sentence being simple. But, according to Rule 1st for the Comma, "A simple
sentence does not, in general, admit the comma." Therefore, this comma
should be omitted; thus, "Short simple sentences should not be separated by
a comma." Or, much better: "_A_ short simple _sentence_ should _rarely be
divided_ by _the_ comma." For such sentences, combined to form a period,
_should generally be separated_; and even a single one may have some phrase
that must be set off.]
"A regular and virtuous education, is an inestimable blessing."--_Murray's
Key_, 8vo, p. 174. "Such equivocal expressions, mark an intention to
deceive."--_Ib._, p. 256. "They are, _This_ and _that_, with their plurals
_these_ and _those_."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 26; _Practical Lessons_, p.
3. "A nominative case and a verb, sometimes make a complete sentence; as,
He sleeps."--_Felton's Gram._, p. 78. "_Tense_, expresses the action
connected with certain relations of time; _mood_, represents it as farther
modified by circumstances of contingency, conditionally, &c."--_Bullions,
E. Gram._, p. 37. "The word Noun, means name."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 14.
"The present, or active participle, I explained then."--_Ib._, p. 97. "Are
some verbs used, both transitively and intransitively?"--_Cooper's Pt. and
Pract. Gram._, p. 54. "Blank verse, is verse without rhyme."--_Hallock's
Gram._, p. 242. "A distributive adjective, denotes each one of a number
considered separately."--_Ib._, p. 51.
"And may at last my weary age,
Find out the peaceful hermitage."
--_Murray's Gr._, 12mo, p. 205; 8vo, 255.
UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING SIMPLE SENTENCES.
"A noun without an Article to limit it is taken in its widest
sense."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 8; _Practical Lessons_, p. 10.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma is here set before the verb _is
taken_. But, according to the Exception to Rule 1st for the Comma, "When
the nominative in a long simple sentence is accompanied by inseparable
adjuncts, or when several words together are used in stead of a nominative,
a comma should be placed immediately before the verb." Therefore, a comma
should be here inserted; thus, "A noun without an article to limit it, is
taken in its widest sense."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 6.]
"To maintain a steady course amid all the adversities of life marks a great
mind."--_Day's District School Gram._, p. 84. "To love our Maker supremely
and our neighbor as ourselves comprehends the whole moral law."--_Ibid._
"To be afraid to do wrong is true courage."--_Ib._, p. 85. "A great fortune
in the hands of a fool is a great misfortune."--_Bullions, Practical
Lessons_, p. 89. "That he should make such a remark is indeed
strange."--_Farnum, Practical Gram._, p. 30. "To walk in the fields and
groves is delightful."--_Id., ib._ "That he committed the fault is most
certain."--_Id., ib._ "Names common to all things of the same sort or class
are called _Common nouns_; as, _man, woman, day_."--_Bullions, Pract.
Les._, p. 12. "That it is our duty to be pious _admits_ not of any
doubt."--_Id., E. Gram._, p. 118. "To endure misfortune with resignation is
the characteristic of a great mind,"--_Id., ib._, p. 81. "The assisting of
a friend in such circumstances was certainly a duty."--_Id., ib._, 81.
"That a life of virtue is the safest is certain."--_Hallock's Gram._, p.
169. "A collective noun denoting the idea of unity should be represented by
a pronoun of the singular number."--_Ib._, p. 167.
UNDER RULE II.--OF SIMPLE MEMBERS.
"When the sun had arisen the enemy retreated."--_Day's District School
Gram._, p. 85.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma here separates the two simple
members which compose the sentence. But, according to Rule 2d, "The simple
members of a compound sentence, whether successive or involved, elliptical
or complete, are generally divided by the comma." Therefore, a comma should
be inserted after _arisen_; thus, "When the sun had arisen, the enemy
retreated."]
"If he _become_ rich he may be less industrious."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p.
118. "The more I study grammar the better I like it."--_Id., ib._, p. 127.
"There is much truth in the old adage that fire is a better servant than
master."--_Id., ib._, p. 128. "The verb _do_, when used as an auxiliary
gives force or emphasis to the expression."--_Day's Gram._, p. 39.
"Whatsoever it is incumbent upon a man to do it is surely expedient to do
well."--_J. Q. Adams's Rhetoric_, Vol. i, p. 46. "The soul which our
philosophy divides into various capacities, is still one
essence."--_Channing, on Self-Culture_, p. 15. "Put the following words in
the plural and give the rule for forming it."--_Bullions, Practical
Lessons_, p. 19. "We will do it if you wish."--_Id., ib._, p. 29. "He who
does well will be rewarded."--_Id., ib._, 29. "That which is always true is
expressed in the present tense."--_Id., ib._, p. 119. "An observation which
is always true must be expressed in the present tense."--_Id., Prin. of E.
Gram._, p. 123. "That part of orthography which treats of combining letters
to form syllables and words is called SPELLING."--_Day's Gram._, p. 8. "A
noun can never be of the first person except it is in apposition with a
pronoun of that person."--_Ib._, p. 14. "When two or more singular nouns or
pronouns refer to the same object they require a singular verb and
pronoun."--_Ib._, p. 80. "James has gone but he will return in a few
days."--_Ib._, 89. "A pronoun should have the same person, number, and
gender as the noun for which it stands."--_Ib._, 89 and 80. "Though he is
out of danger he is still afraid."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 80. "She is
his inferior in sense but his equal in prudence."--_Ib._, p. 81. "The man
who has no sense of religion is little to be trusted."--_Ib._, 81. "He who
does the most good has the most pleasure."--_Ib._, 81. "They were not in
the most prosperous circumstances when we last saw them."--_Ib._, 81. "If
the day continue pleasant I shall return."--_Felton's Gram._, 1st Ed., p.
22; Ster. Ed., 24. "The days that are past are gone for ever."--_Ib._, pp.
89 and 92. "As many as are friendly to the cause will sustain it."--_Ib._,
89 and 92. "Such as desire aid will receive it."--_Ib._, 89 and 92. "Who
gave you that book which you prize so much?"--_Bullions, Pract. Lessons_,
p. 32. "He who made it now preserves and governs it."--_Bullions, E.
Gram._, p. 83.
"Shall he alone, whom rational we call,
Be pleased with nothing if not blessed with all?"
--_Felton's Gram._, p. 126.
UNDER THE EXCEPTIONS CONCERNING SIMPLE MEMBERS.
"Newcastle is the town, in which Akenside was born."--_Bucke's Classical
Gram._, p. 54.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because a needless comma here separates the
restrictive relative _which_ from its antecedent _town_. But, according to
Exception 1st to Rule 2d, "When a relative immediately follows its
antecedent, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be
introduced before it." Therefore, this comma Should be omitted; thus,
"Newcastle is the town in which Akenside was born."]
"The remorse, which issues in reformation, is true
repentance."--_Campbell's Philos. of Rhet._, p. 255. "Men, who are
intemperate, are destructive members of community."--_Alexander's Gram._,
p. 93. "An active-transitive verb expresses an action, which extends to an
object."--_Felton's Gram._, pp. 16 and 22. "They, to whom much is given,
will have much to answer for."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 188. "The prospect,
which we have, is charming."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._, p. 143. "He is
the person, who informed me of the matter."--_Ib._, p. 134; _Cooper's
Murray_, 120. "These are the trees, that produce no fruit."--_Ib._, 134;
and 120. "This is the book, which treats of the subject."--_Ib._, 134; and
120. "The proposal was such, as pleased me."--_Cooper, Pl. and Pr. Gram._,
p. 134. "Those, that sow in tears, shall reap in joy."--_Id., ib._, pp. 118
and 124; and _Cooper's Murray_, p. 141. "The pen, with which I write, makes
too large a mark."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 71. "Modesty makes large amends
for the pain, it gives the persons, who labour under it, by the prejudice,
it affords every worthy person in their favour."--_Ib._, p. 80. "Irony is a
figure, whereby we plainly intend something very different from what our
words express."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 108. "Catachresis is a figure, whereby
an improper word is used instead of a proper one."--_Ib._, p. 109. "The
man, whom you met at the party, is a Frenchman."--_Frost's Practical
Gram._, p. 155.
UNDER RULE III.--OF MORE THAN TWO WORDS.
"John, James and Thomas are here:
that is, John _and_ James, &c."--_Cooper's Plain and Practical Grammar_, p.
153.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma is here used after _James_, or
after _Thomas_, or again after _John_, in the latter clause; the three
nouns being supposed to be in the same construction, and all of them
nominatives to the verb _are_. But, according to Rule 3d for the Comma,
"When more than two words or terms are connected in the same construction,
or in a joint dependence on some other term, by conjunctions expressed or
understood, the comma should be inserted after every one of them but the
last; and, if they are nominatives before a verb, the comma should follow
the last also." Therefore, the comma should be inserted after each; thus,
"John, James, and Thomas, are here: that is, John, _and_ James, and Thomas,
are here."][463]
"Adverbs modify verbs adjectives and other adverbs."--_Bullions, E. Gram._,
p. 97. "To Nouns belong Person, Gender, Number and Case."--_Id., Practical
Lessons_, p. 12. "Wheat, corn, rye, and oats are extensively
cultivated."--_Id., ib._, p. 13. "In many, the definitions, rules and
leading facts are prolix, inaccurate and confused."--_Finch's Report on
Gram._, p. 3. "Most people consider it mysterious, difficult and
useless."--_Ib._, p. 3. "His father and mother, and uncle reside at
Rome."--_Farnum's Gram._, p. 11. "The relative pronouns are _who, which_
and _that_."--_Bullions, Practical Lessons_, p. 29. "_That_ is sometimes a
demonstrative, sometimes a relative and sometimes a conjunction."--_Id.,
ib._, p. 33. "Our reputation, virtue, and happiness greatly depend on the
choice of our companions."--_Day's Gram._, p. 92. "The spirit of true
religion is social, kind and cheerful."--_Felton's Gram._, p. 81. "_Do, be,
have_ and _will_ are sometimes principal verbs."--_Ib._, p. 26. "John and
Thomas and Peter reside at Oxford."--_Webster, Philos. Gram._, p. 142;
_Improved Gram._, p. 96. "The most innocent pleasures are the most
rational, the most delightful and the most durable."--_Id., ib._, pp. 215
and 151. "Love, joy, peace and blessedness are reserved for the
good."--_Id., ib._, 215 and 151. "The husband, wife and children, suffered
extremely."--_Murray's Gram._, 4th Am. Ed., 8vo, p. 269. "The husband,
wife, and children suffer extremely."--_Sanborn's Analytical Gram._, p.
268. "He, you, and I have our parts assigned us."--_Ibid._
"He moaned, lamented, tugged and tried,
Repented, promised, wept and sighed."--_Felton's Gr._, p. 108.
UNDER RULE IV.--OF ONLY TWO WORDS.
"Disappointments derange, and overcome, vulgar minds."--_Murray's
Exercises_, p. 15.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the two verbs here connected by _and_, are
needlessly separated from each other, and from their object following. But,
according to Rule 4th, "When only two words or terms are connected by a
conjunction, they should not be separated by the comma." Therefore, these
two commas should be omitted; thus, "Disappointments derange and overcome
vulgar minds."]
"The hive of a city, or kingdom, is in the best condition, when there is
the least noise or buzz in it."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 171. "When a
direct address is made, the noun, or pronoun, is in the nominative case
independent."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 88. "The verbs _love_ and _teach_,
make _loved_, and _taught_, in the imperfect and participle."--_Ib._, p.
97. "Neither poverty, nor riches were injurious to him."--_Cooper's Pl. and
Pr. Gram._, p. 133. "Thou, or I am in fault."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 136. "A
verb is a word that expresses action, or being."--_Day's District School
Gram._, pp. 11 and 61. "The Objective Case denotes the object of a verb, or
a preposition."--_Ib._, pp. 17 and 19. "Verbs of the second conjugation may
be either transitive, or intransitive."--_Ib._, p. 41. "Verbs of the fourth
conjugation may be either transitive, or intransitive."--_Ib._, 41. "If a
verb does not form its past indicative by adding _d_, or _ed_ to the
indicative present, it is said to be _irregular_."--_Ib._, 41. "The young
lady is studying rhetoric, and logic."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._, p.
143. "He writes, and speaks the language very correctly."--_Ib._, p. 148.
"Man's happiness, or misery, is, in a great measure, put into his own
hands."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p. 183. "This accident, or characteristic of
nouns, is called their _Gender_."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, 1843, p. 195.
"Grant that the powerful still the weak controul;
Be Man the Wit, and Tyrant of the whole."
--POPE: _Brit. Poets_, vi, 375.
UNDER EXCEPTION I.--TWO WORDS WITH ADJUNCTS.
"Franklin is justly considered the ornament of the new world and the pride
of modern philosophy."--_Day's District School Gram._, p. 88.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the words _ornament_ and _pride_, each of
which has adjuncts, are here connected by _and_ without a comma before it.
But, according to Exception 1st to Rule 4th, "When the two words connected
have several adjuncts, or when one of them has an adjunct that relates not
to both, the comma is inserted." Therefore, a comma should be set before
_and_; thus, "Franklin is justly considered the ornament of the New World,
and the pride of modern philosophy."]
