Where, but among the heroes and the wise?"
--_Essay on Man_, p. 51.
"Look next on Greatness; say where Greatness lies:
Where, but among the Heroes and the Wise?"
--_Brit. Poets_, vi, 380.
SECTION VII--THE ECPHONEME.
The Ecphoneme, or Note of Exclamation, is used to denote a pause with some
strong emotion of admiration, joy, grief, or other feeling; and, as a sign
of great wonder, it is sometimes, though not very elegantly, repeated: as,
"Grammatical consistency!!! What a gem!"--_Peirce's Gram._, p. 352.
RULE I.--INTERJECTIONS, &c.
Emphatic interjections, and other expressions of great emotion, are
generally followed by the note of exclamation; as, "Hold! hold! Is the
devil in you? Oh! I am bruised all over."--MOLIERE: _Burgh's Speaker_, p.
250.
"And O! till earth, and seas, and heav'n decay,
Ne'er may that fair creation fade away!"--_Dr. Lowth_.
RULE II.--INVOCATIONS.
After an earnest address or solemn invocation, the note of exclamation is
now generally preferred to any other point; as, "Whereupon, O king Agrippa!
I was not disobedient unto the heavenly vision."--_Acts_, xxvi, 19.
"Be witness thou, immortal Lord of all!
Whose thunder shakes the dark aërial hall."--_Pope_.
RULE III.--EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS.
Words uttered with vehemence in the form of a question, but without
reference to an answer, should be followed by the note of exclamation; as,
"How madly have I talked!"--_Young_.
"An Author! 'Tis a venerable name!
How few deserve it, and what numbers claim!"
--_Id., Br. Po._, viii, 401.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
FALSE PUNCTUATION.--ERRORS CONCERNING THE ECPHONEME.
UNDER RULE I.--OF INTERJECTIONS, &c.
(1.) "O that he were wise."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 111.
[FORMULE. Not proper, because this strong wish, introduced by "O," is
merely marked with a period. But, according to Rule 1st for the Ecphoneme,
"Emphatic interjections, and other expressions of great emotion, are
generally followed by the note of exclamation." Therefore, the pause after
this sentence, should be marked with the latter sign; and, if the "O" be
read with a pause, the same sign may be there also.]
(2.) "O that his heart was tender."--_Exercises, ib._, p. 111. (3.) "_Oh_,
what a sight is here!"--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 48. (4.) "Oh! what a sight is
here."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 71; (Obs. 2;) _Pract. Les._, p. 83. (5.)
"O virtue! How amiable thou art."--_Id._,, p. 71; _Pract. Les._, p. 82.
(6.) "O _virtue_! how amiable thou art."--_Day's Gram._, p. 109. (7.) "O,
virtue! how amiable thou art."--_S. Putnam's Gram._, p. 53. (8.) "_Oh!_
virtue, how amiable thou art!"--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 191; _O. B.
Peirce's_, 375. (9.) "_O_ virtue! how amiable thou art!"--_Hallock's
Gram._, p. 126. (10.) "Oh! that I had been more diligent."--_Hart's Gram._,
p. 167; see _Hiley's_, 117. (11.) "O! the humiliation to which vice reduces
us."--_Farnum's Gram._, p. 12; _Murray's Ex._, p. 5. (12.) "O! that he were
more prudent."--_Farnum's Gram._, p. 81. (13.) "Ah! me."--_P. Davis's
Gram._, p. 79. (14.) "Ah me!"--_Ib._, p. 122. (15.) "Lately alas I knew a
gentle boy," _&c.--The Dial_, Vol. i, p. 71.
(16.) "Wo is me Alhama."--_Wells's School Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 190.
(17.) "Wo is me, Alhama."--_Ibid._, "113th Thousand," p. 206.
UNDER RULE II.--OF INVOCATIONS.
"Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O _maid_ of Inistore."--_Kirkham's
Gram._, p. 131; _Cooper's Plain and Practical Gram._, p. 158.
[FORMULE--Not proper, because the emphatic address in this sentence, is
marked with a period after it. But, according to Rule 2d for the Ecphoneme,
"After an earnest address or solemn invocation, the note of exclamation is
now generally preferred to any other point." Therefore, this period should
be changed to the latter sign.]
"Cease a little while, O wind; stream, be thou silent a while; let my voice
be heard around. Let my wanderer hear me. Salgar, it is Colma who calls.
Here is the tree, and the rock. Salgar, my love, I am here. Why delayest
thou thy coming? Lo, the calm moon comes forth. The flood is bright in the
vale."--See _Key_.
"Ah, stay not, stay not, guardless and alone;
Hector, my lov'd, my dearest, bravest son."--See _Key_.
UNDER RULE III.--EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS.
"How much better is wisdom than gold."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 153;
_Hiley_, p. 113.
[FORMULE--Not proper, because this exclamatory sentence is pointed with a
period at the end. But, according to Rule 3d for the Ecphoneme, "Words
uttered with vehemence in the form of a question, but without reference to
an answer, should be followed by the note of exclamation." Therefore, this
period should be changed to the latter sign.]
"O virtue! how amiable art thou."--_Flint's Murray_, p. 51. "At that hour,
O how vain was all sublunary happiness."--_Day's Gram._, p. 74. "Alas! how
few and transitory are the joys which this world affords to man."--_Ib._,
p. 12. "Oh! how vain and transitory are all things here below."--_Ib._, p.
110.
"And oh! what change of state, what change of rank,
In that assembly everywhere was seen."--_Day's Gram._, p. 12.
"And O! what change of state! what change of rank!
In that assembly every where was seen!"--_Pollok_, B. ix, l. 781.
MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.
"O shame! where is thy blush."--_S. Barren's Principles of Language_, p.
86. "O _shame_, where is thy blush; _John_, give me my hat."--_Ib._, p. 98.
"What! is Moscow in flames."--_Ib._, p. 86. "Ah! what happiness awaits the
virtuous."--_Ib._, 86.
"Ah, welladay,--do what we can for him, said Trim, maintaining his
point,--the poor soul will die."--STERNE: _Enfield's Speaker_, p. 306. "A
well o'day! do what we _can_ for him, said Trim, maintaining his point: the
poor soul will _die_"--_Kirkham's Elocution_, p. 340.
"Will John _return_ to-morrow."--_S. Barrett's Gram._, Tenth Ed., p. 55.
"_Will not_ John _return_ to-morrow."--_Ib._, 55. "John! _return_
to-morrow; Soldiers! _stand_ firm."--_Ib._, 55. "If _mea_ which means _my_
is an adjective in _Latin_, why may not _my_ be so called _in_ English, and
if _my_ is an adjective, why not _Barrett's_"--_Ib._, p. 50.
"Oh? Absalom, my son."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 375. "Oh! STAR-EYED
SCIENCE!! whither hast thou fled?"--_Ib._, p. 366. "Why do you tolerate
your own inconsistency, by calling it the present tense!"--_Ib._, p. 360.
"Thus the declarative mode may be used in asking a question; as, _what_ man
_is_ frail."--_Ib._, p. 358. "What connexion has motive wish, or
supposition, with the term subjunctive!"--_Ib._, p. 348. "A grand reason,
truly! for calling it a golden key."--_Ib._, p. 347. "What '_suffering_'!
the man who can say this, must be '_enduring._'"--_Ib._, p. 345. "What is
Brown's Rule! in relation to this matter?"--_Ib._, p. 334.
"_Alas!_ how short is life." "_Thomas_, study your book."--_Day's District
School Gram._, p. 109. "As, '_alas!_' how short is life; _Thomas_, study
your book.'"--_Ib._, p. 82. "Who can tell us who they are."--_Sanborn's
Gram._, p. 178. "Lord have mercy on my son; for he is a lunatic,
etc."--_Felton's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 138; Ster. Ed., 140. "O, ye wild
groves, O, where is now your bloom!"--_Ib._, p. 88; Ster. Ed., 91.
"O who of man the story will unfold!"
--_Farnum's Gr._, 2d Ed., p. 104.
"Methought I heard Horatio say to-morrow.
Go to I will not hear of it--to-morrow."
--_Hallock's Gr._, 1st Ed., p. 221.
"How his eyes languish? how his thoughts adore
That painted coat which Joseph never wore?"
--_Love of Fame_, p. 66.
SECTION VIII.--THE CURVES.
The Curves, or Marks of Parenthesis, are used to distinguish a clause or
hint that is hastily thrown in between the parts of a sentence to which it
does not properly belong; as, "Their enemies (and enemies they will always
have) would have a handle for exposing their measures."--_Walpole_.
"To others do (the law is not severe)
What to thyself thou wishest to be done."--_Beattie_.
OBS.--The incidental clause should be uttered in a lower tone, and faster
than the principal sentence. It always requires a pause as great as that of
a comma, or greater.
RULE I.--THE PARENTHESIS.
A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence or passage too much to be
incorporated with it, and only such, should be inclosed within curves, as a
parenthesis; as, "For I know that in me, (that is, in my flesh,) dwelleth
no good thing."--_Rom._, vii, 18.
"Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,)
Virtue alone is happiness below."--_Pope_.
RULE II.--INCLUDED POINTS.
The curves do not supersede other stops; and, as the parenthesis terminates
with a pause equal to that which precedes it, the same point should be
included, except when the sentences differ in form: as, 1. "Now for a
recompense in the same, (I speak as unto my children,) be ye also
enlarged."--_2 Cor._, vi, 13.
2. "Man's thirst of happiness declares it is:
(For nature never gravitates to nought:)
That thirst unquench'd, declares it is not here."--_Young_.
3. "Night visions may befriend: (as sung above:)
Our waking dreams are fatal. How I dreamt
Of things impossible! (could sleep do more?)
Of joys perpetual in perpetual change!"--_Young_.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
FALSE PUNCTUATION.--ERRORS CONCERNING THE CURVES.
UNDER RULE I.--OF THE PARENTHESIS.
"Another is composed of the indefinite article _an_, which, etymologically
means _one_ and _other_, and denotes _one other_."--_Hallock's Gram._, p.
63.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the parenthetic expression, "which
etymologically means _one_," is not sufficiently separated from the rest of
the passage. But, according to Rule 1st for the Curves, "A clause that
breaks the unity of a sentence or passage too much to be incorporated with
it, and only such, should be enclosed within curves, as a parenthesis."
Therefore, the curves should be here inserted; and also, by Rule 2d, a
comma at the word _one_.]
"Each mood has its peculiar Tense, Tenses (or Times)."--_Bucke's Gram._, p.
58.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the expression, "or Times," which has not
the nature of a parenthesis, is here marked with curves. But, according to
Rule 1st for the Curves, "A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence or
passage too much to be incorporated with it, _and only such_, should be
enclosed within curves, as a parenthesis." Therefore, these marks should be
omitted; and a comma should be set after the word "_Tenses_," by Rule 3d.]
"In some very ancient languages, as the Hebrew, which have been employed
chiefly for expressing plain sentiments in the plainest manner, without
aiming at any elaborate length or harmony of periods, this pronoun [the
relative] occurs not so often."--_L. Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 127.
"Before I shall say those Things, (O conscript Fathers) about the Public
Affairs, which are to be spoken at this Time; I shall lay before you, in
few Words, the Motives of the Journey, and the Return."--_Brightland's
Gram._, p. 149.
"Of well-chose Words some take not care enough.
And think they should be (like the Subject) rough."
--_Ib._, p. 173.
"Then having shewed his wounds, _he'd_ sit (him) down."
--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 32.
UNDER RULE II.--OF INCLUDED POINTS.
"Then Jael smote the Nail into his Temples, and fastened it to the Ground:
(for he was fast asleep and weary) so he died. OLD TEST."--_Ward's Gram._,
p. 17.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because this parenthesis is not marked as
terminating with a pause equal to that which precedes it. But, according to
Rule 2d above, "The curves do not supersede other stops; and, as the
parenthesis terminates with a pause equal to that which precedes it, the
same point should be included, except when the sentences differ in form."
Therefore, a colon should be inserted within the curve after _weary_.]
