sikim. Although the prince of Sikim was a
Bhotiya, the strength of his army consisted entirely of the Lapchas, who
inhabited the higher mountains between the Kankayi and Tista. The
Bhotiyas themselves are a very timid race, entirely sunk under the
enervating effects of what they call religion.
Besides the Bhotiyas, who surrounded the prince, and the Lapchas by whom
he was guarded, the mountains of Sikim contained many people of the tribe
called Limbu, who have been already mentioned. My informant thinks, that
of the whole population three-tenths were Bhotiyas, five-tenths Lapchas,
and two tenths Limbus.
The princes of Sikim, as I have said, were Bhotiyas. They were of a
family of high rank from Lasa, and took the title of Gelpo. The next
person in the state was the chief or Hang of the Lapchas. I suspect that
the Gelpo possessed little power, except in matters of religion; for it
is said, that his neighbour, the Deva Dharma Raja, although a mere
priest, appoints whomsoever he pleases to manage the temporal affairs of
his country; but in Sikim the office of Hang is hereditary. I have not
learned the succession of the princes of Sikim; but it is probable that
the Bhotiyas have governed the country for a considerable time.
At one time the princes of Sikim had extended their dominion far south,
into the district of Puraniya, and possessed the low country on the east
of the Mahananda, as far as Krishnagunj, a part of the country which was
originally possessed by the Koch and Paliyas, the natives of Kamrup and
Matsya, now the districts of Ranggapur and Dinajpur. The Rajas of Sikim
were driven from the greatest part of this most valuable of their
possessions by the Moslems; but they still retained a small space of the
plain to the north of the Pergunah of Baikunthapur, when they were
attacked by the Gorkhalese. Although the Kankayi, in the upper part of
its course, was nearly their boundary, they never would appear to have
possessed the plain between the Kankayi and Mahananda; but they were
lords of the lower hills, occupied by the tribe called Dimali, who, I am
assured, are the same with the Mech, a tribe now confined to the eastern
parts of Kamrup or Ranggapur.
The chief who governed Sikim before the year 1782, was by the natives of
the Company’s territory named Rup Chiring; but the Bhotiya names are so
mangled by the Bengalese, that no reliance can be placed on those
reported by them. He resided at Darjiling, and had there a fort, or
strong house of brick, which an old Bengalese, who visited it about that
time, describes as very splendid; but his ideas of magnificence in
building are probably rather confined. This prince died about the year
1782, and was succeeded by his son, the Chhawa Raja, which is the name
that the low country people give to the heir-apparent of this family.
During his time, and, as would appear from a letter addressed by Mr Pagan
to Colonel Ross, in the month of September, (probably of 1788, for there
is no date in the letter,) the Gorkhalese invaded Sikim. Their troops
consisted of about 6000 men, of whom 2000 were regulars, and were under
the command of Tiurar Singha, Subah of Morang. He met with no opposition
until he approached Sikim, the capital, in defence of which the Rajah
ventured an engagement; when, after an obstinate resistance, he was
completely defeated, owing, in all probability, to the 2000 fusileers.
The Gorkhalese, however, suffered much, although they immediately laid
siege to the capital. This happened shortly previous to the 28th October
1788, as, in a letter from Mr Pagan of that date, he mentions, that he
had just received accounts of the entire conquest of Sikim by the
Gorkhalese, who, in this report, had considerably magnified the extent of
their victory.
The Raja of Sikim retired towards the frontier of Thibet, in order to
reassemble his army, and to solicit assistance from Lasa and Tasasudan.
At the latter place was soon concluded a treaty, by which the Sikim chief
engaged to pay the Deva Dharma Raja a certain tribute, on condition of
his being restored to his dominions by the exertions of that prince.
This negotiation is said to have been facilitated by an open boast made
by the Gorkhalese, that they no sooner should have conquered Sikim, than
they would attack the Deva Dharma Raja, a kind of policy of which the
Gorkhalese are fond, when they have no sort of intention of putting their
threats in execution.