"Levity and attachment to worldly
pleasures, destroy the sense of gratitude to him."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p.
183. "In the following Exercise, point out the adjectives and the
substantives which they qualify."--_Bullions, Practical Lessons_, p. 100.
"When a noun or pronoun is used to explain or give emphasis to a preceding
noun or pronoun."--_Day's Gram._, p. 87. "Superior talents and _briliancy_
of intellect do not always constitute a great man."--_Ib._, p. 92. "A word
that makes sense after an _article_ or the phrase _speak of_, is a
noun."--_Bullions, Practical Lessons_, p. 12. "All feet used in poetry, are
reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables and four of
three."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 123. "He would not do it himself nor let me do
it."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 113.[464] "The old writers give examples of
the subjunctive mode and give other modes to explain what is meant by the
words in the subjunctive."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 352.
UNDER EXCEPTION II.--TWO TERMS CONTRASTED.
"We often commend as well as censure imprudently."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, p.
214. "It is as truly a violation of the right of property, to take little
as to take much; to purloin a book, or a penknife, as to steal money; to
steal fruit as to steal a horse; to defraud the revenue as to rob my
neighbour; to overcharge the public as to overcharge my brother; to cheat
the postoffice as to cheat my friend."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, 1st
Edition, p. 254. "The classification of verbs has been and still is a vexed
question."--_Bullions, E. Grammar_, Revised Edition, p. 200. "Names applied
only to individuals of a sort or class and not common to all, are called
_Proper Nouns_."--_Id., Practical Lessons_, p. 12. "A hero would desire to
be loved as well as to be reverenced."--_Day's Gram._, p. 108. "Death or
some worse misfortune now divides them."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._, p.
133. "Alexander replied, 'The world will not permit two suns nor two
sovereigns.'"--_Goldsmith's Greece_, Vol. ii, p. 113.
"From nature's chain, whatever link you strike,
Tenth or ten thousandth, breaks the chain alike."
--_Felton's Gram._, p. 131.
UNDER EXCEPTION III.--ALTERNATIVE OF WORDS.
"_Metre_ or _Measure_ is the number of poetical feet which a verse
contains."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 123. "The _Cæsura_ or _division_, is the
pause which takes place in a verse, and which divides it into two
parts."--_Ib._, 123. "It is six feet or one fathom deep."--_Bullions, E.
Gram._, p. 113. "A BRACE is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or three
lines which rhyme together."--_Felton's Gram._, p. 142. "There are four
principal kinds of English verse or poetical feet."--_Ib._, p. 143. "The
period or full stop denotes the end of a complete sentence."--_Sanborn's
Analytical Gram._, p. 271. "The scholar is to receive as many _jetons_ or
counters as there are words in the sentence."--_St. Quentin's Gram._, p.
16. "_That_ [thing] or _the thing which_ purifies, fortifies also the
heart."--_Peirce's Gram._, p. 74. "_That thing_ or _the thing which_ would
induce a laxity in public or private morals, or indifference to guilt and
wretchedness, should be regarded as the deadly Sirocco."--_Ib._, 74. "What
is elliptically _what thing_ or _that thing which_."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p.
99. "_Demonstrate_ means _show_ or _point out precisely_."--_Ib._, p. 139.
"_The_ man or _that_ man, who endures to the end, shall be
saved."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 73. UNDER EXCEPTION IV.--A SECOND COMMA.
"Reason, passion answer one great end."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 152;
_Hiley's_, p. 112. "Reason, virtue answer one great aim."--_Cooper's Pl.
and Pract. Gram._, p. 194; _Butler's_, 204. "Every good gift, and every
perfect gift is from above."--_Felton's Gram._, p. 90. "Every plant, and
every tree produces others after its kind."--_Day's Gram._, p. 91. "James,
and not John was paid for his services."--_Ib._, 91. "The single dagger, or
obelisk [Dagger] is the second."--_Ib._, p. 113. "It was I, not he that did
it."--_St. Quentin's Gram._, p. 152. "Each aunt, (and) each cousin hath her
speculation."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 139. "'I shall see you _when_ you
come,' is equivalent to 'I shall see you _then_, or _at that time_ when you
come.'"--_Butler's Pract. Gram._, p. 121.
"Let wealth, let honour wait the wedded dame,
August her deed, and sacred be her fame."--_Pope_, p. 334.
UNDER RULE V.--OF WORDS IN PAIRS.
"My hopes and fears, joys and sorrows centre in you."--B. GREENLEAF:
_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 268.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma here separates the second pair of
nominatives from the verb. But, according to Rule 5th, "When successive
words are joined in pairs by conjunctions, they should be separated in
pairs by the comma." Therefore, an other comma should be inserted after
_sorrows_; thus, "My hopes and fears, joys and sorrows, centre in you."]
"This mood implies possibility, or liberty, will, or
obligation."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 113. "Substance is divided into Body,
and Spirit into Extended and Thinking."--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 253.
"These consonants, [_d_ and _t_,] like _p_, and _b, f_, and _v, k_, and
hard _g_, and _s_, and _z_, are letters of the same organ."--_Walkers
Dict._, p. 41: _Principles_, No. 358. "Neither fig nor twist pigtail nor
cavendish have passed my lips since, nor ever shall they again."--_Boston
Cultivator_, Vol. vii, p. 36. "The words WHOEVER, or WHOSOEVER, WHICHEVER,
or WHICHSOEVER, and WHATEVER, or WHATSOEVER are called COMPOUND RELATIVE
PRONOUNS."--_Day's Gram._, p. 23. "Adjectives signifying profit or
disprofit, likeness or unlikeness govern the dative."--_Bullions, Lat.
Gram._, 12th Ed., 215.
UNDER RULE VI.--OF WORDS ABSOLUTE.
"Thy rod and thy staff they comfort me."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 135.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma is here set after _staff_, which,
with the noun _rod_, is put absolute by pleonasm. But, according to Rule
6th, "Nouns or pronouns put absolute, should, with their adjuncts, be set
off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be here inserted; thus, "Thy
rod and thy staff, they comfort me."--_Psalm_ xxiii, 4.]
"Depart ye wicked."--_Wright's Gram._, p. 70. "He saith to his mother,
Woman behold thy son."--_Gurney's Portable Evidences_, p. 44. "Thou God
seest me."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 9; _Practical Lessons_, p. 13. "Thou,
God seest me."--_Id., E. Gram._, Revised Ed., p. 195. "John write me a
letter. Henry go home."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 356. "John; write a
letter. Henry; go home."--_Ib._, p. 317. "Now, G. Brown; let us reason
together."--_Ib._, p. 326. "Smith: You say on page 11, the objective case
denotes the object."--_Ib._, p. 344. "Gentlemen: will you always speak as
you mean?"--_Ib._, p. 352. "John: I sold my books to William for his
brothers."--_Ib._, p. 47. "Walter and Seth: I will take my things, and
leave yours."--_Ib._, p. 69. "Henry: Julia and Jane left their umbrella,
and took yours."--_Ib._, p. 73. "John; harness the horses and go to the
mine for some coal. William; run to the store for a few pounds of
tea."--_Ib._, p. 160. "The king being dead the parliament was
dissolved."--_Chandler's Gram._, p. 119.
"Cease fond nature, cease thy strife,
And let me languish into life."--_Bullions's E. Gram._, p. 173.
"Forbear great man, in arms renown'd, forbear."--_Ib._, p. 174.
"Eternal sunshine of the spotless mind,
Each prayer accepted and each wish resign'd."--_Hiley's Gr._, p. 123.
UNDER RULE VII.--WORDS IN APPOSITION.
"We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union,
establish justice," &c.--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 200.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma is here set after the pronoun _We_,
with which the word _people_, which has adjuncts, is in apposition. But,
according to Rule 7th, "Words in apposition, (especially if they have
adjuncts,) are generally set off by the comma." Therefore, an other comma
should be here inserted; thus, "We, the people of the United States," &c.]
"The Lord, the covenant God of his people requires it."--_Anti-Slavery
Magazine_, Vol. i, p. 73. "He as a patriot deserves praise."--_Hallock's
Gram._, p. 124. "Thomson the watchmaker and jeweller from London, was of
the party."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 128. "Every body knows that the
person here spoken of by the name of _the conqueror_, is William duke of
Normandy."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 33. "The words _myself, thyself,
himself, herself_, and their plurals _ourselves, yourselves_, and
_themselves_ are called Compound Personal Pronouns."--_Day's Gram._, p. 22.
"For who to dumb forgetfulness a prey,
This pleasing anxious being e'er resign'd,
Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day,
Nor cast one longing, ling'ring look behind?"--_U. Poems_, p. 68.
UNDER EXCEPTIONS CONCERNING APPOSITION.
"Smith and Williams' store; Nicholas, the emperor's army."--_Day's Gram._,
p. 17. "He was named William, the conqueror."--_Ib._, p. 80. "John, the
Baptist, was beheaded."--_Ib._, p. 87. "Alexander, the coppersmith, did me
great harm."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 126. "A nominative in immediate
apposition; as, 'The boy, _Henry_, speaks.'"--_Smart's Accidence_, p. 29.
"A noun objective can be in apposition with some other; as, 'I teach the
boy, _Henry_.'"--_Ib._, p. 30.
UNDER RULE VIII.--OF ADJECTIVES.
"But he found me, not singing at my work ruddy with health vivid with
cheerfulness; but pale and dejected, sitting on the ground, and chewing
opium."
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the phrases, "_ruddy with health_," and
"_vivid with cheerfulness_," which begin with adjectives, are not here
_commaed_. But, according to Rule 8th, "Adjectives, when something depends
on them, or when they have the import of a dependent clause, should, with
their adjuncts, be set off by the comma." Therefore, two other commas
should be here inserted; thus, "But he found me, not singing at my work,
ruddy with health, vivid with cheerfulness; but pale," &c.--_Dr. Johnson_.]
"I looked up, and beheld an inclosure beautiful as the gardens of paradise,
but of a small extent."--See _Key._ "_A_ is an article, indefinite and
belongs to '_book_.'"--_Bullions, Practical Lessons_, p. 10. "The first
expresses the rapid movement of a troop of horse over the plain eager for
the combat."--_Id., Lat. Gram._, p. 296. "He [, the Indian chieftain, King
Philip,] was a patriot, attached to his native soil; a prince true to his
subjects and indignant of their wrongs; a soldier daring in battle firm in
adversity patient of fatigue, of hunger, of every variety of bodily
suffering and ready to perish in the cause he had espoused."--See _Key_.
"For thee, who mindful of th' unhonour'd dead
Dost in these lines their artless tale relate."
--_Union Poems_, p. 68.
"Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest:
Some Cromwell guiltless of his country's blood."
--_Day's Gram._, p. 117.
"Idle after dinner in his chair
Sat a farmer ruddy, fat, and fair."
--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 125.
UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING ADJECTIVES.
"When an attribute becomes a title, or is emphatically applied to a name,
it follows it; as Charles, the Great; Henry, the First; Lewis, the
Gross."--_Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 153; _Improved Gram._, p. 107. "Feed
me with food, convenient for me."--_Cooper's Practical Gram._, p. 118. "The
words and phrases, necessary to exemplify every principle progressively
laid down, will be found strictly and exclusively adapted to the
illustration of the principles to which they are referred."--_Ingersoll's
Gram., Pref._, p. x. "The _Infinitive Mode_ is that form of the verb which
expresses action or being, unlimited by person, or number."--_Day's Gram._,
p. 35. "A man, diligent in his business, prospers."--_Frost's Practical
Gram._, p. 113.
"O wretched state! oh bosom, black as death!"
--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 118.
"O, wretched state! O, bosom, black as death!"
--_Singer's Shak._, Vol. ii, p. 494.
UNDER RULE IX.--OF FINITE VERBS.
"The Singular denotes _one_; the Plural _more_ than one."--_Bullions, E.
Gram._, p. 12; _Pract. Lessons_, p. 16; _Lennie's Gram._, p. 7.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma is here set after _Plural_, where
the verb _denotes_ is understood. But, according to Rule 9th, "Where a
finite verb is understood, a comma is generally required." Therefore, a
comma should be inserted at the place mentioned; thus, "The Singular
denotes _one_; the Plural, _more_ than one."]