"Every thing in the Iliad has manners (as Aristotle expresses it) that is,
every thing is acted or spoken."--_Pope, Pref. to Homer_, p. vi.
"Those nouns, that end in _f._ or _fe_ (except some few I shall mention
presently), form plurals by changing those letters into _ves_: as, thief,
_thieves_; wife, _wives_."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 35.
"_As_, requires _as_; (expressing equality) Mine is as good as yours.
_As_,--so; (expressing equality) As the stars, so shall thy seed be.
_So,--as_; (with a negative expressing inequality) He is not so wise as his
brother. _So.--that_; (expressing consequence) I am so weak that I cannot
walk."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 113; _Pract. Les._, p. 112.
"A captious question, sir (and yours is one,)
Deserves an answer similar, or none."--_Cowper_, ii. 228.
MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.
"Whatever words the verb TO BE serves to unite referring to the same thing,
must be of the same case; §61, as, _Alexander_ is a _student_."--_Bullions,
E. Gram._, p. 75. "When the objective is a relative or interrogative, it
comes before the verb that governs it. §40, R. 9. (Murray's 6th rule is
unnecessary.)"--_Id., ib._, p. 90. "It is generally improper (except in
poetry,) to omit the antecedent to a relative; and always to omit a
relative when of the nominative case."--_Id., ib._, p. 130. "In every
sentence there must be a _verb_ and a _nominative_ (or subject) expressed
or understood."--_Id., ib._, p. 87; _Pract. Lessons_, p. 91. "Nouns and
pronouns, and especially words denoting time, are often governed by
prepositions understood; or are used to restrict verbs or adjectives
without a governing word, §50. Rem. 6 and Rule; as, He gave (to) me a full
account of the whole affair."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 80. "When _should_
is used instead of _ought_, to express _present_ duty, §20, 4, it may be
followed by the present; as, 'You _should_ study that you _may_ become
learned.'"--_Id., ib._, p. 123. "The indicative present is frequently used
after the words, _when, till, before, as soon as, after_, to express the
relative time of a future action; (§24, I, 4,) as, 'When he _comes_, he
will be welcome.'"--_Id., ib._, p. 124. "The relative is parsed by stating
its gender, number, case, and antecedent, (the gender and number being
always the same as those of the antecedent) thus, 'The boy who.' '_Who_' is
a relative pronoun, masculine, singular, the nominative, and refers to
'_boy_' as its antecedent."--_Bullions, Pract. Les._, p. 31.
"Now, now, I seize, I clasp _thy_ charms,
And now _you_ burst; ah! cruel from my arms."
Here is an unnecessary change from the second person singular to the second
plural. It would have been better thus,
"Now, now I seize, I clasp _your_ charms,
And now _you_ burst; ah! cruel from my arms."
--_J. Burn's Gram._, p. 193.
SECTION IX.--THE OTHER MARKS.
There are also several other marks, which are occasionally used for various
purposes, as follow:--
I. ['] The APOSTROPHE usually denotes either the possessive case of a noun,
or the elision of one or more letters of a word: as, "The _girl's_ regard
to her _parents'_ advice;"--_'gan, lov'd, e'en, thro'_; for _began, loved,
even, through_. It is sometimes used in pluralizing a mere letter or sign;
as, Two _a's_--three _6's_.[467]
II. [-] The HYPHEN connects the parts of many compound words, especially
such as have two accents; as, _ever-living_. It is also frequently inserted
where a word is divided into syllables; as, _con-tem-plate_. Placed at the
end of a line, it shows that one or more syllables of a word are can led
forward to the next line.
III. ["] The DIÆRESIS, or DIALYSIS, placed over either of two contiguous
vowels, shows that they are not a diphthong; as, _Danäe, aërial_.
IV. ['] The ACUTE ACCENT marks the syllable which requires the principal
stress in pronunciation; as, _e'qual, equal'ity_. It is sometimes used in
opposition to the grave accent, to distinguish a close or short vowel; as,
"_Fáncy_:" (_Murray_:) or to denote the rising inflection of the voice; as,
"Is it _hé?_"
V. [`] The GRAVE ACCENT is used in opposition to the acute, to distinguish
an open or long vowel; as, "_Fàvour_:" (_Murray_:) or to denote the falling
inflection of the voice; as, "_Yès_; it is _hè_" It is sometimes placed
over a vowel to show that it is not to be suppressed in pronunciation; as,
"Let me, though in humble speech,
Thy refinèd maxims teach."--_Amer. Review_, May, 1848.
VI. [^] The CIRCUMFLEX generally denotes either the broad sound of _a_ or
an unusual sound given to some other vowel; as in _âll, hêir, machîne_.
Some use it to mark a peculiar _wave_ of the voice, and when occasion
requires, reverse it; as, "If you said _s=o_, then I said _sô_."
VII. [[~]] The BREVE, or STENOTONE, is used to denote either the close,
short, _shut_ sound of a vowel, or a syllable of short quantity; as,
_l~ive_, to have life,--_r~av'en_, to devour,[468]--_c~al~am~us_, a reed.
VIII. [=] The MACRON, or MACROTONE,[469] is used to denote either the open,
long, _primal_ sound of a vowel, or a syllable of long quantity; as,
_l=ive_, having life,--_r=a'ven_, a bird,--_=e'qu=ine_, of a horse.
IX. [----] or [* * * *] or [....] The ELLIPSIS, or SUPPRESSION, denotes the
omission of some letters or words: as, _K--g_, for _King; c****d_, for
_coward; d....d_, for _damned_.
X. [^] The CARET, used only in writing, shows where to insert words or
letters that have been accidentally omitted. XI [{}] The BRACE serves to
unite a triplet; or, more frequently, to connect several terms with
something to which they are all related. XII. [§] The SECTION marks the
smaller divisions of a book or chapter; and, with the help of numbers,
serves to abridge references.
XIII. [¶] The PARAGRAPH (chiefly used in the Bible) denotes the
commencement of a new subject. The parts of discourse which are called
paragraphs, are, in general, sufficiently distinguished by beginning a new
line, and carrying the first word a little forwards or backwards. The
paragraphs of books being in some instances numbered, this character may
occasionally be used, in lieu of the word _paragraph_, to shorten
references.
XIV. [""] The GUILLEMETS, or QUOTATION POINTS, distinguish words that are
exhibited as those of an other author or speaker. A quotation within a
quotation, is usually marked with single points; which, when both are
employed, are placed within the others: as, "And again he saith, 'Rejoice,
ye Gentiles, with his people.'"--_Rom._, xv, 10.
XV. [[]] The CROTCHETS, or BRACKETS, generally inclose some correction or
explanation, but sometimes the sign or subject to be explained; as, "He
[Mr. Maurice] was of a different opinion."--_Allen's Gram._, p. 213.
XVI. [Fist] The INDEX, or HAND, points out something remarkable, or what
the reader should particularly observe.
XVII. [*] The ASTERISK, or STAR, [Dagger] the OBELISK, or DAGGER, [Double
dagger] the DIESIS, or DOUBLE DAGGER, and [||] the PARALLELS, refer to
marginal notes. The SECTION also [§], and the PARAGRAPH [¶], are often used
for marks of reference, the former being usually applied to the fourth, and
the latter to the sixth note on a page; for, by the usage of printers,
these signs are commonly introduced in the following order: 1, *; 2,
[Dagger]; 3, [Double dagger]; 4, §; 5, ||; 6, ¶; 7, **; 8,
[Dagger][Dagger]; &c. Where many references are to be made, the _small
letters_ of the alphabet, or the _numerical figures_, in their order, may
be conveniently used for the same purpose.
XVIII. [[Asterism]] The ASTERISM, or THREE STARS, a sign not very often
used, is placed before a long or general note, to mark it as a note,
without giving it a particular reference.
XIX. [,] The CEDILLA is a mark borrowed from the French, by whom it is
placed under the letter _c_, to give it the sound of _s_, before _a_ or
_o_; as in the words, "façade," "Alençon." In Worcester's Dictionary, it is
attached to three other letters, to denote their soft sounds: viz., "[,G]
as J; [,S] as Z; [,x] as gz."
[Fist][Oral exercises in punctuation should not be confined to the
correction of errors. An application of its principles to points rightly
inserted, is as easy a process as that of ordinary syntactical parsing, and
perhaps as useful. For this purpose, the teacher may select a portion of
this grammar, or of any well-pointed book, to which the foregoing rules
and explanations may be applied by the pupil, as reasons for the points
that occur.]
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
FALSE PUNCTUATION.--MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.
"The principal stops are the following:--
The Comma (,) the semicolon (;) the colon (:) the period, or fall stop (.)
the note of interrogation (?) the note of exclamation (!) the parenthesis
() and the dash (--) [.]"--_Bullions, E. Gram., p. 151; Pract. Les._, p.
127. "The modern punctuation in Latin is the same as in English. The marks
employed, are the _Comma_ (,); _Semicolon_ (;); _Colon_ (:); _Period_ (.);
_Interrogation_ (?); _Exclamation_ (!)."--_Bullions, Lat. Gram._, p. 3.
"Plato reproving a young man for playing at some childish game; you chide
me, says the youth, for a trifling fault. Custom, replied the philosopher,
is no trifle. And, adds Montagnie, he was in the right; for our vices begin
in infancy."--_Home's Art of Thinking_, (N. Y. 1818,) p. 54.
"A merchant at sea asked the skipper what death his father died? 'My
father,' says the skipper, my grandfather, and my great-grandfather, were
all drowned. 'Well,' replies the merchant, and are not you afraid of being
drowned too?'"--_Ib._, p. 135.
"The use of inverted comma's derives from France, where one Guillemet was
the author of them; [and] as an acknowledgement for the improvement his
countrymen call them after his name GUILLEMETS."--_History of Printing_,
(London, 1770,) p. 266.
"This, however, is seldem [sic--KTH] if ever done unless the word following
the possessive begins with _s_; thus we do not say, 'the prince' feather,'
but, 'the prince's feather.'"--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 17. "And this
phrase must mean _the feather of the prince_ but _princesfeather_ written
as one word is the name of a plant: a species of amaranth."--See _Key_.
"Böëthius soon had the satisfaction of obtaining the highest honour his
country could bestow."--_Ingersoll's Gram._ 12mo., p. 279. "Boethius soon
had," &c.--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, Vol. ii., p. 83.
"When an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced, it is separated
from the rest of the sentence either by a semicolon or a colon; as, 'The
scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words;
_God is love._'"--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 116. "Either the colon or semicolon
may be used when an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced; as,
'Always remember this ancient maxim; _Know thyself._' 'The scriptures give
us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words: _God is
love._'"--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 155.
"The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon [, must begin with
a capital]; as, always remember this ancient maxim: '_Know_ thyself.'"--
_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 159; _Lennie's Gram._, p. 106. [Lennie has
_"Always"_ with a capital.] "The first word of a quotation, introduced
after a colon, or _when it is_ in a direct form: as, 'Always remember this
ancient maxim: _Know thyself_.' 'Our great lawgiver says, Take up thy cross
daily, and follow me.'"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 284. "8. The first word
of a quotation, _introduced after a colon_, or _when it is_ in a direct
form. EXAMPLES.--'Always remember this ancient maxim, 'Know thyself.' 'Our
great Lawgiver says, Take up thy cross daily, and follow me.'"--_Weld's
Gram., Abridged._, p. 17
"Tell me in whose house do you live."--_N. Butler's Gram._, p. 55. "He,
that acts wisely, deserves praise."--_Ib._, p. 50 "He, who steals my purse,
steals trash."--_Ib._, p. 51. "The antecedent is sometimes omitted, as,
'Who steals my purse, steals trash;' that is, _he_ who, or _person_
who."--_Ib._, p. 51. "Thus, 'Whoever steals my purse steals trash;'
'Whoever does no good does harm.'"--_Ib._, p. 53 "Thus, 'Whoever sins will
suffer.' This means that any one without exception who sins will
suffer."--_Ib._, p. 53.