The Raja, strengthened by a considerable force of the Deva Dharma’s
troops, and a party of Bhotiyas from a province of Thibet, named Portaw,
returned towards the capital, and, about the beginning of December,
compelled the Gorkhalese to raise the siege; and, after losing many men
in a skirmish, to retire towards Ilam on the Kankayi, where they had
erected forts to secure a communication with Morang. It must be
observed, that, at this time, the Gorkhalese had invaded the province of
Kutti in Thibet, and had there met with a repulse; and that a body of the
troops of Thibet had penetrated through a pass in the mountains to the
eastward of Kutti. These troops seized on the passes of the Kosi and
Arun rivers, thus intending to cut off all communication between
Kathmandu and the army in Morang; an excellent plan, and very easily
practicable.
The Gorkhalese commander, far from being dismayed, seems soon to have
dispossessed these troops, and gave out that he had retreated from Sikim
merely on account of the severity of the cold.
From the reports of the natives, there is reason to suppose, that about
this time the Sikim Raja died, leaving his son Kurin Namki, an infant.
The war was chiefly conducted by Yuksu-thuck, the Hang or chief of the
Lapchas, who was next in rank to the Raja. This man, by the natives of
the low country, was called Chhatrajit, and was a person of barbarous
energy. He seems to have headed the army in the field, while his brother
Nam-si (Lamjit of the Bengalese) defended the capital. They were sons of
Lang-cho, son of De-sha, both of whom had held the office of Hang.
Soon after these advantages over the Gorkhalese, the troops of the Deva
Dharma Raja retired; for they are allowed no pay, and the country was too
poor to admit of plunder. By a letter from Mr Pagan, this would appear
to have happened before the 29th March 1789. On this the greater part of
the people of Sikim submitted to the Gorkhalese; but the Raja fled to
Tankiya in Thibet, and the chief of the Lapchas retired to a stronghold
situated between the two branches of the Tista; from which he has ever
since annoyed the Gorkhalese. This place, called Gandhauk, has annexed
to it a territory of considerable extent, and affords the Raja a revenue
of about 7000 rupees a-year, which is all that he possesses; but, being a
man of high birth, he lately obtained in marriage a daughter of the chief
minister at Lasa, with whom, in 1809, he returned to the petty dominion,
which the vigour of his minister has retained.
Both the Deva Dharma Raja and the government of Lasa seem to have been
most seriously alarmed at the progress of the Gorkhalese, and applied to
the Emperor of China for his interposition. In the meanwhile, the Deva
Dharma Raja is said to have sent an embassy to Kathmandu, offering as a
sacrifice the part of Baikunthapur, that had been given to him by Mr
Hastings; but the interposition of the emperor came in time to save this,
and the Gorkhalese have ever since abstained from giving him any
molestation. The people of Thibet were not so fortunate, and were
compelled to cede to the Nepalese a part of Kutti, which now forms the
government of Kheran or Kheru, on the head of the Sankosi, and some
Bhotiya villages near the Arun, which are now annexed to the northern
part of Vijaypur, and with that form the government of Chayenpur. By a
letter from Colonel Ross, dated in the end of December 1789, it would
appear that our government had received intelligence of every thing
having been settled by the interference of the Chinese, and that a
Gorkhalese envoy had been dispatched to pay homage to the emperor.
The Lapchas were, however, not so easily managed. Part under their chief
Nam-si maintained an absolute independence, and the remainder have been
so troublesome, that the Gorkhalese have judged it prudent to give them a
governor, or, at least, a collector of their own. This person, named
Yu-kang-ta, and called Angriya Gabur by the Bengalese, is nephew of the
Lapcha chief, who has so gallantly defended the remnant of the
principality. In 1808, I found that he was in possession of the whole
civil government, and had agreed to pay annually a fixed sum as tribute.