"The _comma_ represents the shortest pause; the _semicolon_ a pause longer
than the comma; the _colon_ longer than the semicolon; and the _period_
longer than the colon."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 111. "The comma represents the
shortest pause; the semicolon a pause double that of the comma; the colon,
double that of the semicolon; and the period, double that of the
colon."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 151; _Pract. Lessons_, p. 127. "Who is
applied only to persons; which to animals and things; what to things only;
and that to persons, animals, and things."--_Day's Gram._, p. 23. "_A_ or
_an_ is used before the singular number only; _the_ before either singular
or plural."--_Bullions, Practical Lessons_, p. 10. "Homer was the greater
genius; Virgil the better artist."--_Day's Gram._, p. 96. "Homer was the
greater genius, Virgil the better artist."--POPE'S PREFACE: _British
Poets_, Vol. vi, p. viii. "Words are formed of syllables; syllables of
letters."--_St. Quentin's General Gram._, p. 2. "The Conjugation of an
active verb is styled the ACTIVE VOICE; and that of a passive verb the
PASSIVE VOICE."--_Frost's El. of E. Gram._, p. 19. "The CONJUGATION of an
active verb is styled the ACTIVE VOICE, and that of a passive verb the
PASSIVE VOICE."--_Smith's New. Gram._, p. 171. "The possessive is sometimes
called the genitive case; and the objective the accusative."--_L. Murray's
Gram._, 12mo, p. 44. "Benevolence is allied to few vices; selfishness to
fewer virtues."--_Kames, Art of Thinking_, p. 40. "Orthography treats of
Letters, Etymology of Words, Syntax of Sentences, and Prosody of
Versification."--_Hart's English Gram._, p. 21.
"Earth praises conquerors for shedding blood;
Heaven those that love their foes, and do them good."--See _Key_.
UNDER RULE X.--OF INFINITIVES.
"His business is to observe the agreement or disagreement of
words."--_Bullions, E. Grammar_, Revised Edition, p. 189.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma here divides _to observe_ from the
preceding verb. But, according to Rule 10th, "The infinitive mood, when it
follows a verb from which it must be separated, or when it depends on
something remote or understood, is generally, with its adjuncts, set off by
the comma." Therefore, a comma should be inserted after _is_; thus, "His
business is, to observe the agreement or disagreement of words."]
"It is a mark of distinction to be made a member of this society."--
_Farnum's Gram._, 1st Ed., p. 25; 2d Ed., p. 23. "To distinguish the
conjugations let the pupil observe the following rules."--_Day's D. S.
Gram._, p. 40. "He was now sent for to preach before the Parliament."--
_Life of Dr. J. Owen_, p. 18. "It is incumbent on the young to love and
honour their parents."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 83. "It is the business of
every man to prepare for death."--_Id., ib._, 83. "It argued the sincerest
candor to make such an acknowledgement."--_Id., ib._, p. 115. "The proper
way is to complete the construction of the first member, and leave that of
the second understood."--_Ib., ib._, p. 125. "ENEMY is a name. It is a term
of distinction given to a certain person to show the character in which he
is represented."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, p. 23. "The object of this is to
preserve the soft sound of _c_ and _g_."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 29. "The
design of grammar is to facilitate the _reading, writing_, and _speaking_
of a language."--_Barrett's Gram._, 10th Ed., Pref., p. iii. "Four kinds of
type are used in the following pages to indicate the portions that are
considered more or less elementary."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 3.
UNDER RULE XI.--OF PARTICIPLES.
"The chancellor being attached to the king secured his crown."--_Wright's
Gram._, p. 114.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the phrase, "being attached to the king," is
not _commaed_. But, according to Rule 11th, "Participles, when something
depends on them, when they have the import of a dependent clause, or when
they relate to something understood, should, with their adjuncts, be set
off by the comma." Therefore, two commas should be here inserted; thus,
"The chancellor, being attached to the king, secured his crown."--_Murray's
Gram._, p. 66.]
"The officer having received his orders, proceeded to execute them."--
_Day's Gram._, p. 108. "Thus used it is in the present tense."--_Bullions,
E. Gram._, Revised Ed., p. 33. "The _Imperfect_ tense has three distinct
forms corresponding to those of the present tense."--_Id., ib._, p. 40.
"Every possessive case is governed by some noun denoting the thing
possessed."--_Id., ib._, p. 87. "The word _that_ used as a conjunction is
preceded by a comma."--_Id., ib._, p. 154. "His narrative being composed
upon such good authority, deserves credit."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._,
p. 97. "The hen being in her nest, was killed and eaten there by the
eagle."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo. p. 252. "Pronouns being used instead of nouns
are subject to the same modifications."--_Sanborn's Gram._, p. 92. "When
placed at the beginning of words they are consonants."--_Hallock's Gram._,
p. 14. "Man starting from his couch, shall sleep no more."--_Ib._, p. 222.
"_His_ and _her_ followed by a noun are possessive pronouns: not followed
by a noun they are personal pronouns."--_Bullions, Practical Lessons_, p.
33.
"He with viny crown advancing,
First to the lively pipe his hand addressed."--_Id., E. Gram._, p. 83.
UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING PARTICIPLES.
"But when they convey the idea of many, acting individually, or separately,
they are of the plural number."--_Day's Gram._, p. 15. "Two or more
singular antecedents, connected by _and_ require verbs and pronouns of the
plural number."--_Ib._, pp. 80 and 91. "Words ending in _y_, preceded by a
consonant, change _y_ into _i_ when a termination is added."--_Butlers
Gram._, p. 11. "A noun, used without an article to limit it, is generally
taken in its widest sense."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 30. "Two nouns,
meaning the same person or thing, frequently come together."--_Bucke's
Gram._, p. 89. "Each one must give an account to God for the use, or the
abuse of the talents, committed to him."--_Coopers Pl. and Pract. Gram._,
p. 133. "Two vowels, united in one sound, form a diphthong."--_Frost's El.
of Gram._, p. 6. "Three vowels, united in one sound, form a
triphthong."--_Ib._ "Any word, joined to an adverb, is a secondary
adverb."--_Barrett's Revised Gram._, p. 68. "The person, spoken to, is put
in the Second person. The person, spoken of, in the Third
person."--_Cutler's Gram._, p. 14. "A man, devoted to his business,
prospers."--_Frost's Pr. Gram._, p. 113.
UNDER RULE XII.--OF ADVERBS.
"So in indirect questions; as, 'Tell me _when_ he will come.'"--_Butler's
Gram._, p. 121.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the adverb _So_ is not set off by the comma.
But according to Rule 12th, "Adverbs, when they break the connexion of a
simple sentence, or when they have not a close dependence on some
particular word in the context, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by
the comma." Therefore, a comma should be inserted after _So_; thus, "So, in
indirect questions; as," &c.]
"Now when the verb tells what one person or thing does to another, the verb
is transitive."--_Bullions, Pract. Les._, p 37. "Agreeably to your request
I send this letter."--_Id., E. Gram._, p. 141. "There seems therefore, to
be no good reason for giving them a different classification."--_Id., E.
Gram._, p. 199. "Again the kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchantman,
seeking goodly pearls."--ALGER'S BIBLE: _Matt._, xiii, 45. "Again the
kingdom of heaven is like unto a net, that was cast into the sea."--_Ib,
ib._, verse 47. "_Cease_ however, is used as a transitive verb by our best
writers."--_Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 171. "Time admits of three natural
divisions, namely: Present, Past, and Future."--_Day's Gram._, p. 37.
"There are three kinds of comparison, namely: regular, irregular, and
adverbial."--_Ib._, p. 31. "There are five Personal Pronouns namely: _I,
thou, he, she_, and _it_."--_Ib._, p. 22. "Nouns have three cases, viz. the
Nominative, Possessive, and Objective."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 16; _P.
Lessons_, p. 19. "Hence in studying Grammar, we have to study
words."--_Frazee's Gram._, p. 18. "Participles like Verbs relate to Nouns
and Pronouns."--_Miller's Ready Grammarian_, p. 23. "The time of the
participle like that of the infinitive is estimated from the time of the
leading verb."--_Bullions, Lat. Gram._, p. 97.
"The dumb shall sing the lame his crutch forego,
And leap exulting like the bounding roe."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 123.
UNDER RULE XIII.--OF CONJUNCTIONS.
"But he said, Nay; lest while ye gather up the tares, ye root up also the
wheat with them."--FRIENDS' BIBLE, and SMITH'S: _Matt._, xiii, 29.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma is inserted after _lest_. But,
according to Rule 13th, "Conjunctions, when they are separated from the
principal clauses that depend on them, or when they introduce examples, are
generally set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be put after the
word _lest_; thus, "But he said, Nay; lest, while ye gather up the tares,
ye root up also the wheat with them."--SCOTT'S BIBLE, ALGER'S, BRUCE'S.]
"Their intentions were good; but wanting prudence, they missed the mark at
which they aimed."--_Murray's Key_, 8vo, Vol. ii, p. 221. "The verb _be_
often separates the name from its attribute; as war is expensive."--
_Webster's Philos. Gram._, p. 153. "_Either_ and _or_ denote an
alternative; as 'I will take _either_ road at your pleasure.'"--_Ib._, p.
63; _Imp. Gram._, 45. "_Either_ is also a substitute for a name; as
'_Either_ of the roads is good.'"--_Webster, both Grams._, 63 and 45. "But
alas! I fear the consequence."--_Day's Gram._, p. 74. "Or if he ask a fish,
will he for a fish give him a serpent?"--_Scott's Bible, and Smith's_. "Or
if he shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion?"--_Smiths Bible_.
"The infinitive sometimes performs the office of a nominative case, as 'To
enjoy is to obey.'--POPE."--_Cutler's Gram._, p. 62. "The plural is
commonly formed by adding _s_ to the singular, as _book,
books_."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 12. "As 'I _were_ to blame, if I did
it.'"--_Smart's Accidence_, p. 16.
"Or if it be thy will and pleasure
Direct my plough to find a treasure."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 124.
"Or if it be thy will and pleasure,
Direct my plough to find a treasure."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 185.
UNDER RULE XIV.--OF PREPOSITIONS.
"Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand in gender, number, and
person."--_Butler's Practical Gram._, pp. 141 and 148; _Bullions's Analyt.
and Pract. Gram._, p. 150.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the preposition _in_ has not the comma
before it, as the text requires. But, according to Rule 14th, "Prepositions
and their objects, when they break the connexion of a simple sentence, or
when they do not closely follow the words on which they depend, are
generally set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be here
inserted; thus, "Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand, in
gender, number, and person." Or the words may be transposed, and the comma
set before _with_; thus, "Pronouns agree _in_ gender, number, and person,
_with_ the nouns for which they stand."]
"In the first two examples the antecedent is _person_, or something
equivalent; in the last it is _thing_."--_Butler_, ib., p. 53. "In what
character he was admitted is unknown."--_Ib._, p. 55. "To what place he was
going is not known."--_Ib._, p. 55. "In the preceding examples _John,
Cæsar_, and _James_ are the subjects."--_Ib._, p. 59. "_Yes_ is generally
used to denote assent in _the_ answer to a question."--_Ib._, p. 120.
"_That_ in its origin is the passive participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb
_thean, to take_"--_Ib._, p. 127. "But in all these sentences _as_ and _so_
are _adverbs_."--_Ib._, p. 127. "After an interjection or exclamatory
sentence is placed the mark of exclamation."--_Blair's Gram._, p. 116.
"Intransitive verbs from their nature can have no distinction of
voice."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 30. "To the inflection of verbs belong
Voices, Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons."--_Id._, ib., p. 33; _Pract.
Lessons_, p. 41. "_As_ and _so_ in the antecedent member of a comparison
are properly adverbs."--_Id., E. Gram._, p. 113. "In the following Exercise
point out the words in apposition."--_Id., P. Lessons_, p. 103. "In the
following Exercise point out the noun or pronoun denoting the possessor."--
_Id., ib._, p. 105. "_Its_ is not found in the Bible except by
misprint."--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 68. "No one's interest is concerned
except mine."--_Ib._, p. 70. "In most of the modern languages there are
four concords."--_St. Quentin's Gen. Gram._, p. 143. "In illustration of
these remarks let us suppose a case."--_Hart's Gram._, p. 104. "On the
right management of the emphasis depends the life of pronunciation."--
_Ib._, p. 172; _Murray's_, 8vo, p. 242.
UNDER RULE XV.--OF INTERJECTIONS.
"Behold he is in the desert."--SCOTT'S BIBLE: _Matt._, xxiv, 26.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the interjection _Behold_, which has usually
a comma after it in Scripture, has here no point. But, according to Rule
15th, "Interjections that require a pause, though more commonly emphatic
and followed by the ecphoneme, are sometimes set off by the comma." In this
instance, a comma should be used; thus, "Behold, he is in the
desert."--_Common Bible_.]
"And Lot said unto them, Oh not so my Lord."--SCOTT'S BIBLE: _Gen._, xix,
18. "Oh let me escape thither, (is it not a little one?) and my soul shall
live."--SCOTT: _Gen._, xix, 20. "Behold! I come quickly.--BIBLE."--_Day's
Gram._, p. 74. "Lo! I am with you always."--_Day's Gram._, pp. 10 and 73.
"And lo! I am with you always."--_Ib._, pp. 78 and 110. "And lo, I am with
you alway."--SCOTT'S BIBLE, and BRUCE'S: _Matt._, xxviii, 20. "Ha! ha! ha!
how laughable that is."--_Bullions, Pract. Les._, p. 83. "Interjections of
_Laughter_,--Ha! he! hi! ho!"--_Wright's Gram._, p. 121.
UNDER RULE XVI.--OF WORDS REPEATED.
"Lend lend your wings! I mount! I fly!"--_Example varied_.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the repeated word _lend_ has here no comma.