"Letters form syllables, syllables words, words sentences, and sentences,
combined and connected form discourse."--_Cooper's Plain and Practical
Gram._, p. 1. "A letter which forms a perfect sound, when uttered by
itself, is called a vowel, as: _a, e, i_."--_Ib._, p. 1. "A proper noun is
the name of an individual, as: John; Boston: Hudson; America."--_Ib._, p.
17.
"Many men have been capable of doing a wise thing, more a cunning thing,
but very few a generous thing."--_P. Davis's Gram._, p. 96. "In the place
of an ellipsis of the verb a comma must be inserted."--_Ib._, p. 121. "A
common noun unlimited by an article is sometimes understood in its broadest
acceptation: thus, '_Fishes_ swim' is understood to mean _all_ fishes.
'_Man_ is mortal,' _all_ men."--_Ib._, p. 13.
"Thus those sounds formed principally by the throat are called _gutturals_.
Those formed principally by the palate are called _palatals_. Those formed
by the teeth, _dentals_--those by the lips, _labials_--those by the nose,
_nasals_, &c."--_P. Davis's Gram._, p. 113.
"Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, _Good, better, best. Bad,
worse, worst. Little, less, least._"--_Felton's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 63;
Ster. Ed., p. 66.
"Under the fourth head of grammar, therefore, four topics will be
considered, viz. PUNCTUATION, ORTHOEPY, FIGURES, and VERSIFICATION."--
_Hart's Gram._, p. 161.
"Direct her onward to that peaceful shore,
Where peril, pain and death are felt no more!"
_Falconer's Poems_, p. 136; _Barrett's New Gram._, p. 94
BAD ENGLISH BADLY POINTED.
LESSON I.--UNDER VARIOUS RULES.
"Discoveries of such a character are sometimes made in grammar also, and
such, too, is often their origin and their end."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p.
191.
"_Traverse_, (to cross.) To deny what the opposite party has alleged. To
traverse an indictment, &c. is to deny it."--_Id., ib._, p. 216.
"The _Ordinal_ [numerals] denote the _order_ or _succession_ in which any
number of persons or things is mentioned, as _first, second, third,
fourth_, &c."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 22.
"Nouns have three persons, FIRST, SECOND, and THIRD. The First person is
the speaker, the Second is the one spoken to, the Third is the one spoken
of."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 44.
"Nouns have three cases, NOMINATIVE, POSSESSIVE, and OBJECTIVE. The
relation indicated by the case of a noun includes three ideas, viz: those
of _subject, object_, and _ownership_."--_Ib._, p. 45.
"In speaking of animals that are of inferior size, or whose sex is not
known or not regarded, they are often considered as without sex: thus, we
say of a _cat 'it_ is treacherous,' of an infant '_it_ is beautiful,' of a
_deer 'it_ was killed.'"--_Ib._, p. 39.
"When _this_ or _these, that_ or _those_, refers to a preceding sentence;
_this_, or _these_, refers to the latter member or term; _that_, or
_those_, to the former."--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 136; see _Lowth's Gram._,
p. 102.
"The rearing of them [i. e. of plants] became his first care, their fruit
his first food, and marking their kinds his first knowledge."--_N. Butler's
Gram._, p. 44.
"After the period used with abbreviations we should employ other points, if
the construction demands it; thus, after Esq. in the last example, there
should be, besides a period, a comma."--_Ib._, p. 212.
"In the plural, the verb is the same in all the persons; and hence the
principle in _Rem._ 5, under Rule iii. [that the first or second person
takes precedence,] is not applicable to verbs."--_Ib._, p. 158.
"Rex and Tyrannus are of very different characters. The one rules his
people by laws to which they consent; the other, by his absolute will and
power: _that_ is called freedom, this, _tyranny_."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p.
190.
"A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, which can be known, or
mentioned, as: George; London; America; goodness; charity."--_Cooper's
Plain and Pract. Gram._, p. 17.
"Etymology treats of the classification of words; their various
modifications and derivations."--_Day's School Gram._, p. 9. "To punctuate
correctly implies a thorough acquaintance with the meaning of words and
phrases, as well as of all their corresponding connexions"--_W. Day's
Punctuation_, p. 31.
"All objects which belong to neither the male nor female kind are called
neuter."--_Weld's Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 57. "All objects, which belong to
neither the male nor female kind, are said to be of the neuter
gender."--_Weld's Gram., Abridged_, p. 51.
"The Analysis of the Sounds in the English language presented in the
preceding statements are sufficiently exact for the purpose in hand. Those
who wish to pursue it further can consult Dr. Rush's admirable work, 'The
Philosophy of the Human Voice.'"--_Fowlers E. Gram._, 1850, §65. "Nobody
confounds the name of _w_ or _y_ with their sound or phonetic
import."--_Ib._, §74.
"Order is Heaven's first law; and this confest,
Some are and must be, greater than the rest."--_Ib._, p. 96.
LESSON II.--UNDER VARIOUS RULES.
"In adjectives of one syllable, the Comparative is formed by adding _-er_
to the positive; and the Superlative by adding _-est_; as, _sweet, sweeter,
sweetest_."--_Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram._, p. 19.
"In monosyllables the comparative is formed by adding _er_ or _r_ to the
positive, and the superlative by adding _est_ or _st_; as, _tall, taller,
tallest; wise, wiser, wisest_."--_Id., Pract. Les._, p. 24.
"By this method the confusion and unnecessary labor occasioned by studying
grammars in these languages, constructed on different principles is
avoided, the study of one is rendered a profitable introduction to the
study of another, and an opportunity is furnished to the enquiring student
of comparing the languages in their grammatical structure, and seeing at
once wherein they agree, and wherein they differ."--_Bullions, Prin. of E.
Gram._, Pref. to 5th Ed., p. vii.
"No larger portion should be assigned for each recitation than the class
can easily master, and till this is done, a new portion should not be given
out."--_Id., ib._, p. viii. "The acquisitions made in every new lesson
should be rivetted and secured by repeated _revisals_."--_Id., ib._, p.
viii.
"The personal pronouns may be parsed briefly thus; _I_, the first personal
pronoun, masculine (or feminine), singular, the nominative. _His_, the
third personal pronoun, masculine, singular, the possessive,
&c."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 23: _Pract. Les._, p. 28.
"When the male and female are expressed by distinct terms; as, _shepherd,
shepherdess_, the masculine term has also a general meaning, expressing
both male and female, and is always to be used when the office, occupation,
profession, &c., and not the sex of the individual, is chiefly to be
expressed. The feminine term is used only when the discrimination, of sex
is indispensably necessary. Thus, when it is said 'the Poets of this
country are distinguished by correctness of taste,' the term 'Poet' clearly
includes both male and female writers of poetry."--_Id., E. Gram._, p. 12;
_his Analyt. and Pract. Gram._, 24.
"Nouns and pronouns, connected by conjunctions, must be in the same
cases."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 78. "Verbs, connected by conjunctions,
must be in the same moods and tenses, and, when in the subjunctive present,
they must be in the same form."--_Ib._, p. 112.
"This will habituate him to reflection--exercise his judgment on the
meaning of the author, and without any great effort on his part, impress
indelibly on his memory, the rules which he is required to give. After the
exercises under the rule have been gone through as directed in the note
page 96, they may be read over again in a corrected state the pupil making
an emphasis on the correction made, or they may be presented in writing at
the next recitation."--_Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram._, 2d Ed. Revised and
Cor., p. viii.
"Man, but for _that_, no action _could_ attend
And but for _this_, be _thoughtful_ to no end."
--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, Pref. p. 5.
LESSON III.--UNDER VARIOUS RULES.
"'Johnson the bookseller and stationer,' indicates that the bookseller and
the stationer are epithets belonging to the same person; 'the bookseller
and the stationer' would indicate that they belong to different
persons."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 127.
"_Past_ is an adjective; _passed_, the past tense or perfect participle of
the verb, and they ought not, as is frequently done, to be confounded with
each other."--_Id., ib._, p. 148.
"Not only the nature of the thoughts and sentiments, but the very selection
and arrangement of the words, gives English poetry a character, which
separates it widely from common prose."--_Id., ib._, p. 178.
"Men of sound, discriminating, and philosophical minds--men prepared for
the work by long study, patient investigation, and extensive acquirements,
have labored for ages to improve and perfect it, and nothing is hazarded in
asserting, that should it be unwisely abandoned, it will be long before
another equal in beauty, stability and usefulness, be produced in its
stead."--_Id., ib._, p. 191.
"The Article _The_, on the other hand, is used to restrict, and is
therefore termed _Definite_. Its proper office is to call the attention to
a particular individual or class, or to any number of such, and is used
with nouns in either the singular or plural number."--_Id., ib._, p. 193.
"Hence also the infinitive mood, a participle, a member of a sentence, or a
proposition, forming together the subject of discourse, or the object of a
verb or preposition, and being the name of an act or circumstance, are in
construction, regarded as nouns, and are usually called 'substantive
phrases;' as '_To play_ is pleasant,' '_His being an expert dancer_ is no
recommendation,' 'Let your motto be _Honesty is the best policy_.'"--_Id.,
ib._, p. 194.
"In accordance with his definition, Murray has divided verbs into three
classes, _Active, Passive_, and _Neuter_, and includes in the first class
_transitive_ verbs only, and in the last all verbs used
intransitively"--_Id., ib._, p. 200.
"Moreover, as the name of the speaker or the person spoken to is seldom
expressed, (the pronouns _I_ and _thou_ being used in its stead,) a noun is
very seldom in the first person, not often in the second, and almost never
in either, unless it be a proper noun, or a common noun
personified."--_Bullions, Pract. Les._, p. 13.
"In using the above exercises it will save much time, which is all
important, if the pupil be taught to say every thing belonging to the nouns
in the fewest words possible, and to say them always in the same order as
above."--_Id., ib._, p. 21.
"In any phrase or sentence the adjectives qualifying a noun may generally
be found by prefixing the phrase 'What kind of,' to the noun in the form of
a question; as, What kind of a horse? What kind of a stone? What kind of a
way? The word containing the answer to the question is an
adjective."--_Id., ib._, p. 22.
"In the following exercise let the pupil first point out the nouns, and
then the adjectives; and tell how he knows them to be so."--_Id., ib._, p.
23.
"In the following sentences point out the improper ellipsis. Show why it is
improper, and correct it."--_Id., ib._, p. 124.
"SINGULAR PRONOUNS. PLURAL PRONOUNS.
1. I--am being smitten. 1. We--are being smitten.
2. Thou--art being smitten. 2. Ye _or_ you--are being smitten.
3. He--is being smitten. 3. They--are being smitten."
_Wright's Philos. Gram._, p. 98.
CHAPTER II--UTTERANCE.
Utterance Is the art or act of vocal expression. It includes the principles
of articulation, of pronunciation, and of elocution.
SECTION I.--OF ARTICULATION.
Articulation is the forming of words; by the voice, with reference to their
component letters and sounds.
ARTICLE I.--OF THE DEFINITION.
Articulation differs from pronunciation, in having more particular regard
to the elements of words, and in not embracing accent[470]. A recent author
defines it thus: "ARTICULATION is the act of forming, with the organs of
speech, the elements of vocal language."--_Comstock's Elocution_, p. 16.
And again: "A good articulation is the _perfect_ utterance of the elements
of vocal language."--_Ibid._
An other describes it more elaborately thus: "ARTICULATION, in language, is
the forming of the human voice, accompanied by the breath, in some few
consonants, into the simple and compound sounds, called vowels, consonants,
and diphthongs, by the assistance of the organs of speech; and the uniting
of those vowels, consonants, and diphthongs, together, so as to form
syllables and words, and constitute spoken language."--_Bolles's Dict.,
Introd._, p. 7.
ARTICLE II--OF GOOD ARTICULATION.
Correctness in articulation is of such importance, that without it speech
or reading becomes not only inelegant, but often absolutely unintelligible.