The Subah of Chayenpur was, however, in military authority over him, and
there were Gorkhalese troops at Sikim and Darjiling, the two chief places
in the district.
On the return of the young Raja to Gandhauk, he brought with him as an
escort 500 Bhotiyas of Thibet; and an insurrection seems to have been
meditated. In the end of 1809, a person calling himself Dihit Karan, a
relation of the chief of the Kirats, came to Lieutenant Munro, then
stationed at Sannyasikata, and informed him that he had been sent as an
ambassador by the Chinese general, (Vazir,) who had arrived with 15,000
men and 40 guns to restore the Prince of Sikim, and that he was on his
way to Puraniya, to proceed from thence to Calcutta. From the
information of his nearest relations, there is reason to think that Dihit
Karan had died before this time, and the messenger did not go to
Puraniya. It is probable that he merely came to sound Mr Munro, whether
or not there was any actual appearance of hostility between the British
government and the Gorkhalese. The only troops that had come were the
500 armed Bhotiyas; but with even these the enterprising Lapcha is said
to have determined to proceed, and a good many Gorkhalese soldiers
marched in that direction. At this time the Lapcha died, and after a
little skirmishing things were amicably adjusted, the Sikim Raja
retaining Gandhauk alone.
The map of this country drawn by the Lama, and mentioned in the
Introduction, although very rude, as might be naturally expected, will
enable scientific men to throw considerable light on the geography of
that country, hitherto almost unknown, and more reliance is to be placed
on most of the Lama’s positions, than on those given in the map of the
countries east from Nepal, which has been mentioned in the same place,
except towards the south-west corner, for the Lama was better acquainted
with the other parts of the country than the person who constructed the
map to which I have alluded. His scale is an inch to the day’s journey.
His angular lines represent mountains, and, beginning at the north, we
find Khawa karpola, that is, the mountain white with snow, or the highest
ridge of Emodus, which separates Sikim from the dominion of Lasa.
According to the map, this ridge is penetrated by three rivers. That on
the west is the Kankayi; but it seems doubtful whether or not this
actually rises from beyond the highest peaks of Emodus, for, in another
map, which will be afterwards mentioned, its source is made to come from
a lower range of the snowy mountains, which by some is called Mirgu; and
this opinion is strongly confirmed by its size, when it enters the
plains. The Kankayi would appear to run in a narrow valley between two
ridges of mountains, and for some way down the whole valley belonged to
Sikim. In this are two Golas or marts, Bilasi and Majhoya. To these
marts the low country traders carry rice, salt, extract of sugar-cane,
hogs, dry fish, tobacco, spirituous liquor, and various cloths. Formerly
they took oxen for slaughter, but, since the conquest, this has been
prohibited. They procured in return cotton, Indian madder, (Manjit,)
musk, and Thibet bull-tails, (Chaungris.)
Farther down, the Kankayi formed the boundary between the Kirats and
Sikim, until it reached the plain, the whole of which, as far as the
Mahananda, belonged to the Vijaypur Rajas, while all the low hills
belonged to Sikim. These low hills are not represented in the map,
although they are of very considerable size, such as the greater part of
the mountains of Scotland or Wales; but, near Emodus, these appear like
molehills. The hilly country, I am told by the traders, commences at
what they call six coses north from Sannyasikata, and extends about
eighteen coses farther to Siumali, another mart, which the low country
people name Dimali.
The hills south of Dimali are thinly inhabited by the Mech or Dimali, who
cultivate cotton, rice, and other articles, in the same manner as the
Garos, which will be described in my account of Asam. This kind of
country extends from the Kankayi to the Tista, everywhere, probably,
about the same width; but the coses, in all likelihood, are very short,
twelve of them being reckoned a day’s journey, and, in such roads, twelve
miles is a long journey, and will give no great horizontal distance.