But, according to Rule 16th, "A word emphatically repeated, is generally
set off by the comma." In this instance, a comma is required after the
former _lend_, but not after the latter; thus,
"Lend, lend your wings! I mount! I fly!"--_Pope's Poems_, p. 317.
]
"To bed to bed to bed. There is a knocking at the gate. Come come come.
What is done cannot be undone. To bed to bed to bed."--See _Burgh's
Speaker_, p. 130. "I will roar, that the duke shall cry, Encore encore let
him roar let him roar once more once more."--See ib., p. 136.
"Vital spark of heav'nly flame,
Quit oh quit this mortal frame."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 126.
"Vital spark of heav'nly flame,
Quit, oh quit, this mortal frame!"--_Bullions, E. Gr._, p. 172.
"O the pleasing pleasing Anguish,
When we love, and when we languish."--_Ward's Gram._, p. 161.
"Praise to God immortal praise
For the love that crowns our days!"--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 124.
UNDER RULE XVII.--OF DEPENDENT QUOTATIONS.
"Thus, of an infant, we say '_It_ is a lovely creature.'"--_Bullions, Prin.
of E. Gram._, p. 12.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because no comma is here inserted between _say_ and
the citation which follows. But, according to Rule 17th, "A quotation,
observation, or description, when it is introduced in close dependence on a
verb, (as, _say, reply, cry_, or the like.) is generally separated from the
rest of the sentence by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be put after
_say_; as, "Thus, of an infant, we say, '_It_ is a lovely creature.'"]
"No being can state a falsehood in saying _I am_; for no one can utter it,
if it is not true."--_Cardell's Gram._, 18mo, p. 118. "I know they will cry
out against this and say 'should he pay, means if he should pay.'"--_O. B.
Peirce's Gram._, p. 352. "For instance, when we say '_the house is
building_,' the advocates of the new theory ask, 'building _what_?' We
might ask in turn, when you say 'the field ploughs well,' ploughs _what_?
'Wheat sells well,' sells _what_? If _usage_ allows us to say 'wheat
_sells_ at a dollar' in a sense that is not active, why may it not also
allow us to say 'wheat _is selling_ at a dollar' in a sense that is not
active?"--_Hart's English Gram._, p. 76. "_Man_ is accountable, equals
_mankind_ are accountable."--_S. Barrett's Revised Gram._, p. 37. "Thus,
when we say 'He may be reading,' _may_ is the real verb; the other parts
are verbs by name only."--_Smart's English Accidence_, p. 8. "Thus we say
_an apple, an hour_, that two vowel sounds may not come together."--_Ib._,
p. 27. "It would be as improper to say _an unit_, as to say _an youth_; to
say _an one_, as to say _an wonder_."--_Ib._, p. 27. "When we say 'He died
for the truth,' _for_ is a preposition."--_Ib._, p. 28. "We do not say 'I
might go yesterday,' but 'I might have gone yesterday.'"--_Ib._, p. 11. "By
student, we understand one who has by matriculation acquired the rights of
academical citizenship; but, by bursché, we understand one who has already
spent a certain time at the university."--_Howitt's Student-Life in
Germany_, p. 27.
SECTION II.--THE SEMICOLON.
The Semicolon is used to separate those parts of a compound sentence, which
are neither so closely connected as those which are distinguished by the
comma, nor so little dependent as those which require the colon.
RULE I.--COMPLEX MEMBERS.
When two or more complex members, or such clauses as require the comma in
themselves, are constructed into a period, they are generally separated by
the semicolon: as, "In the regions inhabited by angelic natures, unmingled
felicity forever blooms; joy flows there with a perpetual and abundant
stream, nor needs any mound to check its course."--_Carter_. "When the
voice rises, the gesture naturally ascends; and when the voice makes the
falling inflection, or lowers its pitch, the gesture follows it by a
corresponding descent; and, in the level and monotonous pronunciation of
the voice, the gesture seems to observe a similar limitation, by moving
rather in the horizontal direction, without much varying its
elevation."--_Comstock's Elocution_, p. 107.
"The wide, the unbounded prospect lies before me;
But shadows, clouds, and darkness, rest upon it."--_Addison_.
RULE II.--SIMPLE MEMBERS.
When two or more simple members, or such clauses as complete their sense
without subdivision, are constructed into a period; if they require a pause
greater than that of the comma, they are usually separated by the
semicolon: as, "Straws swim upon the surface; but pearls lie at the
bottom."--_Murray's Gram._, p. 276. "Every thing grows old; every thing
passes away; every thing disappears."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 115. "Alexander
asked them the distance of the Persian capital; what forces the king of
Persia could bring into the field; what the Persian government was; what
was the character of the king; how he treated his enemies; what were the
most direct ways into Persia."--_Whelpley's Lectures_, p. 175.
"A longer care man's helpless kind demands;
That longer care contracts more lasting bands."--_Pope_.
RULE III.--OF APPOSITION, &C.
Words in apposition, in disjunct pairs, or in any other construction, if
they require a pause greater than that of the comma, and less than that of
the colon, may be separated by the semicolon: as, "Pronouns have three
cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."--_Murray's
Gram._, p. 51. "Judge, judgement; lodge, lodgement; acknowledge,
acknowledgement."--_Butler's Gram._, p. 11. "Do not the eyes discover
humility, pride; cruelty, compassion; reflection, dissipation; kindness,
resentment?"--_Sheridan's Elocution_, p. 159. "This rule forbids parents to
lie to children, and children to parents; instructors to pupils, and pupils
to instructors; the old to the young, and the young to the old; attorneys
to jurors, and jurors to attorneys; buyers to sellers, and sellers to
buyers."--_Wayland's Moral Science_, p. 304.
"_Make, made; have, had; pay, paid; say, said; leave, left;
Dream, dreamt; mean, meant; reave_ and _bereave_ have _reft_."
--_Ward's Gr._, p. 66.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
FALSE PUNCTUATION.--ERRORS CONCERNING THE SEMICOLON.
UNDER RULE I.--OF COMPLEX MEMBERS.
"The buds spread into leaves, and the blossoms swell to fruit, but they
know not how they grow, nor who causes them to spring up from the bosom of
the earth."--_Day's E. Gr._, p. 72.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the two chief members which compose this
period, are separated only by the comma after "_fruit_." But, according to
Rule 1st for the Semicolon, "When two or more complex members, or such
clauses as require the comma in themselves, are constructed into a period,
they are generally separated by the semicolon." Therefore, the pause after
"_fruit_" should be marked by a semicolon.]
"But he used his eloquence chiefly against Philip, king of Macedon, and, in
several orations, he stirred up the Athenians to make war against
him."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 84. "For the sake of euphony, the _n_ is
dropped before a consonant, and because most words begin with a consonant,
this of course is its more common form.'"--_Ib._, p. 192. "But if I say
'Will _a_ man be able to carry this burden?' it is manifest the idea is
entirely changed, the reference is not to number, but to the species, and
the answer might be 'No; but a horse will.'"--_Ib._, p. 193. "In direct
discourse, a noun used by a speaker or writer to designate himself, is said
to be of the _first_ person--used to designate the person addressed, it is
said to be of the _second_ person, and when used to designate a person or
thing spoken of, it is said to be of the _third_ person."--_Ib._, p. 195.
"Vice stings us, even in our pleasures, but virtue consoles us, even in our
pains."--_Day's Gram._, p. 84. "Vice is infamous though in a prince, and
virtue honorable though in a peasant."--_Ib._, p. 72. "Every word that is
the name of a person or thing, is a _Noun_, because 'A noun is the name of
any person, place, or thing.'"--_Bullions, Pract. Les._, p. 83.
"This is the sword, with which he did the deed,
And that the shield by which he was defended."--_Bucke's Gram._, p. 56.
UNDER RULE II.--OF SIMPLE MEMBERS.
"A deathlike paleness was diffused over his countenancee [sic--KTH], a
chilling terror convulsed his frame; his voice burst out at intervals into
broken accents."--_Principles of Eloquence_, p. 73.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the first pause in this sentence is not
marked by a suitable point. But, according to Rule 2d for the Semicolon,
"When two or more simple members, or such clauses as complete their sense
without subdivision, are constructed into a period; if they require a pause
greater than that of the comma, they are usually separated by the
semicolon." Therefore, the comma after "_countenance_" should be changed to
a semicolon.]
"The Lacedemonians never traded--they knew no luxury--they lived in houses
built of rough materials--they lived at public tables--fed on black broth,
and despised every thing effeminate or luxurious."--_Whelpley's Lectures_,
p. 167. "Government is the agent. Society is the principal."--_Wayland's
Moral Science_, 1st Ed., p. 377. "The essentials of speech were anciently
supposed to be sufficiently designated by the _Noun_ and the _Verb_, to
which was subsequently added, the _Conjunction_"--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p.
191. "The first faint gleamings of thought in its mind are but the
reflections from the parents' own intellect,--the first manifestations of
temperament are from the contagious parental fountain,--the first
aspirations of soul are but the warmings and promptings of the parental
spirit."--_Jocelyn's Prize Essay_, p. 4. "_Older_ and _oldest_ refer to
maturity of age, _elder_ and _eldest_ to priority of right by birth.
_Farther_ and _farthest_ denote place or distance: _Further_ and
_furthest_, quantity or addition."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 148. "Let the
divisions be _natural_, such as obviously suggest themselves to the mind,
and as may aid your main design, and be easily remembered."--_Goldsbury's
Manual of Gram._, p. 91.
"Gently make haste, of labour not afraid:
A hundred times consider what you've said."--_Dryden's Art of Poetry_.
UNDER RULE III.--OF APPOSITION, &c.
(1.) "Adjectives are divided into two classes: _Adjectives denoting
quality_, and _Adjectives denoting number_."--_Frost's Practical Gram._, p.
31.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the colon after the word "_classes_," is not
the most suitable sign of the pause required. But according to Rule 3d for
the Semicolon, "Words in apposition, in disjunct pairs, or in any other
construction if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, and
less than that of the colon, maybe separated by the semicolon." In this
case, the semicolon should have been preferred to the colon.]
(2.) "There are two classes of adjectives--_qualifying_ adjectives, and
_limiting_ adjectives."--_Butler's Practical Gram._, p. 33. (3.) "There are
three Genders, the _Masculine_, the _Feminine_, and the _Neuter_."--
_Frost's Pract. Gram._, p. 51; _Hiley's Gram._, p. 12; _Alger's_, 16; _S.
Putnam's_, 14: _Murray's_, 8vo, 37; _and others_. (4.) "There are three
genders: the MASCULINE, the FEMININE, and the NEUTER."--_Murray's Gram._,
12mo. p. 39; _Jaudon's_, 25. (5.) "There are three genders: The
_Masculine_, the _Feminine_, and the _Neuter_."--_Hendrick's Gram._, p. 15.
(6.) "The Singular denotes ONE, and the Plural MORE THAN ONE."--_Hart's
Gram._, p. 40. (7.) "There are three Cases viz., the _Nominative_, the
_Possessive_, and the _Objective_"--_Hendrick's Gram._, p. 7. (8.) "Nouns
have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."--
_Kirkham's Gram._, p. 41. (9.) "In English, nouns have three cases--the
nominative, the possessive, and the objective."--_R. C. Smith's New Gram._,
p. 47. (10.) "Grammar is divided into four parts, namely, ORTHOGRAPHY,
ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, PROSODY."--_Ib._, p. 41. (11) "It is divided into four
parts, viz. ORTHOGRAPHY, ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, and PROSODY."--_L. Murray's
Grammars all; T. Smith's Gram._, p. 5. (12.) "It is divided into four
parts: viz. Orthography--Etymology--Syntax--Prosody."--_Bucke's Gram._, p.
3. (13.) "It is divided into four parts, namely, Orthography. Etymology,
Syntax and Prosody."--_Day's Gram._, p. 5. (14.) "It is divided into four
parts: viz. _Orthography, Etymology, Syntax_ and _Prosody_."--_Hendrick's
Gram._, p. 11. (15.) "Grammar is divided into four parts: viz. Orthography,
Etymology. Syntax and Prosody."--_Chandler's Gram._, p, 13. (16.) "It is
divided into four parts: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and
Prosody."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pract. Gram._, p. 1; _Frost's Pract. Gram._,
19. (17.) "English grammar has been usually divided into four parts, viz:
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody."--_Nutting's Gram._, p. 13.
(18.) "Temperance leads to happiness, intemperance to misery."--_Hiley's
Gram._, p. 137 _Hart's_, 180. (19.) "A friend exaggerates a man's virtues,
an enemy his crimes."--_Hiley's Gram._, p. 137 (20.) "A friend exaggerates
a man's virtues: an enemy his crimes."--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo., p. 325
(21.) "Many writers use a _plural noun_ after the second of two numeral
adjectives, thus, 'The first and second pages are torn.'"--_Bullions, E.
Gram._, 5th Ed., p. 145 (22.) "Of these, the Latin has six, the Greek,
five, the German, four, the Saxon, six, the French, three, &c."--_Id.,
ib._, p. 196.
"In (_ing_) it ends, when _doing_ is express'd,
In _d, t, n_, when _suffering's_ confess'd."