The opposite faults are mumbling, muttering, mincing, lisping, slurring,
mouthing, drawling, hesitating, stammering, misreading, and the like. "A
good articulation consists in giving every letter in a syllable its due
proportion of sound, according to the most approved custom of pronouncing
it; and in making such a distinction between the syllables of which words
are composed, that the ear shall without difficulty acknowledge their
number; and perceive, at once, to which syllable each letter belongs. Where
these points are not observed, the articulation is proportionably
defective."--_Sheridan's Rhetorical Grammar_, p. 50.
Distinctness of articulation depends, primarily, upon the ability to form
the simple elements, or sounds of letters, by the organs of speech, in the
manner which the custom of the language demands; and, in the next place,
upon the avoidance of that precipitancy of utterance, which is greater than
the full and accurate play of the organs will allow. If time be not given
for the full enunciation of any word which we attempt to speak, some of the
syllables will of course be either lost by elision or sounded confusedly.
Just articulation gives even to a feeble voice greater power and reach than
the loudest vociferation can attain without it. It delivers words from the
lips, not mutilated, distorted, or corrupted, but as the acknowledged
sterling currency of thought;--"as beautiful coins newly issued from the
mint, deeply and accurately impressed, perfectly finished, neatly struck by
the proper organs, distinct, sharp, in due succession, and of due
weight."--_Austin's Chironomia_, p. 38.
OBS.--The principles of articulation constitute the chief exercise of all
those who are learning either to speak or to read. So far as they are
specifically taught in this work, they will be found in those sections
which treat of the powers of the letters.
SECTION II.--OF PRONUNCIATION.
Pronunciation, as distinguished from elocution, or delivery, is the
utterance of words taken separately. The correct pronunciation of words, or
that part of grammar which teaches it, is frequently called _Orthoëpy_.
Pronunciation, or orthoëpy, requires a knowledge of the just powers of the
letters in all their combinations; of the distinction of quantity in vowels
and syllables; and of the force and seat of the accent.
ARTICLE I--OF THE POWERS OF LETTERS.
The JUST POWERS of the letters, are those sounds which are given to them by
the best readers. These are to be learned, as reading is learned, partly
from example, and partly from such books as show or aid the pronunciation
of words.
It is to be observed, however, that considerable variety, even in the
powers of the letters, is produced by the character and occasion of what is
uttered. It is noticed by Walker, that, "Some of the vowels, when neither
under the accent, nor closed by a consonant, have a longer or a shorter, an
opener or a closer sound, according to the solemnity or familiarity, the
deliberation or rapidity of our delivery."--_Pronouncing Dict., Preface_,
p. 4. In cursory speech, or in such reading as imitates it, even the best
scholars utter many letters with quicker and obscurer sounds than ought
ever to be given them in solemn discourse. "In public speaking," says
Rippingham, "every word should be uttered, as though it were spoken singly.
The solemnity of an oration justifies and demands such scrupulous
distinctness. That careful pronunciation which would be ridiculously
pedantic in colloquial intercourse, is an essential requisite of good
elocution."--_Art of Public Speaking_, p. xxxvii.
ARTICLE II--OF QUANTITY.
QUANTITY, or TIME in pronunciation, is the measure of sounds or syllables
in regard to their duration; and, by way of distinction, is supposed ever
to determine them to be either _long_ or _short_.[471]
The absolute time in which syllables are uttered, is very variable, and
must be different to suit different subjects, passions, and occasions; but
their relative length or shortness may nevertheless be preserved, and
generally must be, especially in reciting poetry.
Our long syllables are chiefly those which, having sounds naturally capable
of being lengthened at pleasure, are made long by falling under some stress
either of accent or of emphasis. Our short syllables are the weaker sounds,
which, being the less significant words, or parts of words, are uttered
without peculiar stress.
OBS.--As quantity is chiefly to be regarded in the utterance of poetical
compositions, this subject will be farther considered under the head of
Versification.
ARTICLE III.--OF ACCENT.
ACCENT, as commonly understood, is the peculiar stress which we lay upon
some particular syllable of a word, whereby that syllable is distinguished
from and above the rest; as, _gram'-mar, gram-ma'-ri-an_.
Every word of more than one syllable, has one of its syllables accented;
and sometimes a compound word has two accents, nearly equal in force; as,
_e'ven-hand'ed, home'-depart'ment_.[472]
Besides the _chief_ or _primary_ accent, when the word is long, for the
sake of harmony or distinctness, we often give a _secondary_ or less
forcible accent to an other syllable; as, to the last of
_tem'-per-a-ture'_, and to the second of _in dem'-ni-fi-ca'-tion_.
"Accent seems to be regulated, in a great measure, by etymology. In words
from the Saxon, the accent is generally on the root; in words from the
learned languages, it is generally on the termination; and if to these we
add the different accent we lay on some words, to distinguish them from
others, we seem to have the three great principles of accentuation; namely,
the radical, the terminational, and the distinctive."--_Walker's
Principles_, No. 491; _L. Murray's Grammar_, 8vo, p. 236.
A full and open pronunciation of the long vowel sounds, a clear
articulation of the consonants, a forcible and well-placed accent, and a
distinct utterance of the unaccented syllables, distinguish the elegant
speaker.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--The pronunciation of the English language is confessedly very
difficult to be mastered. Its rules and their exceptions are so numerous,
that few become thoroughly acquainted with any general system of them. Nor,
among the different systems which have been published, is there any which
is worthy in all respects to be accounted a STANDARD. And, if we appeal to
custom, the custom even of the best speakers is far from an entire
uniformity. Perhaps the most popular directory on this subject is Walker's
Critical Pronouncing Dictionary. The "Principles of English Pronunciation,"
which this author has furnished, occupy fifty-six closely-printed octavo
pages, and are still insufficient for the purpose of teaching our orthoëpy
by rule. They are, however, highly valuable, and ought to be consulted by
every one who wishes to be master of this subject. In its vocabulary, or
stock of words, this Dictionary is likewise deficient. Other lexicographers
have produced several later works, of high value to the student; and,
though no one has treated the subject of pronunciation so elaborately as
did Walker, some may have given the results of their diligence in a form
more useful to the generality of their consulters. Among the good ones, is
the Universal and Critical Dictionary of Joseph E. Worcester.
OBS. 2.--Our modern accentuation of Greek or Latin words is regulated
almost wholly by the noted rule of Sanctius, which Walker has copied and
Englished in the Introduction to his Key, and of which the following is a
new version or paraphrase, never before printed:
RULE FOR THE ACCENTING OF LATIN.
_One_ syllable has stress of course,
And words of _two_ the _first_ enforce;
In _longer_ words the _penult_ guides,
Its _quantity_ the point decides;
If _long_, 'tis _there_ the accent's due,
If _short_, accent the _last but two_;
For accent, in a Latin word,
Should ne'er go higher than the third.
This rule, or the substance of it, has become very important by long and
extensive use; but it should be observed, that stress on monosyllables is
more properly _emphasis_ than _accent_; and that, in English, the accent
governs quantity, rather than quantity the accent.
SECTION III.--OF ELOCUTION.
Elocution is the graceful utterance of words that are arranged into
sentences, and that form discourse.
Elocution requires a knowledge, and right application, of emphasis, pauses,
inflections, and tones.
ARTICLE I--OF EMPHASIS.
EMPHASIS is the peculiar stress of voice which we lay upon some particular
word or words in a sentence, which are thereby distinguished from the rest
as being more especially significant.[473]
As accent enforces a syllable, and gives character to a word; so emphasis
distinguishes a word, and often determines the import of a sentence. The
right placing of accent, in the utterance of words, is therefore not more
important, than the right placing of emphasis, in the utterance of
sentences. If no emphasis be used, discourse becomes vapid and inane; if no
accent, words can hardly be recognized as English.
"Emphasis, besides its other offices, is the great regulator of quantity.
Though the quantity of our syllable is fixed, in words separately
pronounced, yet it is mutable, when [the] words are [ar]ranged in[to]
sentences; the long being changed into short, the short into long,
according to the importance of the words with regard to meaning: and, as it
is by emphasis only, that the meaning can be pointed out, emphasis must be
the regulator of the quantity."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 246.[474]
"Emphasis changes, not only the quantity of words and syllables, but also,
in particular cases, the sent of the accent. This is demonstrable from the
following examples: 'He shall _in_crease, but I shall _de_crease.' 'There
is a difference between giving and _for_giving.' 'In this species of
composition, _plaus_ibility is much more essential than _prob_ability.' In
these examples, the emphasis requires the accent to be placed on syllables
to which it does not commonly belong."--_Ib._, p. 247.
In order to know what words are to be made emphatic, the speaker or reader
must give constant heed to _the sense_ of what he utters; his only sure
guide, in this matter, being a just conception of the force and spirit of
the sentiment which he is about to pronounce. He must also guard against
the error of multiplying emphatic words too much; for, to overdo in this
way, defeats the very purpose for which emphasis is used. To manage this
stress with exact propriety, is therefore one of the surest evidences both
of a quick understanding, and of a delicate and just taste.
ARTICLE II.--OF PAUSES.
Pauses are cessations in utterance, which serve equally to relieve the
speaker, and to render language intelligible and pleasing.
Pauses are of three kinds: first, _distinctive_ or _sentential_
pauses,--such as form the divisions required by the sense; secondly,
_emphatic_ or _rhetorical_ pauses,--such as particularly call the hearer's
attention to something which has been, or is about to be, uttered; and
lastly, _poetical_ or _harmonic_ pauses,--such as are peculiar to the
utterance of metrical compositions.
The duration of the distinctive pauses should be proportionate to the
degree of connexion between the parts of the discourse. The shortest are
long enough for the taking of some breath; and it is proper, thus to
relieve the voice at every stop, if needful. This we may do, slightly at a
comma, more leisurely at a semicolon, still more so at a colon, and
completely at a period.
Pauses, whether in reading or in public discourse, ought always to be
formed after the manner in which we naturally form them in ordinary,
sensible conversation; and not after the stiff, artificial manner which
many acquire at school, by a mere mechanical attention to the common
punctuation.
Forced, unintentional pauses, which accidentally divide words that ought to
be spoken in close connexion, are always disagreeable; and, whether they
arise from exhaustion of breath, from a habit of faltering, or from
unacquaintance with the text, they are errors of a kind utterly
incompatible with graceful elocution.
Emphatic or rhetorical pauses, the kind least frequently used, may be made
immediately before, or immediately after, something which the speaker
thinks particularly important, and on which he would fix the attention of
his audience. Their effect is similar to that of a strong emphasis; and,
like this, they must not be employed too often.
The harmonic pauses, or those which are peculiar to poetry, are of three
kinds: the _final pause_, which marks the end of each line; the _cæsural_
or _divisional pause_, which commonly divides the line near the middle; and
the _minor rests_, or _demi-cæsuras_, which often divide it still further.
In the reading of poetry, these pauses ought to be observed, as well as
those which have reference to the sense; for, to read verse exactly as if
it were prose, will often rob it of what chiefly distinguishes it from
prose. Yet, at the same time, all appearance of singsong, or affected tone,
ought to be carefully guarded against.
ARTICLE III.--OF INFLECTIONS.
INFLECTIONS are those peculiar variations of the human voice, by which a
continuous sound is made to pass from one note, key, or pitch, into an
other. The passage of the voice from a lower to a higher or shriller note,
is called the _rising_ or _upward_ inflection. The passage of the voice
from a higher to a lower or graver note, is called tbe _falling_ or
_downward_ inflection. These two opposite inflections may be heard in the
following examples: 1. The rising, "Do you mean to _gó_?" 2. The falling,
"_When_ will you _gò_?"
In general, questions that may be answered by _yes_ or _no_, require the
rising inflection; while those which demand any other answer, must be
uttered with the falling inflection. These slides of the voice are not
commonly marked in writing, or in our printed books; but, when there is
occasion to note them, we apply the acute accent to the former, and the
grave accent to the latter.[475]
A union of these two inflections upon the same syllable, is called a
_circumflex_, a _wave_, or a "_circumflex inflection_." When the slide is
first downward and then upward, it is called the _rising circumflex_, or
"the _gravo-acute circumflex_;" when first upward and then downward, it is
denominated the _falling circumflex_, or "the _acuto-grave circumflex_." Of
these complex inflections of the voice, the emphatic words in the following
sentences may be uttered as examples: "And it shall go _h~ard_ but I will
_ûse_ the information."--"_Ô_! but he _pa~used_ upon the brink."