Between the Mahananda and Tista the Sikim Raja possessed a low tract,
four or five coses wide, which is inhabited by Koch, and cultivated with
the plough. The chief place in it is Dabi, on the east bank of the
Mahananda. This part is not noticed in the Lama’s map.
Siumali, or Dimali, according to the Bengalese, is a custom-house on the
east side of the Bala kongyar river, but the Lama places it on the west,
and is probably more correct, the Bengalese concerning such points being
uncommonly stupid. At this custom-house or mart is a Lapcha collector,
appointed by Yu-kang-ta. He has with him four Bengalese writers, to
assist him in collecting the duties. The custom-house consists of a
square surrounded by buildings, in which the traders and their
commodities are received, for there is no house near, except those of the
collector and his assistants. The traders from the low country take up
salt, tobacco, cotton cloth, goats, fowls, swine, iron, and occasionally
a little coral, and broad cloth. They bring back Indian madder,
(Manjit,) cotton, beeswax, blankets, horses, musk, bull-tails,
(Chaungris,) Chinese flowered silk, (Devang,) and rhinoceroses horns.
North from the mart, half a day’s journey, on a hill at the source of the
Bala kongyar, is the residence of Yu-kang-ta, the Lapcha chief, who now
collects the revenues for the Gorkhalese. By the natives it is called
Sam-dung, but the Bengalese call it Nagrikoth. They describe it as a
very large building, with several stories, and it was represented to Mr
Monro as a fort of some strength. Both accounts are, however, doubtful,
as I learn that it is roofed only with thatch. Two days’ journey east
from this, at the source of the Mahananda, is Satang, another Gola or
mart; but, of late, Siumali has engrossed almost the whole trade.
Immediately north from these places the Lama lays down a high ridge of
mountains, extending from the Kankayi beyond the Tista, and on this he
says that Dalimkoth, belonging to Bhotan, is situated, and he makes it
communicate with the snowy mountains, both at the Kankayi and to the east
of the Tista. All the rivers between the Kankayi and Tista spring from
the south side of this chain, and between its two arms is included the
greater part of Sikim, watered by various branches of the Tista, and
forming, as it were, a valley; but the whole of this space is extremely
mountainous, though there is much cultivation carried on with the hoe.
The great articles of cultivation are rice and Manjit.
Beyond Sam-dung and Sa-tang one day’s journey, and on the other side of
the first high mountains, is Darjiling, which would appear to be the
chief fortress of the country, as it is there that the Gorkhalese troops
are mostly stationed. From thence to Sikim, the capita], is six days’
journey, and the snowy mountains are about the same distance still
farther north. Sikim is on the west side of the Jhamikuma river, which
arises from the south side of the snowy mountains, and, opposite to the
town, divides into two branches, which surround an immense mountain, on
the top of which there is a small level and strong-hold named Tasiding.
The descent from this to the river is reckoned half a day’s journey on
each side. Some way below this, the river receives from the west a
branch named Rainam, that rises from the mountains, by which the Kankayi
is bounded on the east. The united streams are called the Rimikma, which
soon joins the Tista.
The great river Tista arises in the dominions of Lasa by two branches,
called the Greater and Lesser Tista, and passes through the snowy
mountains. The western branch forms the boundary between the dominions
of the Gorkhalese and the petty territory of Gan-dhauk, which still
remains to the Raja of Sikim. This poor prince possesses also a small
portion beyond the lesser or eastern Tista, which, however, in general,
forms the boundary between him and Bhotan, or the country of the Deva
Dharma Raja. On its east side is Dam-sang, a fortress belonging to the
last-mentioned prince. The united stream of the two Tistas forms the
present boundary between him and Gorkha.
The only route between Sikim and Thibet is by a passage through the snowy
mountains, named Phakali, and this is seven days’ journey from Jang-chim,
in the north-east part of the Sikim territory, so that, the route being
through the territory of the Deva Dharma Raja, the people of Sikim were
entirely dependent on this prince for a communication with Thibet.