--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 93.
MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.
"In old books _i_ is often used for _j, v_ for _u, vv_ for _w_, and _ii_ or
_ij_ for _y_."--_Hart's E. Gram._, p. 22. "The forming of letters into
words and syllables is also called _Spelling_."--_Ib._, p. 21. "Labials are
formed chiefly by the _lips_, dentals by the _teeth_, palatals by the
_palate_, gutturals by the _throat_, nasals by the _nose_, and linguals by
the _tongue_."--_Ib._, p. 25. "The labials are _p, b, f, v_; the dentals
_t, d, s, z_; the palatals _g_ soft and _j_; the gutturals _k, q_, and _c_
and _g_ hard; the nasals _m_ and _n_; and the linguals _l_ and
_r_."--_Ib._, p. 25. "Thus, 'the man _having finished_ his letter, will
carry it to the post office.'"--_Ib._, p. 75. "Thus, in the sentence 'he
had a dagger _concealed_ under his cloak,' _concealed_ is passive,
signifying _being_ concealed; but in the former combination, it goes to
make up a form, the force of which is active."--_Ib._, p. 75. "Thus, in
Latin, 'he had concealed the dagger' would be '_pugionem abdiderat_;' but
'he had the dagger concealed' would be '_pugionem abditum habebat_.'"--
_Ib._, p. 75. "_Here_, for instance, means 'in this place,' _now_, 'at this
time,' &c."--_Ib._, p. 90. "Here _when_ both declares the _time_ of the
action, and so is an adverb, and also _connects_ the two verbs, and so is a
conjunction."--_Ib._, p. 91. "These words were all no doubt originally
other parts of speech, viz.: verbs, nouns, and adjectives."--_Ib._, p. 92.
"The principal parts of a sentence are the subject, the attribute, and the
object, in other words the nominative, the verb, and the objective."--
_Ib._, p. 104. "Thus, the adjective is connected with the noun, the adverb
with the verb or adjective, pronouns with their antecedents, &c."--_Ib._,
p. 104. "_Between_ refers to two, _among_ to more than two."--_Ib._, p.
120. "_At_ is used after a verb of _rest, to_ after a verb of
motion."--_Ib._, p. 120. "Verbs are of three kinds, Active, Passive, and
Neuter."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 19; _Bullions, Prin._, 2d Ed., p. 29 "Verbs
are divided into two classes: Transitive and Intransitive."--_Hendrick's
Gram._, p. 28 "The Parts of Speech in the English language are nine, viz.
The Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition.
Interjection and Conjunction."--_Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram._, p. 7 "Of
these the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb are declined, the rest are
indeclinable."--_Id., ib._, p. 7; _Practical Lessons_, p. 9. "The first
expression is called the 'Active form.' The second the 'Passive
form.'"--_Welds Gram._, 2d Ed., p. 83; Abridged, p. 66.
"O 'tis a godlike privilege to save,
And he that scorns it is himself a slave."--_Cowper_, Vol. i., p. 123
SECTION III.--THE COLON.
The Colon is used to separate those parts of a compound sentence, which are
neither so closely connected as those which are distinguished by the
semicolon, nor so little dependent as those which require the period.
RULE I.--ADDITIONAL REMARKS.
When the preceding clause is complete in itself, but is followed by some
additional remark or illustration, especially if no conjunction is used,
the colon is generally and properly inserted: as, "Avoid evil doers: in
such society, an honest man may become ashamed of himself."--"See that moth
fluttering incessantly round the candle: man of pleasure, behold thy
image!"--_Art of Thinking_, p. 94. "Some things we can, and others we
cannot do: we can walk, but we cannot fly."--_Beanie's Moral Science_, p.
112.
"Remember Heav'n has an avenging rod:
To smite the poor, is treason against God."--_Cowper_.
RULE II.--GREATER PAUSES.
When the semicolon has been introduced, or when it must be used in a
subsequent member, and a still greater pause is required within the period,
the colon should be employed: as, "Princes have courtiers, and merchants
have partners; the voluptuous have companions, and the wicked have
accomplices: none but the virtuous can have friends."--"Unless the truth of
our religion be granted, a Christian must be the greatest monster in
nature: he must at the same time be eminently wise, and notoriously
foolish; a wise man in his practice, and a fool in his belief: his
reasoning powers must be deranged by a constant delirium, while his conduct
never swerves from the path of propriety."--_Principles of Eloquence_, p.
80.
"A decent competence we fully taste;
It strikes our sense, and gives a constant feast:
More we perceive by dint of thought alone;
The rich must labour to possess their own."--_Young_.
RULE III.--INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS.
A quotation introduced without a close dependence on a verb or a
conjunction, is generally preceded by the colon; as, "In his last moments,
he uttered these words: 'I fall a sacrifice to sloth and luxury.'"--"At
this the king hastily retorted: 'No put-offs, my lord; answer me
presently.'"--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 367. "The father addressed himself to
them to this effect: 'O my sons, behold the power of unity!'"--
_Rippingham's Art of Speaking_, p. 85.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
FALSE PUNCTUATION.--ERRORS CONCERNING THE COLON.
UNDER RULE I.--ADDITIONAL REMARKS.
"_Of_ is a preposition, it expresses the relation between _fear_ and
_Lord_."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 133.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because
the additional remark in this sentence is not sufficiently separated from
the main clause, by the comma after the word _preposition_. But, according
to Rule 1st for the Colon, "When the preceding clause is complete in
itself, but is followed by some additional remark or illustration,
especially if no conjunction is used, the colon is generally and properly
inserted." Therefore, the colon should here be substituted for the comma.]
"Wealth and poverty are both temptations to man; _that_ tends to excite
pride, _this_ discontentment."--_Id., ib._, p. 93; see also _Lennie's
Gram._, p. 81; _Murray's_, 56; _Ingersoll's_ 61; _Alger's_, 25;
_Merchant's_, 44; _Hart's_, 137; _et al_. "Religion raises men above
themselves, irreligion sinks them beneath the brutes; _this_ binds them
down to a poor pitiable speck of perishable earth, _that_ opens for them a
prospect in the skies."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 98; _Lennie's Gram._, p.
81. "Love not idleness, it destroys many."--_Ingersoll's Gram._, p. 71.
"Children, obey your parents; honour thy father and mother, is the first
commandment with promise."--_Bullions, Pract. Lessons_, p. 88. "Thou art my
hiding place, and my shield, I hope in thy promises."--_O. B. Peirce's
Gram._, p. 56. "The sun shall not smite me by day nor the moon by night.
The Lord will preserve from evil. He will save my soul.--BIBLE."--_Ib._, p.
57. "Here Greece is assigned the highest place in the class of objects
among which she is numbered--the nations of antiquity--she is one of
them."--_Lennie's Gram._, p. 79.
"From short (as usual) and disturb'd repose
I wake; how happy they who wake no more!"--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 216.
UNDER RULE II.--GREATER PAUSES.
"A taste _of_ a thing, implies actual enjoyment of it; but a taste for it,
implies only capacity for enjoyment; as, 'When we have had a true taste of
the pleasures of virtue, we can have no relish _for_ those of
vice.'"--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 147.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the pause after _enjoyment_ is marked only
by a semicolon. But, according to Rule 2d for the Colon, "When the
semicolon has been introduced, or when it must be used in a subsequent
member, and a still greater pause is required within the period, the colon
should be employed." Therefore, the second semicolon here should be changed
to a colon.]
"The Indicative mood simply declares a thing; as, He _loves_;
He is _loved_; Or, it asks a question; as, _Lovest_ thou me?"--_Id., ib._,
p. 35; _Pract. Lessons_, p. 43; _Lennie's Gr._, p. 20. "The Indicative Mood
simply indicates or declares a thing: as, 'He _loves_, he is _loved_:' or
it asks a question: as, 'Does he love?' 'Is he loved?'"--_L. Murray's
Gram._, 8vo, p. 63; 12mo, p. 63. "The Imperfect (or Past) tense represents
an action or event indefinitely as past; as, Cæsar _came_, and _saw_, and
_conquered_; or it represents the action definitely as unfinished and
continuing at a certain time, now entirely past; as, My father _was coming_
home when I met him."--_Bullions, P. L._, p. 45; _E. Gr._, 39. "Some nouns
have no plural; as, _gold, silver, wisdom, health_; others have no
singular; as, _ashes, shears, tongs_; others are alike in both numbers; as,
_sheep, deer, means, news_"--_Day's School Gram._, p. 15. "The same verb
may be transitive in one sense, and intransitive in another; thus, in the
sentence, 'He believes my story,' _believes_ is transitive; but in this
phrase, 'He believes in God,' it is intransitive."--_Butler's Gram._, p.
61. "Let the divisions be _distinct_; one part should not include another,
but each should have its proper place, and be of importance in that place,
and all the parts well fitted together and united, should present a
whole."--_Goldsbury's C. S. Gram._, p. 91. "In the use of the transitive
verb there are always _three_ things implied,--the _actor_, the _act_, and
the _object_ acted upon. In the use of the intransitive there are only
_two_--the _subject_ or thing spoken of, and the _state_, or _action_
attributed to it."--_Bullions, E. Gram._
"Why labours reason? instinct were as well;
Instinct far better; what can choose, can err."
--_Brit. Poets_, Vol. viii.
UNDER RULE III.--INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS.
"The sentence may run thus; 'He is related to the same person, and is
governed by him.'"--_Hart's Gram._
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the semicolon is here inserted, in an
unusual manner, before a quotation not closely dependent. But, according to
Rule 3d for the Colon, "A quotation introduced without a close dependence
on a verb or a conjunction, is generally preceded by the colon." Therefore,
the colon should be here preferred.]
"Always remember this ancient proverb, 'Know thyself.'"--_Hallock's Gram._
"Consider this sentence. The boy runs swiftly."--_Frazee's Gram._,
Stereotype Ed. 1st Ed. "The comparative is used thus; 'Greece was more
polished than any _other_ nation of antiquity.' The same idea is expressed
by the superlative when the word _other_ is left out. Thus, 'Greece was the
most polished nation of antiquity'"--_Bullions, E. Gram._ see _Lennie's
Gram._ "Burke, in his speech on the Carnatic war, makes the following
allusion to the well known fable of Cadmus's sowing dragon's teeth;--'Every
day you are fatigued and disgusted with this cant, the Carnatic is a
country that will soon recover, and become instantly as prosperous as
ever. They think they are talking to innocents, who believe that by the
sowing of dragon's teeth, men may come up ready grown and ready
made.'"--_Hiley's Gram._, see also _Hart's_.
"For sects he car'd not, 'they are not of us,
Nor need we, brethren, their concerns discuss.'"--_Crabbe_.
"Habit with him was all the test of truth,
'It must be right: I've done it from my youth.'
Questions he answered in as brief a way,
'It must be wrong--it was of yesterday.'"--_Id., Borough_.
MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.
"This would seem to say, 'I doubt nothing save one thing, namely, that he
will fulfil his promise;' whereas, that is the very thing not
doubted."--_Bullions, E. Gram._. "The common use of language requires that
a distinction be made between _morals_ and _manners_, the former depend
upon internal dispositions, the latter on outward and visible
accomplishments."--_Beattie's Moral Science_. "Though I detest war in each
particular fibre of my heart yet I honor the Heroes among our fathers who
fought with bloody hand: Peacemakers in a savage way they were faithful to
their light; the most inspired can be no more, and we, with greater light,
do, it may be, far less."--_Parker's Idea of a Church_. "The Article _the_,
like _a_, must have a substantive joined with it, whereas _that_, like
_one_, may have it understood; thus, speaking of books, I may select one,
and say, 'give me that;' but not, 'give me _the_;' 'give me _one_;' but not
'give me _a_.'"--_Bullions's E. Gram._. "The Present tense has three
distinct forms--the _simple_; as, I read; the _emphatic_; as, I do read;
and the _progressive_; as, I am reading'."--_Ib._. "The tenses in English
are usually reckoned six. The _Present_, the _Imperfect_, the _Perfect_,
the _Pluperfect_, the _Future_, and the _Future Perfect_."--_Ib._. "There
are three participles, the Present or Active, the Perfect or Passive, and
the Compound Perfect; as, _loving, loved, having loved._"--_L. Murray's
Gram._, 2d Edition; _Alger's_; _Fisk's_; _Bacon's_. "The Participles are
three, the Present, the Perfect, and the Compound Perfect; as, _loving,
loved, having loved_."--_Hart's Gram._. "_Will_ is conjugated regularly,
when it is a principal verb, as, present, I will, past, I willed,
&c."--_Frazee's Gram._, Ster. Ed.; Old Ed. "And both sounds of _x_ are
compound, one is that of _gz_, and the other, that of _ks_"--_Ib._, Ster.