When a passage is read without any inflection, the words are uttered in
what is called a _monotone_; the voice being commonly pitched at a grum
note, and made to move for the time, slowly and gravely, on a perfect
level.
"Rising inflections are far more numerous than falling inflections; the
former constitute the main body of oral language, while the latter are
employed for the purposes of emphasis, and in the formation of cadences.
Rising inflections are often emphatic; but their emphasis is weaker than
that of falling inflections."--_Comstock's Elocution_, p. 50.
"Writers on Elocution have given numerous rules for the regulation of
inflections; but most of these rules are better calculated to make _bad_
readers than good ones. Those founded on the construction of sentences
might, perhaps, do credit to a _mechanic_, but they certainly do none to an
_elocutionist_."--_Ib._, p. 51.
"The reader should bear in mind that a falling inflection gives more
importance to a word than a rising inflection. Hence it should never be
employed merely for the sake of _variety_; but for _emphasis_ and
_cadences_. Neither should a rising inflection be used for the sake of mere
'_harmony_,' where a falling inflection would better express the meaning of
the author. The _sense_ should, in _all_ cases, determine the direction of
inflections."--_Ib._
_Cadence_ is a fall of the voice, which has reference not so much to pitch
as to force, though it may depress both; for it seems to be generally
contrasted with emphasis,[476] and by some is reprehended as a fault.
"Support your voice steadily and firmly," says Rippingham, "and pronounce
the concluding words of the sentence with force and vivacity, rather than
with a languid cadence."--_Art of Speaking_, p. 17. The pauses which L.
Murray denominates the suspending and the closing pause, he seems to have
discriminated chiefly by the inflections preceding them, if he can be said
to have distinguished them at all. For he not only teaches that the former
may sometimes be used at the close of a sentence, and the latter sometimes
where "the sense is not completed;" but, treating cadence merely as a
defect, adds the following caution: "The closing pause must not be
confounded with that fall of the voice, or _cadence_, with which many
readers uniformly finish a sentence. Nothing is more destructive of
propriety and energy than this habit. The tones and inflections of the
voice at the close of a sentence, ought to be diversified, according to the
general nature of the discourse, and the particular construction and
meaning of the sentence."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 250; 12mo, p. 200.
ARTICLE IV.--OF TONES.
Tones are those modulations of the voice which depend upon the feelings of
the speaker. They are what Sheridan denominates "the language of emotions."
And it is of the utmost importance, that they be natural, unaffected, and
rightly adapted to the subject and to the occasion; for upon them, in a
great measure, depends all that is pleasing or interesting in elocution.
"How much of the propriety, the force, and [the] grace of discourse, must
depend on these, will appear from this single consideration; that to almost
every sentiment we utter, more especially to every strong emotion, nature
has adapted some peculiar tone of voice; insomuch, that he who should tell
another that he was angry, or much grieved, in a tone that did not suit
such emotions, instead of being believed, would be laughed at."--_Blair's
Rhet._, p. 333.
"The different passions of the mind must be expressed by different tones of
the voice. _Love_, by a soft, smooth, languishing voice; _anger_, by a
strong, vehement, and elevated voice; _joy_, by a quick, sweet, and clear
voice; _sorrow_, by a low, flexible, interrupted voice; _fear_, by a
dejected, tremulous, hesitating voice; _courage_, by a full, bold, and loud
voice; and _perplexity_, by a grave and earnest voice. In _exordiums_, the
voice should be low, yet clear; in _narrations_, distinct; in _reasoning_,
slow; in _persuasions_, strong: it should thunder in _anger_, soften in
_sorrow_, tremble in _fear_, and melt in _love_."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 121.
OBS.--Walker observes, in his remarks on the nature of Accent and Quantity,
"As to the tones of the passions, which are so many and various, these, in
the opinion of one of the best judges in the kingdom, are _qualities_ of
sound, occasioned by certain vibrations of the organs of speech,
independent _on_ [say _of_] high, low, loud, soft, quick, slow, forcible,
or feeble: which last may not improperly be called different _quantities_
of sound."--_Walker's Key_, p. 305.
CHAPTER III.--FIGURES.
A Figure, in grammar, is an intentional deviation from the ordinary
spelling, formation, construction, or application, of words. There are,
accordingly, figures of Orthography, figures of Etymology, figures of
Syntax, and figures of Rhetoric. When figures are judiciously employed,
they both strengthen and adorn expression. They occur more frequently in
poetry than in prose; and several of them are merely poetic licenses.
SECTION I.--FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.
A Figure of Orthography is an intentional deviation from the ordinary or
true spelling of a word. The principal figures of Orthography are two;
namely, _Mi-me'-sis_ and _Ar'-cha-ism_.
EXPLANATIONS.
I. _Mimesis_ is a ludicrous imitation of some mistake or mispronunciation
of a word, in which the error is mimicked by a false spelling, or the
taking of one word for another; as, "_Maister_, says he, have you any
_wery_ good _weal_ in you _vâllet?_"--_Columbian Orator_, p. 292. "Ay, he
was _porn_ at Monmouth, captain Gower."--_Shak._ "I will _description_ the
matter to you, if you be _capacity_ of it."--_Id._
"_Perdigious!_ I can hardly stand."
--LLOYD: _Brit. Poets_, Vol. viii, p. 184.
II. An _Archaism_ is a word or phrase expressed according to ancient usage,
and not according to our modern orthography; as, "_Newe grene chese of
smalle clammynes comfortethe a hotte stomake._"--T. PAYNEL: _Tooke's
Diversions_, ii, 132. "He _hath holpen_ his servant Israel."--_Luke_, i,
54.
"With him was rev'rend Contemplation _pight_,
Bow-bent with _eld_, his beard of snowy hue."--_Beattie_.
OBS.--Among the figures of this section, perhaps we might include the
foreign words or phrases which individual authors now and then adopt in
writing English; namely, the _Scotticisms_, the _Gallicisms_, the
_Latinisms_, the _Grecisms_, and the like, with which they too often
garnish their English style. But these, except they stand as foreign
quotations, in which case they are exempt from our rules, are in general
offences against the _purity_ of our language; and it may therefore be
sufficient, just to mention them here, without expressly putting any of
them into the category of grammatical figures.
SECTION II.--FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY.
A Figure of Etymology is an intentional deviation from the ordinary
formation of a word. The principal figures of Etymology are eight; namely,
_A-phoer'-e-sis, Pros'-the-sis, Syn'-co-pe, A-poc'-o-pe, Par-a-go'-ge,
Di-oer'-e-sis, Syn-oer'-e-sis_, and _Tme'-sis_.
EXPLANATIONS.
I. _Aphæresis_ is the elision of some of the initial letters of a word: as,
_'gainst_, for _against_; _'gan_, for _began_; _'neath_, for _beneath_;
_'thout_, for _without_.
II. _Prosthesis_ is the prefixing of an expletive syllable to a word: as,
_a_down, for _down_; _ap_paid, for _paid_; _be_strown, for _strown_;
_ev_anished, for _vanished_; _y_clad, for _clad_.
III. _Syn'copè_ is the elision of some of the middle letters of a word:
as, _med'cine_, for _medicine_; _e'en_, for _even_; _o'er_, for _over_;
_conq'ring_, for _conquering_; _se'nnight_, for _sevennight_.
IV. _Apoc'opè_ is the elision of some of the final letters of a word: as,
_tho'_ for _though_; _th'_, for _the_; _t'other_, for _the other_; _thro'_,
for _through_.
V. _Parago'gè_ is the annexing of an expletive syllable to a word: as,
_Johnny_, for _John_; _deary_, for _dear_; _withouten_, for _without_.
VI. _Diæresis_ is the separating of two vowels that might be supposed to
form a diphthong: as, _coöperate_, not _cooperate_; _aëronaut_, not
_æronaut_; _or'thoëpy_, not _orthoepy_.
VII. _Synæresis_ is the sinking of two syllables into one: as, _seest_, for
_sëest_; _tacked_, for _tack-ed_; _drowned_, for _drown-ed_; _spoks't_, for
_spok-est_; _show'dst_, for _show-edst_; _'tis_, for _it is_; _I'll_, for
_I will_.
VIII. _Tmesis_ is the inserting of a word between the parts of a compound,
or between two words which should be united if they stood together: as, "On
_which_ side _soever_."--_Rolla_. "_To_ us _ward_;" "_To_ God
_ward_."--_Bible_. "The _assembling_ of ourselves _together_."--_Id._ "With
_what_ charms _soe'er_ she will."--_Cowper_. "So _new_ a _fashion'd_
robe."--_Shak._ "Lament the _live_ day _long_."--_Burns_.
OBS.--In all our pronunciation, except that of the solemn style, such
verbal or participial terminations as can be so uttered, are usually sunk
by _synæresis_ into mere modifications of preceding syllables. The
terminational consonants, if not uttered with one vowel, must be uttered
with an other. When, therefore, a vowel is entirely suppressed in
pronunciation, (whether retained in writing or not,) the consonants
connected with it, necessarily fall into an other syllable: thus, _tried,
triest, sued, suest, loved, lovest, mov'd, mov'st_, are monosyllables; and
_studied, studiest, studi'dst, argued, arguest, argu'dst_, are
dissyllables; except in solemn discourse, in which the _e_ is generally
retained and made vocal.
SECTION III.--FIGURES OF SYNTAX.
A Figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation from the ordinary
construction of words. The principal figures of Syntax are five; namely,
_El-lip'-sis, Ple'-o-nasm, Syl-lep'-sis, En-al'-la-ge_, and
_Hy-per'-ba-ton._ EXPLANATIONS.
I. _Ellipsis_ is the omission of some word or words which are necessary to
complete the construction, but not necessary to convey the meaning. Such
words are said, in technical phrase, to be _understood_;[477] because they
are received as belonging to the sentence, though they are not uttered.
Of compound sentences, a vast many are more or less elliptical; and
sometimes, for brevity's sake, even the most essential parts of a simple
sentence, are suppressed;[478] as, "But more of this hereafter."--_Harris's
Hermes_, p. 77. This means, "But _I shall say_ more of this hereafter."
"Prythee, peace."--_Shak._ That is, "_I pray_ thee, _hold thou thy_ peace."
There may be an omission of any of the parts of speech, or even of a whole
clause, when this repeats what precedes; but the omission of mere articles
or interjections can scarcely constitute a proper ellipsis, because these
parts of speech, wherever they are really necessary to be recognized, ought
to be expressed.
EXAMPLES OF ELLIPSIS SUPPLIED.
1. Of the ARTICLE:--"A man and [_a_] woman."--"The day, [_the_] month, and
[_the_] year."--"She gave me an apple and [_a_] pear, for a fig and [_an_]
orange."--_Jaudon's Gram._, p. 170.
2. Of the NOUN:--"The common [_law_] and the statute law."--"The twelve
[_apostles_]."--"The same [_man_] is he."--"One [_book_] of my books."--"A
dozen [_bottles_] of wine."--"Conscience, I say; not thine own
[_conscience_], but [_the conscience_] of the other."--_1 Cor._, x, 29.
"Every moment subtracts _from_ [_our lives_] what it adds _to_ our
lives."--_Dillwyn's Ref._, p. 8. "Bad actions mostly lead to worse"
[_actions_].--_Ib._, p. 5.
3. Of the ADJECTIVE:--"There are subjects proper for the one, and not
[_proper_] for the other."--_Kames._ "A just weight and [_a just_] balance
are the Lord's."--_Prov._, xvi, 11. True ellipses of the adjective alone,
are but seldom met with.
4. Of the PRONOUN:--"Leave [_thou_] there thy gift before the altar, and go
[_thou_] thy way; first be [_thou_] reconciled to thy brother, and then
come [_thou_] and offer [_thou_] thy gift,"--_Matt._, v, 24. "Love [_ye_]
your enemies, bless [_ye_] them that curse you, do [_ye_] good to them that
hate you."--_Ib._, v. 44. "Chastisement does not always immediately follow
error, but [_it_] sometimes comes when [_it is_] least expected."--
_Dillwyn, Ref._, p. 31. "Men generally put a greater value upon the favours
[_which_] they bestow, than upon those [_which_] they receive."--_Art of
Thinking_, p. 48. "Wisdom and worth were all [_that_] he had."--_Allen's
Gram._, p. 294.
5. Of the VERB:--"The world is crucified unto me, and I [_am crucified_]
unto the world."--_Gal._, vi, 14. "Hearts should not [_differ_], though
heads may, differ."--_Dillwyn_, p. 11. "Are ye not much better than they"
[_are_]?--_Matt._, vi, 26. "Tribulation worketh patience; and patience
[_worketh_] experience; and experience [_worketh_] hope."--_Romans_, v, 4.
"Wrongs are engraved on marble; benefits [_are engraved_] on sand."--_Art
of Thinking_, p. 41. "To whom thus Eve, yet sinless" [_spoke_].--_Milton_.
6. Of the PARTICIPLE:--"That [_being_] o'er, they part."--"Animals of
various natures, some adapted to the wood, and some [_adapted_] to the
wave."--_Melmoth, on Scripture_, p. 13.
"His knowledge [_being_] measured to his state and place,
His time [_being_] a moment, and a point [_being_] his space."--_Pope_.
7. Of the ADVERB:--"He can do this independently of me, if not
[_independently_] of you."
"She shows a body rather than a life;
A statue, [_rather_] than a breather."
--_Shak., Ant. and Cleo._, iii, 3.
8. Of the CONJUNCTION:--"But the fruit of the Spirit is love, [_and_] joy,
[_and_] peace, [_and_] long suffering, [_and_] gentleness, [_and_]
goodness, [_and_] faith, [_and_] meekness, [_and_] temperance."--_Gal._, v,
22. The repetition of the conjunction is called _Polysyndeton_; and the
omission of it, _Asyndeton_.
9. Of the PREPOSITION:--"It shall be done [_on_] this very day."--"We shall
set off [_at_] some time [_in_] next month."--"He departed [_from_] this
life."--"He gave [_to_] me a book."--"We walked [_through_] a mile."--"He
was banished [_from_] the kingdom."--_W. Allen_. "He lived like [_to_] a
prince."--_Wells_.
10. Of the INTERJECTION:--"Oh! the frailty, [_oh!_] the wickedness of
men."--"Alas for Mexico! and [_alas_] for many of her invaders!"
11. Of PHRASES or CLAUSES:--"The active commonly do more than they are
bound to do; the indolent [_commonly do_] less" [_than they are bound to
do_].--"Young men, angry, mean less than they say; old men, [_angry, mean_]
more" [_than they say_].--"It is the duty of justice, not to injure men;
[_it is the duty_] of modesty, not to offend them."--_W. Allen_.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--Grammarians in general treat of ellipsis without _defining_ it;
and exhibit such rules and examples as suppose our language to be a
hundred-fold more elliptical than it really is.[479] This is a great error,
and only paralleled by that of a certain writer elsewhere noticed, who
denies the existence of all ellipsis whatever. (See Syntax, Obs. 24th on
Rule 22d.) Some have defined this figure in a way that betrays a very
inaccurate notion of what it is: as, "ELLIPSIS is _when_ one or more words
are wanting _to complete the sense_."--_Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram._, p.
235; _Gould's_, 229. "ELLIPSIS is the omission of one or more words
necessary _to complete the sense_."--_Bullions, Lat. Gram._, p. 265. These
definitions are decidedly worse than none; because, if they have any
effect, they can only mislead. They absurdly suggest that every elliptical
sentence lacks a part of its own meaning! Ellipsis is, in fact, the mere
omission or absence of certain _suggested words_; or of words that may be
spared from utterance, _without defect in the sense_. There never can be an
ellipsis of any thing which is either unnecessary to the construction or
necessary to the sense; for to say what we mean and nothing more, never can
constitute a deviation from the ordinary grammatical construction of words.
As a figure of Syntax, therefore, the _ellipsis_ can only be of such words
as are so evidently suggested to the reader, that the writer is as fully
answerable for them as if he had written them.
OBS. 2.--To suppose an ellipsis where there is none, or to overlook one
where it really occurs, is to pervert or mutilate the text, in order to
accommodate it to the parser's or reader's ignorance of the principles of
syntax. There never can be either a general uniformity or a
self-consistency in our methods of parsing, or in our notions of grammar,
till the true nature of an ellipsis is clearly ascertained; so that the
writer shall distinguish it from a _blundering omission_ that impairs the
sense, and the reader or parser be barred from an _arbitrary insertion_ of
what would be cumbrous and useless. By adopting loose and extravagant ideas
of the nature of this figure, some pretenders to learning and philosophy
have been led into the most whimsical and opposite notions concerning the
grammatical construction of language. Thus, with equal absurdity, _Cardell_
and _Sherman_, in their _Philosophic Grammars_, attempt to confute the
doctrines of their predecessors, by supposing _ellipses_ at pleasure. And
while the former teaches, that prepositions do not govern the objective
case, but that every verb is transitive, and governs at least two objects,
expressed or _understood_, its own and that of a preposition: the latter,
with just as good an argument, contends that no verb is transitive, but
that every objective case is governed by a preposition expressed or
_understood_. A world of nonsense for lack of a _definition!_
II. PLEONASM is the introduction of superfluous words; as, "But of the tree
of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat _of it_."--_Gen._,
ii, 17. This figure is allowable only, when, in animated discourse, it
abruptly introduces an emphatic word, or repeats an idea to impress it more
strongly; as, "_He_ that hath ears to hear, let him hear."--_Bible_. "All
ye inhabitants of the world, and _dwellers on the earth_."--_Id._ "There
shall not be left one stone upon another _that shall not be thrown
down_."--_Id._ "I know thee _who thou art_."--_Id._ A Pleonasm, as perhaps
in these instances, is sometimes impressive and elegant; but an unemphatic
repetition of the same idea, is one of the worst faults of bad writing.
OBS.--Strong passion is not always satisfied with saying a thing once, and
in the fewest words possible; nor is it natural that it should be. Hence
repetitions indicative of intense feeling may constitute a beauty of the
highest kind, when, if the feeling were wanting, or supposed to be so, they
would be reckoned intolerable tautologies. The following is an example,
which the reader may appreciate the better, if he remembers the context:
"At her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay down; at her feet he bowed, he fell;
where he bowed, there he fell down dead."--_Judges_, v, 27.
III. SYLLEPSIS is agreement formed according to the figurative sense of a
word, or the mental conception of the thing spoken of, and not according to
the literal or common use of the term; it is therefore in general connected
with some figure of rhetoric: as "The _Word_ was made flesh, and dwelt
amongst us, and we beheld _his_ glory."--_John_, i, 14. "Then Philip went
down to the _city_ of Samaria, and preached Christ unto _them_."--_Acts_,
viii, 5. "The _city_ of London _have_ expressed _their_ sentiments with
freedom and firmness."--_Junius_, p. 159. "And I said [to backsliding
_Israel_,] after _she_ had done all these things, Turn _thou_ unto me; but
_she_ returned not: and _her_ treacherous _sister Judah_ saw it."--_Jer._,
iii, 7. "And he surnamed them _Boanerges, which is_, The sons of
thunder."--_Mark_, iii, 17.
"While _Evening_ draws _her_ crimson curtains round."--_Thomson_, p. 63.
"The _Thunder_ raises _his_ tremendous voice."--_Id._, p. 113.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--To the parser, some explanation of that agreement which is
controlled by tropes, is often absolutely necessary; yet, of our modern
grammarians, none appear to have noticed it; and, of the oldest writers,
few, if any, have given it the rank which it deserves among the figures of
syntax. The term _Syllepsis_ literally signifies _conception,
comprehension_, or _taking-together_. Under this name have been arranged,
by the grammarians and rhetoricians, many different forms of unusual or
irregular agreement; some of which are quite too unlike to be embraced in
the same class, and not a few, perhaps, too unimportant or too ordinary to
deserve any classification as figures. I therefore omit some forms of
expression which others have treated as examples of _Syllepsis_, and define
the term with reference to such as seem more worthy to be noticed as
deviations from the ordinary construction of words. Dr. Webster, allowing
the word two meanings, explains it thus: "SYLLEPSIS, _n._ [_Gr._
syllæpsis.] 1. In _grammar_, a figure by which we conceive the sense of
words otherwise than the words import, and construe them according to the
intention of the author; otherwise called _substitution_.[480] 2. The
agreement of a verb or adjective, not with the word next to it, but with
the most worthy in the sentence."--_American Dict._
OBS. 2.--In short, _Syllepsis_ is a _conception_ of which grammarians have
_conceived_ so variously, that it has become doubtful, what definition or
what application of the term is now the most appropriate. Dr. Prat, in
defining it, cites one notion from Sanctius, and adds an other of his own,
thus: "SYLLEPSIS, id est, _Conceptio_, est quoties Generibus, aut Numeris
videntur voces discrepare. Sanct. l. 4. c. 10. Vel sit Comprehensio
indignioris sub digniore."--_Prat's Lat. Gram._, Part ii, p. 164. John
Grant ranks it as a mere form or species of _Ellipsis_, and expounds it
thus: "_Syllepsis_ is _when_ the adjective or verb, joined to different
substantives, agrees with the more worthy."--_Institutes of Lat. Gram._, p.
321. Dr. Littleton describes it thus: "SYLLLEPSIS [sic--KTH],--A
Grammatical figure _where_ two Nominative Cases singular of different
persons are joined to a Verb plural."--_Latin Dict._, 4to. By Dr. Morell it
is explained as follows: "SYLLEPSIS,--A grammatical figure, _where_ one is
put for many, and many for one, Lat. _Conceptio_."--_Morell's Ainsworth's
Dict._, 4to, Index Vitand. IV. _Enállagè_ is the use of one part of
speech, or of one modification, for an other. This figure borders closely
upon solecism; and, for the stability of the language, it should be
sparingly indulged. There are, however, several forms of it which can
appeal to good authority: as,
1. "_You know_ that _you are_ Brutus, that _say_ this."--_Shak._
2. "They fall _successive_[ly], and _successive_[ly] rise."--_Pope_.
3. "Than _whom_ [who] a fiend more fell is nowhere found."--_Thomson_.
4. "Sure some disaster has _befell_" [befallen].--_Gay_.
5. "So furious was that onset's shock,
Destruction's gates at once _unlock_" [unlocked].--_Hogg_.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--_Enallage_ is a Greek word, signifying _commutation, change_, or
_exchange. "Enallage_, in a general sense, is the change of words, or of
their accidents, one for another."--_Grant's Latin Gram._, p. 322. The word
_Antimeria_, which literally expresses _change of parts_, was often used by
the old grammarians as synonymous with _Enallage_; though, sometimes, the
former was taken only for the substitution of one _part of speech_ for an
other, and the latter, only, or more particularly, for a change of
_modification_--as of mood for mood, tense for tense, or number for number.
The putting of one _case_ for an other, has also been thought worthy of a
particular name, and been called _Antiptosis_. But _Enallage_, the most
comprehensive of these terms, having been often of old applied to all such
changes, reducing them to one head, may well be now defined as above, and
still applied, in this way, to all that we need recognize as figures. The
word _Enallaxis_, preferred by some, is of the same import. "ENALLAXIS, so
called by _Longinus_, or ENALLAGE, is an _Exchange_ of _Cases, Tenses,
Persons, Numbers_, or _Genders_."--_Holmes's Rhet._, Book i, p. 57.
"An ENALLAXIS changes, when it pleases,
Tenses, or Persons, Genders, Numbers, Cases."--_Ib._, B. ii, p. 50.