Ed. "The man is happy: he is benevolent: he is useful."--_Cooper's Murray_;
_Pl. and Pract. Gr._ "The Pronoun stands instead of the noun; as, The man
is happy; _he_ is benevolent; _he_ is useful.'"--_L. Murray's Gram._, 2d
Ed. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid the too frequent
repetition of the same word: as, 'The man is happy,' '_he_ is benevolent,'
'_he_ is useful.'"--_Ib._. "A pronoun is a word, used in the room of a
noun, or as a substitute for one or more words, as: the man is happy; _he_
is benevolent; _he_ is useful."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., his Abridg.
of Mur._ "A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of beings, or
things, as: animal; tree; insect; fish; fowl"--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._
"Nouns have three persons: the first; the second; and the third."--_Ib._
"(Eve) so saying, her rash hand in evil hour
Forth reaching to the fruit; she pluck'd, she ate
Earth felt the wound: and nature from her seat,
Sighing through all her works, gave signs of wo,
That all was lost."--_Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram._
SECTION IV.--THE PERIOD.
The Period, or Full Stop, is used to mark an entire and independent
sentence, whether simple or compound.
RULE I.--DISTINCT SENTENCES.
When a sentence, whether long or short, is complete in respect to sense,
and independent in respect to construction, it should be marked with the
period: as, "Every deviation from truth is criminal. Abhor a falsehood. Let
your words be ingenuous. Sincerity possesses the most powerful
charm."--"The force of a true individual is felt through every clause and
part of a right book; the commas and dashes are alive with it."--_R. W.
Emerson_.
"By frequent trying, TROY was won.
All things, by trying, may be done."--_Lloyd_, p. 184.
RULE II.--ALLIED SENTENCES.
The period is often employed between two sentences which have a general
connexion, expressed by a personal pronoun, a conjunction, or a conjunctive
adverb: as, "The selfish man languishes in his narrow circle of pleasures.
_They_ are confined to what affects his own interests. _He_ is obliged to
repeat the same gratifications, till they become insipid. _But_ the man of
virtuous sensibility moves in a wider sphere of felicity."--_Blair_.
"And whether we shall meet again, I know not.
_Therefore_ our everlasting farewell take."--_Shak._, J. C.
RULE III.--ABBREVIATIONS.
The period is generally used after abbreviations, and very often to the
exclusion of other points; but, as in this case it is not a constant sign
of pause, other points may properly follow it, if the words written in full
would demand them: as, A. D. for _Anno Domini_;--Pro tem. for _pro
tempore_;--Ult. for _ultimo_;--i.e. for _id est_, that is;--Add., Spect,
No. 285; i.e., _Addison, in the Spectator, Number 285th_.
"Consult the statute; 'quart.' I think, it is,
'Edwardi sext.,' or 'prim. et quint. Eliz.'"--_Pope_, p. 399.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--It seems to be commonly supposed, whether correctly or not, that
short sentences which are in themselves distinct, and which in their stated
use must be separated by the period, may sometimes be rehearsed as
examples, in so close succession as not to require this point: as, "But if
thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments. He saith unto him, Which?
Jesus said, Thou shalt do no murder, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou
shalt not steal, Thou shalt not bear false witness, Honour thy father and
thy mother: and, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself."--SCOTT, ALGER,
AND OTHERS: _Matt._, xix, 17, 18, 19. "The following sentences exemplify
the possessive pronouns:--'_My_ lesson is finished; _Thy_ books are
defaced; He loves _his_ studies; She performs _her_ duty; We own _our_
faults; _Your_ situation is distressing; I admire _their_ virtues.'"--_L.
Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 55. What mode of pointing is best adapted to
examples like these, is made a very difficult question by the great
diversity of practice in such cases. The semicolon, with guillemets, or the
semicolon and a dash, with the quotation marks, may sometimes be
sufficient; but I see no good reason why the _period_ should not in general
be preferred to the comma, the semicolon, or the colon, where full and
distinct sentences are thus recited. The foregoing passage of Scripture I
have examined in five different languages, ten different translations, and
seventeen different editions which happened to be at hand. In these it is
found pointed in twelve different ways. In Leusden's, Griesbach's, and
Aitton's Greek, it has nine colons; in Leusden's Latin from Montanus,
eight; in the common French version, six; in the old Dutch, five; in our
Bibles, usually one, but not always. In some books, these commandments are
mostly or wholly divided by periods; in others, by colons; in others, by
semicolons; in others, as above, by commas. The first four are negative, or
prohibitory; the other two, positive, or mandatory. Hence some make a
greater pause after the fourth, than elsewhere between any two. This
greater pause is variously marked by the semicolon, the colon, or the
period; and the others, at the same time, as variously, by the comma, the
semicolon, or the colon. Dr. Campbell, in his Four Gospels, renders and
points the latter part of this passage thus: "Jesus answered, 'Thou shalt
not commit murder. Thou shalt not commit adultery. Thou shalt not steal.
Thou shalt not give false testimony. Honour thy father and mother; and love
thy neighbour as thyself." But the corresponding passage in Luke, xviii 20,
he exhibits thus: "Thou knowest the commandments. Do not commit adultery;
do not commit murder; do not steal; do not give false testimony; honour thy
father and thy mother." This is here given as present advice, _referring
to_ the commandments, but not actually _quoting_ them; and, in this view of
the matter, semicolons, not followed by capitals may be right. See the
common reading under Rule XIV for Capitals, on page 166.
OBS. 2.--Letters written for _numbers_, after the manner of the Romans,
though read as words, are never words in themselves; nor are they, except
perhaps in one or two instances, abbreviations of words. C, a hundred,
comes probably from _Centum_; and M, a thousand, is the first letter of
_Mille_; but the others, I, V, X, L, D, and the various combinations of
them all, are direct numerical signs, as are the Arabic figures. Hence it
is not really necessary that the period should be set after them, except at
the end of a sentence, or where it is suitable as a sign of pause. It is,
however, and always has been, a prevalent custom, to mark numbers of this
kind with a period, as if they were abbreviations; as, "While pope Sixtus
V. who succeeded Gregory XIII. fulminated the thunder of the church against
the king of Navarre."--_Smollet's Eng._, iii, 82. The period is here
inserted where the reading requires only the comma; and, in my opinion, the
latter point should have been preferred. Sometimes, of late, we find other
points set after this period; as, "Otho II., surnamed the Bloody, was son
and successor of Otho I.; he died in 983."--_Univ. Biog. Dict._ This may be
an improvement on the former practice, but double points are not
_generally_ used, even where they are proper; and, if the period is not
indispensable, a simple change of the point would perhaps sooner gain the
sanction of general usage.
OBS. 3.--Some writers, judging the period to be wrong or needless in such
cases, omit it, and insert only such points as the reading requires; as,
"For want of doing this, Judge Blackstone has, in Book IV, Chap. 17,
committed some most ludicrous errors."--_Cobbett's Gram._, Let. XIX, ¶ 251.
To insert points needlessly, is as bad a fault as to omit them when they
are requisite. In Wm. Day's "Punctuation Reduced to a System," (London,
1847,) we have the following obscure and questionable RULE: "_Besides
denoting a grammatical pause_, the _full point_ is used to mark
_contractions_, and is requisite after _every abbreviated word_, as well as
after _numeral letters._"--Page 102. This seems to suggest that both a
pause and a contraction may be denoted by the same point. But what are
properly called "_contractions_," are marked not by the period, but by the
apostrophe, which is no sign of pause; and the confounding of these with
words "_abbreviated_," makes this rule utterly absurd. As for the period
"after _numeral letters_," if they really needed it at all, they would need
it _severally_, as do the abbreviations; but there are none of them, which
do not uniformly dispense with it, when not final to the number; and they
may as well dispense with it, in like manner, whenever they are not final
to the sentence.
OBS. 4.--Of these letters, Day gives this account: "_M._ denotes _mille_,
1,000; _D., dimidium mille_, half a thousand, or 500; _C. centum_, 100;
_L._ represents the lower half of _C._, and expresses 50; _X._ resembles
_V._ _V._, the one upright, the other inverted, and signifies 10; _V._
stands for 5, because its sister letter U is the fifth vowel; and _I._
signifies 1, probably because it is the plainest and simplest letter in the
alphabet."--_Day's Punctuation_, p. 103. There is some fancy in this. Dr.
Adam says, "The letters employed for this purpose [i.e., to express
_numbers_.] were C. I. L. V. X."--_Latin and Eng. Gram._, p. 288. And
again: "A thousand is marked thus CI[C-reverserd], which in later times was
_contracted_ into M. _Five hundred_ is marked thus, I[C-reversed], or by
_contraction_, D."--_Ib._ Day inserts periods thus: "IV. means 4; IX., 9;
XL., 40; XC., 90; CD., 400; CM., 900."--Page 703. And again: "4to.,
_quarto_, the fourth of a sheet of paper; 8vo., _octavo_, the eighth part
of a sheet of paper; 12mo., _duodecimo_, the twelfth of a sheet of paper;
N. L., 8°., 9'., 10''., North latitude, eight degrees, nine minutes, ten
seconds."--Page 104. But IV may mean 4, without the period; 4to or 8vo has
no more need of it than 4th or 8th; and N. L. 8° 9' 10'' is an expression
little to be mended by commas, and not at all by additional periods.
OBS. 5.--To allow the period of abbreviation to supersede all other points
wherever it occurs, as authors generally have done, is sometimes plainly
objectionable; but, on the other hand, to suppose double points to be
always necessary wherever abbreviations or Roman numbers have pauses less
than final, would sometimes seem more nice than wise, as in the case of
Biblical and other references. A concordance or a reference Bible pointed
on this principle, would differ greatly from any now extant. In such
references, _numbers_ are very frequently pointed with the period, with
scarcely any regard to the pauses required in the reading; as, "DIADEM, Job
29. 14. Isa. 28. 5. and 62. 3. Ezek. 21. 26."--_Brown's Concordance_.
"Where no vision is, the people perish, Prov. xxix. 18. Acts iv. 12. Rom.
x. 14."--_Brown's Catechism_, p. 104. "What I urge from 1. Pet. 3. 21. in
my Apology."--_Barclay's Works_, iii, 498. "I. Kings--II. Kings."--_Alger's
Bible_, p. iv. "Compare iii. 45. with 1. Cor. iv. 13."--_Scott's Bible,
Pref. to Lam. Jer._ "Hen. v. A. 4. Sc. 5."--_Butler's Gram._, p. 41. "See
Rule iii. Rem. 10."--_Ib._, p. 162. Some set a _colon_ between the number
of the chapter and that of the verse; which mark serves well for
distinction, where both numbers are in Arabic figures: as, "'He that formed
the eye, shall he not see?'--Ps. 94: 9."--_Wells's Gram._, p. 126. "He had
only a lease-hold title to his service. Lev. 25: 39, Exod. 21: 2."--_True
Amer._, i. 29. Others adopt the following method which seems preferable to
any of the foregoing: "Isa. Iv, 3; Ezek. xviii, 20; Mic. vi, 7."--_Gurney's
Essays_, p. 133. Churchill, who is uncommonly nice about his punctuation,
writes as follows: "_Luke_. vi, 41, 42. See also Chap. xv, 8; and _Phil._,
iii. 12."--_New Gram._, p. 353.
OBS. 6.--Arabic figures used as ordinals, or used for the numeral adverbs,
_first_, or _firstly, secondly, thirdly, &c._, are very commonly pointed
with the period, even where the pause required after them is less than a
full stop; as, "We shall consider these words, 1. as expressing
_resolution_; and 2. as expressing _futurity_."--_Butler's Gram._, p. 106.
But the period thus followed by a small letter, has not an agreeable
appearance, and some would here prefer the comma, which is, undoubtedly,
better suited to the pause, A fitter practice, however, would be, to change
the expression thus: "We shall consider these words, 1st, as expressing
_resolution_; and, 2dly, as expressing _futurity_."
OBS. 7.--Names vulgarly shortened, then written as they are spoken, are not
commonly marked with a period; as, _Ben_ for _Benjamin_. "O RARE BEN
JOHNSON!"--_Biog. Dict._
"From whence the inference is plain,
Your friend MAT PRIOR wrote with pain."
--LLOYD: _B. P._, Vol. viii, p. 188.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
FALSE PUNCTUATION.--ERRORS CONCERNING THE PERIOD.
UNDER RULE I.--DISTINCT SENTENCES.
"The third person is the position of the name spoken of; as, Paul and Silas
were imprisoned, the earth thirsts, the sun shines."--_Frazee's Gram._, 1st
Ed., p. 21; Ster. Ed., p. 23.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because three totally distinct sentences are here
thrown together as examples, with no other distinction than what is made by
two commas. But, according to Rule 1st for the Period, "When a sentence,
whether long or short, is complete in respect to sense, and independent in
respect to construction, it should be marked with the period." Therefore,
these commas should be periods; and, of course, the first letter of each
example must be a capital.]
"Two and three and four make nine; if he were here, he would assist his
father and mother, for he is a dutiful son; they live together, and are
happy, because they enjoy each other's society; they went to Roxbury, and
tarried all night, and came back the next day."--_Goldsbury's Parsing
Lessons in his Manual of E. Gram._, p. 64.