OBS. 2.--Our most common form of _Enallage_ is that by which a single
person is addressed in the plural number. This is so fashionable in our
civil intercourse, that some very polite grammarians improperly dispute its
claims to be called a _figure_; and represent it as being more ordinary,
and even more literal than the regular phraseology; which a few of them, as
we have seen, would place among the _archaisms_. The next in frequency, (if
indeed it can be called a different form,) is the practice of putting _we_
for _I_, or the plural for the singular in the _first person_. This has
never yet been claimed as literal and regular syntax, though the usages
differ in nothing but commonness; both being honourably authorized, both
still improper on some occasions, and, in both, the _Enallage_ being alike
obvious. Other varieties of this figure, not uncommon in English, are the
putting of adjectives for adverbs, of adverbs for nouns, of the present
tense for the preterit, and of the preterit for the perfect participle.
But, in the use of such liberties, elegance and error sometimes approximate
so nearly, there is scarcely an obvious line between them, and grammarians
consequently disagree in making the distinction.
OBS. 3.--Deviations of this kind are, _in general_, to be considered
solecisms; otherwise, the rules of grammar would be of no use or authority.
_Despauter_, an ancient Latin grammarian, gave an improper latitude to this
figure, or to a species of it, under the name of _Antiptosis_; and
_Behourt_ and others extended it still further. But _Sanctius_ says,
"_Antiptosi grammaticorum nihil imperitius, quod figmentum si esset verum,
frustra quæreretur, quem casum verba regerent_." And the _Messieurs De Port
Royal_ reject the figure altogether. There are, however, some changes of
this kind, which the grammarian is not competent to condemn, though they do
not accord with the ordinary principles of construction.
V. _Hyperbaton_ is the transposition of words; as, "He wanders _earth
around_."--_Cowper_ "_Rings the world_ with the vain stir."--_Id. "Whom_
therefore ye ignorantly worship, _him declare I_ unto you."--_Acts_, xvii,
23. "'_Happy_', says _Montesquieu, 'is that nation_ whose annals are
tiresome.'"--_Corwin, in Congress_, 1847. This figure is much employed in
poetry. A judicious use of it confers harmony, variety, strength, and
vivacity upon composition. But care should be taken lest it produce
ambiguity or obscurity, absurdity or solecism.
OBS.--A confused and intricate arrangement of words, received from some of
the ancients the name of _Syn'chysis_, and was reckoned by them among the
figures of grammar. By some authors, this has been improperly identified
with _Hyper'baton_, or elegant inversion; as may be seen under the word
_Synchysis_ in Littleton's Dictionary, or in Holmes's Rhetoric, at page
58th. _Synchysis_ literally means _confusion_, or _commixtion_; and, in
grammar, is significant only of some poetical jumble of words, some verbal
_kink_ or _snarl_, which cannot be grammatically resolved or disentangled:
as,
"_Is piety_ thus _and_ pure _devotion_ paid?"
--_Milton, P. L._, B. xi, l. 452.
"An ass will with his long ears fray
The flies that tickle him away;
But man delights to have _his ears
Blown maggots in by_ flatterers."
--_Butler's Poems_, p. 161.
SECTION IV.--FIGURES OF RHETORIC.
A Figure of Rhetoric is an intentional deviation from the ordinary
application of words. Several of this kind of figures are commonly called
_Tropes_, i.e., _turns_; because certain words are turned from their
original signification to an other.[481]
Numerous departures from perfect simplicity of diction, occur in almost
every kind of composition. They are mostly founded on some similitude or
relation of things, which, by the power of imagination, is rendered
conducive to ornament or illustration.
The principal figures of Rhetoric are sixteen; namely, _Sim'-i-le,
Met'-a-phor, Al'-le-gor-y, Me-ton'-y-my, Syn-ec'-do-che, Hy-per'-bo-le,
Vis'-ion, A-pos'-tro-phe, Per-son'-i-fi-ca'-tion, Er-o-te'-sis,
Ec-pho-ne'-sis, An-tith'-e-sis, Cli'-max, I'-ro-ny, A-poph'-a-sis_, and
_On-o-ma-to-poe'-ia._
EXPLANATIONS.
I. A _Simile_ is a simple and express comparison; and is generally
introduced by _like, as_, or _so_: as, "Such a passion is _like falling in
love with a sparrow flying over your head_; you have but one glimpse of
her, and she is out of sight."--_Colliers Antoninus_. "Therefore they shall
be _as the morning cloud_, and _as the early dew_ that passeth away; _as
the chaff_ that is driven with the whirlwind out of the floor, and _as the
smoke_ out of the chimney."--_Hosea_, xiii.
"At first, _like thunder's distant tone_,
The rattling din came rolling on."--_Hogg_.
"Man, _like the generous vine_, supported lives;
The strength he gains, is from th' embrace he gives."--_Pope_.
OBS.--Comparisons are sometimes made in a manner sufficiently intelligible,
without any express term to point them out. In the following passage, we
have a triple example of what seems the _Simile_, without the usual
sign--without _like, as_, or _so_: "Away with all tampering with such a
question! Away with all trifling with the man in fetters! _Give a hungry
man a stone, and tell what beautiful houses are made of it;--give ice to a
freezing man, and tell him of its good properties in hot weather;--throw a
drowning man a dollar, as a mark of your good will_;--but do not mock the
bondman in his misery, by giving him a Bible when he cannot read
it."--FREDERICK DOUGLASS: _Liberty Bell_, 1848.
II. A _Metaphor_ is a figure that expresses or suggests the resemblance of
two objects by applying either the name, or some attribute, adjunct, or
action, of the one, directly to the other; as,
1. "The LORD is my _rock_, and my _fortress_."--_Psal._, xviii 1.
2. "His eye was _morning's brightest ray_."--_Hogg_.
3. "An _angler_ in the _tides_ of fame."--_Id., Q. W._
4. "Beside him _sleeps_ the warrior's bow."--_Langhorne_.
5. "Wild fancies in his moody brain
_Gambol'd unbridled_ and unbound."--_Hogg, Q. W._
6. "Speechless, and fix'd in all the _death_ of wo."--_Thomson_.
OBS.--A _Metaphor_ is commonly understoood [sic--KTH] to be only the
tropical use of some _single word_, or _short phrase_; but there seem to be
occasional instances of one _sentence_, or _action_, being used
metaphorically to represent an other. The following extract from the London
Examiner has several figurative expressions, which perhaps belong to this
head: "In the present age, nearly all people are critics, even to the pen,
and treat the gravest writers with a sort of _taproom_ familiarity. If they
are dissatisfied, _they throw a short and spent cigar in the face of the
offender_; if they are pleased, _they lift the candidate off his legs, and
send him away with a hearty slap on the shoulder_. Some of the shorter,
when they are bent to mischief, _dip a twig in the gutter, and drag it
across our polished boots_: on the contrary, when they are inclined to be
gentle and generous, _they leap boisterously upon our knees, and kiss us_
with bread-and-butter in their mouths."--WALTER SAVAGE LANDOR.
III. An _Allegory_ is a continued narration of fictitious events, designed
to represent and illustrate important realities. Thus the Psalmist
represents the _Jewish nation_ under the symbol of a _vine_: "Thou hast
brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted
it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root;
and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and
the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars."--_Psalms_, lxxx, 8-10.
OBS.--The _Allegory_, agreeably to the foregoing definition of it, includes
most of those similitudes which in the Scriptures are called _parables_; it
includes also the better sort of _fables_. The term _allegory_ is sometimes
applied to a _true history_ in which something else is intended, than is
contained in the words literally taken. See an instance in _Galatians_, iv,
24. In the _Scriptures_, the term _fable_ denotes an idle and groundless
story: as, in _1 Timothy_, iv, 7; and _2 Peter_, i, 16. It is now commonly
used in a better sense. "A _fable_ may be defined to be an analogical
narrative, intended to convey some moral lesson, in which irrational
animals or objects are introduced as speaking."--_Philological Museum_,
Vol. i, p. 280.
IV. A _Metonymy_ is a change of names between things related. It is
founded, not on resemblance, but on some such relation as that of _cause_
and _effect_, of _progenitor_ and _posterity_, of _subject_ and _adjunct_,
of _place_ and _inhabitant_, of _container_ and _thing contained_, or of
_sign_ and _thing signified_: as, (1.) "God is our _salvation_;" i.e.,
_Saviour_. (2.) "Hear, O _Israel_;" i.e. O _ye descendants of_ Israel. (3.)
"He was the _sigh_ of her secret soul;" i.e., the _youth_ she loved. (4.)
"They smote the _city_;" i.e., the _citizens_. (5.) "My son, give me thy
_heart_;" i.e., _affection_. (6.) "The _sceptre_ shall not depart from
Judah;" i.e., _kingly power_. (7.) "They have _Moses and the prophets_;"
i.e., _their writings_. See _Luke_, xvi, 29.
V. _Synecdoche_, (that is, _Comprehension_,) is the naming of a part for
the whole, or of the whole for a part; as, (1.) "This _roof_ [i.e., house]
protects you." (2.) "Now the _year_ [i.e., summer] is beautiful." (3.) "A
_sail_ [i.e., a ship or vessel] passed at a distance." (4.) "Give us this
day our daily _bread_;" i.e., food. (5.) "Because they have taken away _my
Lord_, [i.e., the body of Jesus,] and I know not where they have laid
him."--_John_. (6.) "The same day there were added unto them about three
thousand _souls_;" i.e., persons.--_Acts_. (7.) "There went out a decree
from Cæsar Augustus, that all _the world_ [i.e., the Roman empire] should
be taxed."--_Luke_, ii, 1.
VI. _Hyperbole_ is extravagant exaggeration, in which the imagination is
indulged beyond the sobriety of truth; as, "My little finger _shall be
thicker_ than my father's loins."--_2 Chron._, x, 10. "When I washed my
_steps with butter_, and the rock poured me out _rivers of oil_."--_Job_,
xxix, 6.
"The sky _shrunk upward with unusual dread_,
And trembling Tiber _div'd beneath his bed_."--_Dryden_.
VII. _Vision_, or _Imagery_, is a figure by which the speaker represents
the objects of his imagination, as actually before his eyes, and present to
his senses; as,
"I see the dagger-crest of Mar!
I see the Moray's silver star
Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon war,
That up the lake comes winding far!"--_Scott, L. L._, vi, 15.
VIII. _Apostrophe_ is a turning from the regular course of the subject,
into an animated address; as, "Death is swallowed up in victory. O Death!
where is thy sting? O Grave! where is thy victory?"--_1 Cor._, xv, 55.
IX. _Personification_ is a figure by which, in imagination, we ascribe
intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or abstract qualities;
as,
1. "The _Worm_, aware of his intent,
Harangued him thus, right eloquent."--_Cowper_.
2. "Lo, steel-clad _War_ his gorgeous standard rears!"--_Rogers_.
3. "Hark! _Truth_ proclaims, thy triumphs cease!"--_Idem_.
X. _Erotesis_ is a figure in which the speaker adopts the form of
interrogation, not to express a doubt, but, in general, confidently to
assert the reverse of what is asked; as, "Hast thou an arm like God? or
canst thou thunder with a voice like him?"--_Job_, xl, 9. "He that planted
the ear, shall he not hear? he that formed the eye, shall he not
see?"--_Psalms_, xciv, 9.
XI. _Ecphonesis_ is a pathetic exclamation, denoting some violent emotion
of the mind; as, "O liberty!--O sound once delightful to every Roman
ear!--O sacred privilege of Roman citizenship!--once sacred--now trampled
upon."--_Cicero_. "And I said, O that I had wings like a dove! for then
would I fly away, and be at rest."--_Psalms_, lv, 6.
XII. _Antithesis_ is a placing of things in opposition, to heighten their
effect by contrast; as, "I will talk of things _heavenly_, or things
_earthly_; things _moral_, or things _evangelical_; things _sacred_, or
things _profane_; things _past_, or things _to come_; things _foreign_, or
things _at home_; things more _essential_, or things _circumstantial_;
provided that all be done to our profit."--_Bunyan, P. P._, p. 90.
"Contrasted faults through all his manners reign;
Though _poor, luxurious_; though _submissive, vain_;
Though _grave_, yet _trifling_; _zealous_, yet _untrue_;
And e'en _in penance, planning sins_ anew."--_Goldsmith_.
XIII. _Climax_ is a figure in which the sense is made to advance by
successive steps, to rise gradually to what is more and more important and
interesting, or to descend to what is more and more minute and particular;
as, "And besides this, giving all diligence, add to your faith, virtue; and
to virtue, knowledge; and to knowledge, temperance; and to temperance,
patience; and to patience, godliness; and to godliness, brotherly kindness;
and to brotherly kindness, charity."--_2 Peter_, i, 5.
XIV. _Irony_ is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly utters the direct
reverse of what he intends shall be understood; as, "We have, to be sure,
great reason to believe the modest man would not ask him for a debt, when
he pursues his life."--_Cicero_. "No doubt but ye are the people, and
wisdom shall die with you."--_Job_, xii, 2. "They must esteem learning
_very much_, when they see its professors used with such little
ceremony!"--_Goldsmith's Essays_, p. 150.
XV. _Apophasis_, or _Paralipsis_,[482] is a figure in which the speaker or
writer pretends to omit what at the same time he really mentions; as, "I
Paul have written it with mine own hand, I will repay it; albeit _I do not
say to thee_, how thou owest unto me even thine own self
besides."--_Philemon_, 19.
XVI. _Onomatopoeia_ is the use of a word, phrase, or sentence, the sound of
which resembles, or intentionally imitates, the sound of the thing
signified or spoken of: as, "Of a knocking at the door, _Rat a tat
tat_."--J. W. GIBBS: _in Fowler's Gram._, p. 334. "_Ding-dong! ding-dong!_
Merry, merry, go the bells, _Ding-dong! ding-dong_!"--_H. K. White_.
"Bow'wow _n._ The loud bark of a dog. _Booth_."--_Worcester's Dict._ This
is often written separately; as, "_Bow wow_."--_Fowler's Gram._, p. 334.
The imitation is better with three sounds: "_Bow wow wow_." The following
verses have been said to exhibit this figure:
"But when loud surges lash the sounding shore,
The hoarse rough verse should like the torrent roar."
--_Pope, on Crit._, l. 369.
OBS.--The whole number of figures, which I have thought it needful to
define and illustrate in this work, is only about thirty. These are the
_chief_ of what have sometimes been made a very long and minute catalogue.
In the hands of some authors, Rhetoric is scarcely anything else than a
detail of figures; the number of which, being made to include almost every
possible form of expression, is, according to these authors, not less than
two hundred and forty. Of their _names_, John Holmes gives, in his index,
two hundred and fifty-three; and he has not all that might be quoted,
though he has more than there are of the forms named, or the figures
themselves. To find a learned name for every particular mode of expression,
is not necessarily conducive to the right use of language. It is easy to
see the inutility of such pedantry; and Butler has made it sufficiently
ridiculous by this caricature:
"For all a rhetorician's rules
Teach nothing but to name his tools."--_Hudibras_, P. i, C. i, l. 90.
SECTION V.--EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.
PRAXIS XIV.--PROSODICAL.
_In the Fourteenth Praxis, are exemplified the several Figures of
Orthography, of Etymology, of Syntax, and of Rhetoric, which the parser may
name and define_; _and by it the pupil may also be exercised in relation to
the principles of Punctuation, Utterance, Analysis, or whatever else of
Grammar, the examples contain_.
LESSON I.--FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.
MIMESIS AND ARCHAISM.
"I _ax'd_ you what you had to sell. I am fitting out a _wessel_ for
_Wenice_, loading her with _warious keinds_ of _prowisions_, and
_wittualling_ her for a long _woyage_; and I want several _undred_ weight
of _weal, wenison_, &c., with plenty of _inyons_ and _winegar_, for the
_preserwation_ of _ealth_."--_Columbian Orator_, p. 292.
"God bless you, and lie still quiet (_says_ I) a bit longer, for my
_shister's_ afraid of ghosts, and would die on the spot with the fright,
_was_ she to see you come to life all on a sudden this way without the
least preparation."--_Edgeworth's Castle Rackrent_, p. 143.
"None [else are] so desperately _evill_, as they that may _bee_ good and
will not: or have _beene_ good and are not."--_Rev. John Rogers_, 1620. "A
Carpenter finds his work as _hee_ left it, but a Minister shall find his
_sett_ back. You need preach continually."--_Id._
"Here _whilom ligg'd_ th' Esopus of his age,
But call'd by Fame, in soul _ypricked_ deep."--_Thomson_.
"It was a fountain of Nepenthe rare,
Whence, as Dan Homer sings, huge _pleasaunce_ grew."--_Id._
LESSON II.--FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY.
APHÆRESIS, PROSTHESIS, SYNCOPE, APOCOPE, PARAGOGE, DIÆRESIS, SYNÆRESIS, AND
TMESIS.
"Bend _'gainst_ the steepy hill thy breast,
Burst down like torrent from its crest."--_Scott_.
"_'Tis_ mine to teach _th'_ inactive hand to reap
Kind nature's bounties, _o'er_ the globe _diffus'd_."--_Dyer_.
"Alas! alas! how impotently true
_Th' aërial_ pencil forms the scene anew."--_Cawthorne_.
"Here a deformed monster _joy'd_ to won,
Which on fell rancour ever was _ybent_."--_Lloyd_.
"_Withouten_ trump was proclamation made."--_Thomson_.
"The gentle knight, who saw their rueful case,
Let fall _adown_ his silver beard some tears.
'Certes,' quoth he, 'it is not _e'en_ in grace,
_T'_ undo the past and eke your broken years."--_Id._
"Vain _tamp'ring_ has but _foster'd_ his disease;
_'Tis desp'rate_, and he sleeps the sleep of death."--_Cowper_.
"'I have a pain upon my forehead here'--
'Why _that's_ with watching; _'twill_ away again.'"--_Shakspeare_.
"I'll to the woods, among the happier brutes;
Come, _let's_ away; hark! the shrill horn resounds."--_Smith_.
"_What_ prayer and supplication _soever_ be made."--_Bible_. "By the grace
of God, we have had our conversation in the world, and more abundantly _to_
you _ward_."--_Ib._
LESSON III.--FIGURES OF SYNTAX.
FIGURE I.--ELLIPSIS.
"And now he faintly kens the bounding fawn,
And [--] villager [--] abroad at early toil."--_Beattie_.
"The cottage curs at [--] early pilgrim bark."--_Id._
"'Tis granted, and no plainer truth appears,
Our most important [--] are our earliest years."--_Cowper_.
"To earn her aid, with fix'd and anxious eye,
He looks on nature's [--] and on fortune's course."--_Akenside_.
"For longer in that paradise to dwell,
The law [--] I gave to nature him forbids."--_Milton_.
"So little mercy shows [--] who needs so much."--_Cowper_.
"Bliss is the same [--] in subject, as [--] in king;
In [--] who obtain defence, and [--] who defend."--_Pope_.
"Man made for kings! those optics are but dim
That tell you so--say rather, they [--] for him."--_Cowper_.
"Man may dismiss compassion from his heart,
But God will never [-------]."--_Id._
"Vigour [--] from toil, from trouble patience grows."--_Beattie_.
"Where now the rill melodious, [--] pure, and cool,
And meads, with life, and mirth, and beauty crown'd?"--_Id._
"How dead the vegetable kingdom lies!
How dumb the tuneful [------------]!"--_Thomson_.
"Self-love and Reason to one end aspire,
Pain [--] their aversion, pleasure [--] their desire;
But greedy that its object would devour,
This [--] taste the honey, and not wound the flower."--_Pope_.
LESSON IV.--FIGURES OF SYNTAX.
FIGURE II.--PLEONASM.
"_According_ to their deeds, _accordingly_ he will _repay_, fury to his
adversaries, _recompense_ to his enemies; to the islands he will repay
recompense."--_Isaiah_, lix, 18. "Open to me, my sister, my love, my dove,
my undefiled: for my head is filled with dew, _and my locks with the drops
of the night_."--_Song of Sol._, v, 2. "Thou hast chastised me, _and I was
chastised_, as a bullock unaccustomed to the yoke: turn thou me, _and I
shall be turned_; for thou art the Lord my God."--_Jer._, xxxi, 18.
"Consider the _lilies_ of the field how _they grow_."--_Matt._, vi, 28.
"_He_ that glorieth, let _him_ glory in the Lord."--_2 Cor._, x, 17.
"_He_ too is witness, noblest of the train
That wait on man, the flight-performing horse."--_Cowper_.
FIGURE III.--SYLLEPSIS.
"'Thou art Simon the son of Jona: thou shalt be called _Cephas:' which_ is,
by interpretation a stone."--_John_, i, 42. "Thus saith the Lord of hosts,
'Behold, I will break the bow of _Elam_, the chief of _their_
might.'"--_Jer._, xlix, 35. "Behold, I lay in Sion a _stumbling-stone_ and
_rock_ of offence: and whosoever believeth on _him_ shall not be
ashamed."--_Rom._, ix, 33.
"Thus _Conscience_ pleads _her_ cause within the breast,
Though long rebell'd against, not yet suppressed."--_Cowper_.
"_Knowledge_ is proud that _he_ has learn'd so much;
_Wisdom_ is humble that _he_ knows no more."--_Id._
"For those the _race_ of Israel oft forsook
_Their_ living _strength_, and unfrequented left
_His_ righteous altar, bowing lowly down
To bestial gods."--_Milton, Paradise Lost_, B. i, l. 432.
LESSON V.--FIGURES OF SYNTAX.
FIGURE IV.--ENALLAGE.
"Let me tell _you_, Cassius, _you_ yourself
_Are_ much condemned to have an itching palm,
To sell and mart _your_ offices for gold."--_Shakspeare_.
"Come, Philomelus; let us _instant_ go,
O'erturn his bow'rs, and lay his castle low."--_Thomson_.
"Then palaces shall rise; the joyful son
Shall finish what the short-liv'd sire _begun_"--_Pope_.
"Such was that temple built by Solomon,
Than _whom_ none richer reign'd o'er Israel."--_Author_.
"He spoke: with fatal eagerness we _burn_,
And _quit_ the shores, undestin'd to return."--_Day_.
"Still as he pass'd, the nations he _sublimes_."--_Thomson_.
"Sometimes, with early morn, he mounted _gay_."--_Id._
"'I've lost a day'--the prince who nobly cried,
_Had been_ an emperor without his crown."--_Young_.
FIGURE V.--HYPERBATON.
"Such resting found _the sole_ of unblest feet."--_Milton_.
"Yet, though successless, _will the toil_ delight."--_Thomson_.
"Where, 'midst the changeful scen'ry ever new,
Fancy a thousand wondrous _forms_ descries."--_Beattie_.
"Yet so much bounty is in God, such grace,
That who advance his glory, not their own,
_Them_ he himself to glory will advance."--_Milton_.
"No quick _reply_ to dubious questions make;
Suspense and caution still prevent mistake."--_Denham_.
LESSON VI.--FIGURES OF RHETORIC.
FIGURE I.--SIMILE.
"Human greatness is short and transitory, _as the odour of incense in the
fire_."--_Dr. Johnson_. "Terrestrial happiness is of short continuance:
_the brightness of the flame is wasting its fuel, the fragrant flower is
passing away in its own odours_."--_Id._ "Thy nod is _as the earthquake
that shakes the mountains_; and thy smile, _as the dawn of the vernal
day_."--_Id._
"_Plants rais'd with tenderness are seldom strong_;
Man's coltish disposition asks the thong;
And, without discipline, the fav'rite child,
_Like a neglected forester_, runs wild."--_Cowper_.
"As turns a flock of geese, and, on the green,
Poke out their foolish necks in awkward spleen,
(Ridiculous in rage!) to _hiss_, not _bite,
So war their quills_, when sons of _dullness_ write."--_Young_.
"Who can unpitying see the flowery race,
Shed by the morn, their new-flush'd bloom resign,
Before th' unbating beam? _So fade the fair_,
When fevers revel through their azure veins."--_Thomson_.
FIGURE II.--METAPHOR.