"We often resolve, but seldom perform; she is wiser than her sister; though
he is often advised, yet he does not reform; reproof either softens or
hardens its object; he is as old as his classmates, but not so learned;
neither prosperity, nor adversity, has improved him; let him that standeth,
take heed lest he fall; he can acquire no virtue, unless he make some
sacrifices."--_Ibid._
"Down from his neck, with blazing gems array'd,
Thy image, lovely Anna! hung portray'd,
Th' unconscious figure, smiling all serene,
Suspended in a golden chain was seen,"--_S. Barrett's E. Gr._, p. 92.
UNDER RULE II.--ALLIED SENTENCES.
"This life is a mere prelude to another, which has no limits, it is a
little portion of duration. As death leaves us, so the day of judgment will
find us."--_Merchant's School Gram._, p. 76.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the pause after _limits_, which is
sufficient for the period, is marked only by the comma. But, according to
Rule 2d, "The period is often employed between two sentences which have a
general connexion, expressed by a personal pronoun, a conjunction, or a
conjunctive adverb." It would improve the passage, to omit the first comma,
change the second to a period, and write the pronoun _it_ with a capital.
_Judgment_ also might be bettered with an _e_, and _another_ is properly
two words.]
"He went from Boston to New York; he went from Boston; he went to New York;
in walking across the floor, he stumbled over a chair."--_Goldsbury's
Manual of E. Gram._, p. 62.
"I saw him on the spot, going along the road, looking towards the house;
during the heat of the day, he sat on the ground, under the shade of a
tree."--_Id., ib._
"George came home, I saw _him_ yesterday, here; the word him, can extend
only to the individual _George_"--_S. Barrett's E. Gram._, 10th Ed., p. 45.
"Commas are often used now, where parentheses were formerly; I cannot,
however, esteem this an improvement."--See the _Key_.
"Thou, like a sleeping, faithless sentinel
Didst let them pass unnoticed, unimproved,
And know, for that thou slumb'rest on the guard,
Thou shalt be made to answer at the bar
For every fugitive."
--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 222; _Enfield's Sp._, p. 380.
UNDER RULE III.--OF ABBREVIATIONS.
"The term pronoun (Lat _pronomen_) strictly means a word used for, or
instead of a noun."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 198.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the syllable here put for the word _Latin_,
is not marked with a period. But, according to Rule 3d, "The period is
generally used after abbreviations, and very often to the exclusion of
other points; but, as in this case it is not a constant sign of pause,
other points may properly follow it, if the words written in full would
demand them." In this instance, a period should mark the abbreviation, and
a comma be set after _of_. By analogy, _in stead_ is also more properly two
words than one.]
"The period is also used after abbreviations; as, A. D. P. S. G. W.
Johnson."--_Butler's Pract. Gram._, p. 211. "On this principle of
classification, the later Greek grammarians divided words into eight
classes or parts of speech, viz: the Article, Noun, Pronoun, Verb,
Participle, Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction."--_Bullions, E. Gram._,
p. 191.
"'_Metre_ is not confined to verse: there is a tune in all good prose; and
Shakspeare's was a sweet one.'--_Epea Pter_, II, 61. Mr. H. Tooke's idea
was probably just, agreeing with Aristotle's, but not accurately
expressed."--_Churchill's New Gram._, p. 385.
"Mr. J. H. Tooke was educated at Eton and at Cambridge, in which latter
college he took the degree of A. M; being intended for the established
church of England, he entered into holy orders when young, and obtained the
living of Brentford, near London, which he held ten or twelve
years."--_Div. of Purley_, 1st Amer. Edition, Vol. i, p. 60.
"I, nor your plan, nor book condemn,
But why your name, and why A. M!"--_Lloyd_.
MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.
"If thou _turn_ away thy foot from the sabbath, &c. _Isaiah_. lviii.
7."--_Butler's Gram._, p. 67. "'He that hath eeris of herynge, _here he_.
_Wiclif_. Matt xi."--_Butler's Gram._, p. 76. "See General Rules for
Spelling, iii., v., and vii."--_Butler's Gram._, p. 81. "'False witnesses
_did_ rise up.' _Ps_. xxxv. ii."--_Butlers Gram._, p. 105.
"An _explicative_ sentence is used for explaining. An _interrogative_
sentence for enquiring. An _imperative_ sentence for commanding."--_S.
Barrett's Prin. of Language_, p. 87. "In October, corn is gathered in the
field by men, who go from hill to hill with baskets, into which they put
the ears; Susan labors with her needle for a livelihood; notwithstanding
his poverty, he is a man of integrity."--_Goldsbury's Parsing, Manual of E.
Gram._, p. 62.
"A word of one syllable, is called a monosyllable. A word of two syllables;
a dissyllable. A word of three syllables; a trissyllable. A word of four or
more syllables; a polysyllable."--_Frazee's Improved Gram._, 1st Ed., p.
15. "A word of one syllable, is called a monosyllable. A word of two
syllables, a dissyllable. A word of three syllables, a trissyllable. A word
of four or more syllables, a polysyllable."--_Frazee's Improved Gram._,
Ster. Ed., p. 17.
"If I say, '_if it did not rain_, I would take a walk;' I convey the idea
that it _does rain_, at the time of speaking, _If it rained_, or _did it
rain_, in the present time, implies, it does not rain; _If it did not
rain_, or _did it not rain_, in present time, implies that _it does rain_;
thus in this peculiarity, an _affirmative_ sentence always implies a
_negation_, and a _negative sentence_ an _affirmation_."--_Frazee's Gram._,
1st Ed., p. 61; Ster. Ed., 62. "_If I were loved_, and, _were I loved_,
imply, I am _not_ loved; _if I were not loved_, and, _were I not loved_,
imply, I am loved; a negative sentence implies an affirmation; and an
affirmative sentence implies a negation, in these forms of the
subjunctive."--_Ib._, Old Ed., p. 73; Ster. Ed., 72.
"What is Rule III.?"--_Hart's Gram._, p. 114. "How is Rule III.
violated?"--_Ib._, p. 115. "How do you parse 'letter' in the sentence,
'James writes a _letter'? Ans._--'Letter is a noun com., of the MASC.
gend., in the 3d p., sing. num., and _objective case_, and is governed by
the verb 'writes,' according to Rule III., which says. 'A transitive verb,'
&c."--_Ib._, p. 114.[465]
"Creation sleeps. 'T is as the general pulse
Of life stood still, and nature made a pause;
An awful pause! prophetic of her end,
And let her prophecy be soon fulfilled;
Fate drop the curtain; I can lose no more."--_Hallock's Gram._, p. 216.
SECTION V.--THE DASH.
The Dash is mostly used to denote an unexpected or emphatic pause, of
variable length; but sometimes it is a sign of faltering, or of the
irregular stops of one who hesitates in speaking: as, "Then, after many
pauses, and inarticulate sounds, he said: 'He was very sorry for it, was
extremely concerned it should happen so--but--a--it was necessary--a--'
Here lord E------ stopped him short, and bluntly demanded, if his post were
destined for an other."--See _Churchill's Gram._, p. 170.
RULE I.--ABRUPT PAUSES.
A sudden interruption, break, or transition, should be marked with the
dash; as, 1. "'I must inquire into the affair; and if'--'And _if_!'
interrupted the farmer." 2. "Whom I--But first 't is fit the billows to
restrain."--_Dryd. Virg._ 3. "HERE LIES THE GREAT--False marble! where?
Nothing but sordid dust lies here."--_Young_.
RULE II.--EMPHATIC PAUSES.
To mark a considerable pause, greater than the structure or the sentence or
the points inserted would seem to require, the dash may be employed; as, 1.
"I pause for a reply.--None?--Then none have I offended.--I have done no
more to Cæsar, than you should do to Brutus."--SHAKSPEARE: _Enfields
Speaker_, p. 182.
2. "Tarry a little. There is something else.--
This bond--doth give thee here--no jot of blood."
--ID.: _Burgh's Sp._, p. 167.
3. "It thunders;--but it thunders to preserve."--_Young_.
4. "Behold the picture!--Is it like?--Like whom?"--_Cowper_.
RULE III.--FAULTY DASHES.
Dashes needlessly inserted, or substituted for other stops more definite,
are in general to be treated as errors in punctuation; as, "Here Greece
stands by _itself_ as opposed to the _other_ nations of antiquity--She was
none of the _other nations_--She was more polished than they."--_Lennie's
Gram._, p. 78. "Here Greece stands by _herself_, as opposed to the _other_
nations of antiquity. She was none of the _other nations_: She was more
polished than they."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 114. If this colon is
sufficient, the capital after it is needless: a period would, perhaps, be
better.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--The dash does not appear to be always a rhetorical stop, or always
intended to lengthen the pause signified by an other mark before it. As one
instance of a different design, we may notice, that it is now very often
employed between a text and a reference;--i.e., between a quotation and the
name of the author of the book quoted;--in which case, as Wm. Day suggests,
"it serves as a _connecting mark_ for the two."--_Day's Punctuation_, p.
131. But this usage, being comparatively recent, is, perhaps, not so
general or so necessary, that a neglect of it may properly be censured as
false punctuation.
OBS. 2.--An other peculiar use of the dash, is its application to
_side-titles_, to set them off from other words in the same line, as is
seen often in this Grammar as well as in other works. Day says of this,
"When the _substance_ of a paragraph is given as a side-head, a dash is
_necessary_ to _connect_ it with its relative matter."--_Ibid._ Wilson also
approves of this usage, as well as of the others here named; saying, "The
dash should be inserted between a title and the subject-matter, and also
between the subject-matter, and the authority from which it is taken, when
they occur in the same paragraph."--_Wilson's Punctuation_, Ed. of 1850, p.
139.
OBS. 3.--The dash is often used to signify the omission of something; and,
when set between the two extremes of a series of numbers, it may represent
all the intermediate ones; as, "Page 10-15;" i. e., "Page 10, 11, 12, &c.
to 15."--"Matt, vi, 9-14."
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
FALSE PUNCTUATION.--ERRORS CONCERNING THE DASH.
UNDER RULE I.--ABRUPT PAUSES.
"And there is something in your very strange story, that resembles ... Does
Mr. Bevil know your history particularly?"--See _Key_.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the abrupt pause after _resembles_ is here
marked by three periods. But, according to Rule 1st for the Dash. "A sudden
interruption, break, or transition, should be marked with the dash."
Therefore, the dash should be preferred to these points.]
"Sir, Mr. Myrtle, Gentlemen! You are friends; I am but a servant.
But."--See _Key_.
"Another man now would have given plump into this foolish story; but I? No,
no, your humble servant for that."--See _Key_.
"Do not plunge thyself too far in anger lest thou hasten thy trial; which
if Lord have mercy on thee for a hen!"--See _Key_.
"But ere they came, O, let me say no more!
Gather the sequel by that went before."--See _Key_.
UNDER RULE II.--EMPHATIC PAUSES.
"_M_, Malvolio; _M_, why, that begins my name."
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the pauses after _M_ and _Malvolio_ seem not
to be sufficiently indicated here. But, according to Rule 2d for the Dash,
"To mark a considerable pause, greater than the structure of the sentence
or the points inserted would seem to require, the dash may be employed."
Therefore, a dash may be set after the commas and the semicolon, in this
sentence.]
"Thus, by the creative influence of the Eternal Spirit, were the heavens
and the earth finished in the space of six days, so admirably finished, an
unformed chaos changed into a system of perfect order and beauty, that the
adorable Architect himself pronounced it very good, and all the sons of God
shouted for joy."--See _Key_.
"If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign troop
remained in my country, I NEVER would lay down my arms; NEVER, NEVER,
NEVER."--_Columbian Orator_, p. 265.
"Madam, yourself are not exempt in this,
Nor your son Dorset, Buckingham, nor you."--See _Key_.
UNDER RULE III.--FAULTY DASHES.
"--You shall go home directly, Le Fevre, said my uncle Toby, to my
house,--and we'll send for a doctor to see what's the matter,--and we'll
have an apothecary,--and the corporal shall be your nurse;--and I'll be
your servant, Le Fevre."--STERNE: _Enfield's Speaker_, p. 306.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because all the dashes here quoted, except perhaps
the last, are useless, or obviously substituted for more definite marks.
But, according to Rule 3d, "Dashes needlessly inserted, or substituted for
other stops more definite, are in general to be treated as errors in
punctuation." Therefore, the first of these should be simply expunged; the
second, third, and fourth, with their commas, should be changed to
semicolons; and the last, with its semicolon, may well be made a colon.]
"He continued--Inferior artists may be at a stand, because they want
materials."--HARRIS: _Enfield's Speaker_, p. 191. "Thus, then, continued
he--The end in other arts is ever distant and removed."--_Id., ib._
"The nouns must be coupled with _and_, and when a pronoun is used it must
be plural, as in the example--When the nouns are _disjoined_ the pronoun
must be singular."--_Lennie's Gram._, 5th Ed., p. 57.
"_Opinion_ is a noun or substantive common,--of the singular
number,--neuter gender,--nominative case,--and third person."--_Wright's
Philos. Gram._, p. 228.
"The mountain--thy pall and thy prison--may keep thee;
I shall see thee no more; but till death I will weep thee."
--_Felton's Gram._, p. 146.
MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR
"If to accommodate man and beast, heaven and earth; if this be beyond me,
'tis not possible.--What consequence then follows? or can there be any
other than this--if I seek an interest of my own, detached from that of
others; I seek an interest which is chimerical, and can never have
existence."--HARRIS: _Enfield's Speaker_, p. 139.
"Again--I must have food and clothing--Without a proper genial warmth, I
instantly perish--Am I not related, in this view, to the very earth itself?
To the distant sun, from whose beams I derive vigour?"--_Id., ib._, p. 140.
"Nature instantly ebb'd again--the film returned to its place--the pulse
flutter'd--stopp'd--went on--throbb'd--stopp'd again--mov'd--stopp'd--shall
I go on?--No."--STERNE: _ib._, p. 307.
"Write ten nouns of the masculine gender. Ten of the feminine. Ten of the
neuter. Ten indefinite in gender."--_Pardon Davis's Gram._, p. 9.
"The Infinitive Mode has two tenses--the Indicative, six--the Potential,
two--the Subjunctive, six, and the Imperative, one."--_Frazee's Gram._,
Ster. Ed., p. 39; 1st Ed., 37. "Now notice the following sentences. John
runs,--boys run--thou runnest."--_Ib._, Ster. Ed., p. 50; 1st Ed., p. 48.
"The Pronoun sometimes stands for a name--sometimes for an adjective--a
sentence--a part of a sentence--and, sometimes for a whole series of
propositions."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._, 1st Ed., 12mo, p. 321.
"The self-applauding bird, the peacock, see--
Mark what a sumptuous pharisee is he!"--_Cowper_, i, 49.
SECTION VI.--THE EROTEME.
The Eroteme, or Note of Interrogation, is used to designate a question.
RULE I.--QUESTIONS DIRECT.
Questions expressed directly as such, if finished, should always be
followed by the note of interrogation; as, "Was it possible that virtue so
exalted should be erected upon injustice? that the proudest and the most
ambitious of mankind should be the great master and accomplished pattern of
humility? that a doctrine so pure as the Gospel should be the work of an
uncommissioned pretender? that so perfect a system of morals should be
established on blasphemy?"--_Jerningham's Essay_, p. 81.
"In life, can love be bought with gold?
Are friendship's pleasures to be sold?"--_Johnson_.
RULE II.--QUESTIONS UNITED.
When two or more questions are united in one compound sentence, the comma,
semicolon, or dash, is sometimes used to separate them, and the eroteme
occurs after the last only; as, 1. "When--under what administration--under
what exigencies of war or peace--did the Senate ever before deal with such
a measure in such a manner? Never, sir, never."--_D. Webster, in Congress_,
1846.
2. "Canst thou, and honour'd with a Christian name,
Buy what is woman-born, and feel no shame;
Trade in the blood of innocence, and plead
Expedience as a warrant for the deed?"--_Cowper_.
3. "Truths would you teach, or save a sinking land?
All fear, none aid you, and few understand."--_Pope_.
RULE III.--QUESTIONS INDIRECT.
When a question is mentioned, but not put directly as a question, it loses
both the quality and the sign of interrogation; as, "The Cyprians asked me
_why I wept_."--_Murray_.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.--The value of the eroteme as a sign of pause, is stated very
differently by different grammarians; while many of the vast multitude, by
a strange oversight, say nothing about it. It is unquestionably _variable_,
like that of the dash, or of the ecphoneme. W. H. Wells says, "The comma
requires a momentary pause; the semicolon, a pause somewhat longer than the
comma; the colon, a pause somewhat longer than the semicolon; and the
period, a full stop. The note of interrogation, or the note of exclamation,
_may take the place of_ EITHER _of these_, and accordingly requires a pause
of the same length as the point for which it is substituted."--_Wells's
School Gram._, p. 175. This appears to be accurate in idea, though perhaps
hardly so in language. Lindley Murray has stated it thus: "The
interrogation and exclamation points are _intermediate_ as to their
quantity or time, and may be equivalent in that respect to a semicolon, a
colon, or a period, as the sense may require."--_Octavo Gram._, p. 280. But
Sanborn, in regard to his "_Question Point_," awkwardly says: "_This pause_
is generally _some longer_ than that of a period."--_Analytical Gram._, p.
271. Buchanan, as long ago as 1767, taught as follows: "The Pause after the
two Points of Interrogation and Admiration ought to be equal to that of the
Period, or a Colon at least."--_English Syntax_, p. 160. And J. S. Hart
avers, that, "A question is reckoned as equal to a complete sentence, and
the mark of interrogation as equal to a period."--_Hart's English Gram._,
p. 166. He says also, that, "the first word after a note of interrogation
should begin with a capital."--_Ib._, p. 162. In some instances, however,
he, like others, has not adhered to these exceptionable principles, as may
be seen by the false grammar cited below.
OBS. 2.--Sometimes a series of questions may be severally complete in
sense, so that each may require the interrogative sign, though some or all
of them may be so united in construction, as not to admit either a long
intermediate pause or an initial capital; as, "Is there no honor in
generosity? nor in preferring the lessons of conscience to the impulses of
passion? nor in maintaining the supremacy of moral principle, and in paying
reverence to Christian truth?"--_Gannett_. "True honour is manifested in a
steady, uniform train of actions, attended by justice, and directed by
prudence. Is this the conduct of the duellist? will justice support him in
robbing the community of an able and useful member? and in depriving the
poor of a benefactor? will it support him in preparing affliction for the
widow's heart? in filling the orphan's eyes with tears?"--_Jerningham's
Essay_, p. 113. But, in this latter example, perhaps, commas might be
substituted for the second and fourth erotemes; and the word _will_ might,
in both instances, begin with a capital.
OBS. 3.--When a question is mentioned in its due form, it commonly retains
the sign of interrogation, though not actually asked by the writer; and,
except perhaps when it consists of some little interrogative word or
phrase, requires the initial capital: as, "To know when this point ought to
be used, do not say:[,] 'Is a question asked?' but, 'Does the sentence ask
a question?'"--_Churchill's Gram._, p. 368. "They put their huge
inarticulate question, 'What do you mean to do with us?' in a manner
audible to every reflective soul in the kingdom."--_Carlyle's Past and
Present_, p. 16. "An adverb may be generally known, by its answering to the
question, How? how much? when? or where? as, in the phrase, 'He reads
_correctly_,' the answer to the question, How does he read? is
_correctly_."--_L. Murray's Gram._, p. 28. This passage, which, without
ever arriving at great accuracy, has been altered by Murray and others in
ways innumerable, is everywhere exhibited with five interrogation points.
But, as to capitals and commas, as well as the construction of words, it
would seem no easy matter to determine what impression of it is nearest
right. In Flint's Murray it stands thus: "An adverb may generally be known
by its answering the question, How? How much? When? or Where? As in the
phrase, 'He reads _correctly_. The answer to the question, 'How does he
read?' is, '_correctly_.'" Such questions, when the pause is slight, do
not, however, in all cases, require capitals: as,
"_Rosal_. Which of the visors was it, that you wore?
_Biron_. Where? when? what visor? why demand you this?"
_Shakspeare, Love's Labour Lost_, Act V, Sc. 2.
OBS. 4.--A question is sometimes put in the form of a mere declaration; its
interrogative character depending solely on the eroteme, and the tone, or
inflection of voice, adopted in the utterance: as, "I suppose, Sir, you are
his apothecary?"--SWIFT: _Burgh's Speaker_, p. 85. "I hope, you have, upon
no account, promoted sternutation by hellebore?"--_Id., ib._ "This priest
has no pride in him?"--SINGER'S SHAK., _Henry_ VIII, ii, 2.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
FALSE PUNCTUATION.--ERRORS CONCERNING THE EROTEME.
UNDER RULE I.--QUESTIONS DIRECT.
"When will his ear delight in the sound of arms."--_O. B. Peirce's Gram._,
12mo, p. 59.
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because here is a finished question with a period
set after it. But, according to Rule 1st for the Eroteme, "Questions
expressed directly as such, if finished, should always be followed by the
note of interrogation." Therefore, the eroteme, or note of interrogation,
should here be substituted for the period.]
"When shall I, like Oscar, travel in the light of my steel."--_Ib._, p. 59.
"Will Henry call on me while he shall be journeying South."--_Peirce, ib._,
p. 133.
"An Interrogative Pronoun is one that is used in asking a question; as,
'_who_ is he, and _what_ does he want?'"--_Day's School Gram._, p. 21.
"_Who_ is generally used when we would inquire for some unknown person or
persons; as, _who_ is that man."--_Ib._, p. 24. "Our fathers, where are
they, and the prophets, do they live forever?"--_Ib._, p. 109.
"It is true, that some of our best writers have used _than whom_; but it is
also true, that they have used _other_ phrases which we have rejected as
ungrammatical: then why not reject this too.--The sentences in the
Exercises [with _than who_] are correct as they stand."--_Lennie's Gram._,
5th Ed., 1819, p. 79.
"When the perfect participle of an active-intransitive verb is annexed to
the neuter verb _to be_? What does the combination form?"--_Hallock's
Gram._, p. 88. "Those adverbs which answer to the question _where, whither_
or _whence_, are called adverbs of _place_."--_Ib._, p. 116.
"Canst thou, by searching, find out God; Canst thou find out the Almighty
to perfection; It is high as heaven, what canst thou do? deeper than hell,
what canst thou know?"--_Blair's Rhet._ p. 132.
"Where, where, for shelter shall the guilty fly,
When consternation turns the good man pale."--_Ib._, p. 222.
UNDER RULE II.--QUESTIONS UNITED.
"Who knows what resources are in store? and what the power of God may do
for thee?"
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because an eroteme is set after _store_, where a
comma would be sufficient. But, according to Rule 2d for the Eroteme, "When
two or more questions are united in one compound sentence, the comma,
semicolon, or dash, is sometimes used to separate them, and the eroteme
occurs after the last only." Therefore, the comma should here be preferred,
as the author probably wrote the text. See _Key_.]
"The Lord is not a man that he should lie, neither the son of man that he
should repent. Hath he said it? and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it?
and shall he not make it good?"--_Murray's Gram._, 8vo, p. 353; 12mo, 277;
_Hiley's_, 139; _Hart's_, 181. "_Hath the Lord said it? and shall he not do
it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it good_?"--_Lennie's Gram._,
p. 113; _Bullions's_, 176.
"Who calls the council, states the certain day?
Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way."
--_Brit. Poets_, vi, 376.
UNDER RULE III.--QUESTIONS INDIRECT.
"To be, or not to be?--that is the question."--_Enfield's Sp._, p. 367;
_Kirkham's Eloc._, 123.[466]
[FORMULE.--Not proper, because the note of interrogation is here set after
an expression which has neither the form nor the nature of a direct
question. But, according to Rule 3d for the Eroteme, "When a question is
mentioned, but not put directly as a question, it loses both the quality
and the sign of interrogation." Therefore, the semicolon, which seems
adapted to the pause, should here be preferred.]
"If it be asked, why a pause should any more be necessary to emphasis than
to an accent? or why an emphasis alone, will not sufficiently distinguish
the members of sentences from each other, without pauses, as accent does
words? the answer is obvious; that we are pre-acquainted with the sound of
words, and cannot mistake them when distinctly pronounced, however rapidly;
but we are not pre-acquainted with the meaning of sentences, which must be
pointed out to us by the reader or speaker."--_Sheridan's Rhet. Gram._, p.
lvi.
"Cry, By your Priesthood tell me what you are?"
--POPE: _British Poets_, London, 1800, Vol. vi, p. 411.
MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.
"Who else can he be. Where else can he go."--_S. Barrett's Gram._, 1845, p.
71. "In familiar language _here, there_ and _where_ are used for _hither,
thither_ and _whither_."--_N. Butler's Gram._, p. 183. "Take, for instance,
this sentence, 'Indolence undermines the foundation of virtue.'"--_Hart's
Gram._, p. 106. "Take, for instance, the sentence before quoted.
'_Indolence_ undermines the foundation of virtue.'"--_Ib._, p. 110. "Under
the same head are considered such sentences as these, '_he_ that heareth,
let him hear,' 'Gad, a troop shall overcome him,' &c."--_Ib._, p. 108.
"TENSES are certain modifications of the verb which point out the
distinctions of time."--_Bullions, E. Gram._, p. 38; _Pract. Les._, p. 44.
"Calm was the day and the scene delightful."--_Id. E. Gr._, p. 80. "The
capital letters used by the Romans to denote numbers, were C. I. L. V. X.
which are therefore called Numeral Letters. I, denotes _one_; V, _five_: X,
_ten_; L, _fifty_; and C, a hundred."--_Id., Lat. Gram._, p. 56. "'I shall
have written;' viz, at or before some future time or event."--_Id., ib._,
p. 89. "In Latin words the liquids are _l_ and _r_ only. In Greek words _l,
r, m, n_."--_Id., ib._, p. 277. "Each legion was divided into ten cohorts,
each cohort into three maniples, and each maniple into two
centuries."--_Id., ib._, p. 300. "Of the Roman literature previous to A. U.
514 scarcely a vestige remains."--_Id., ib._, p. 312.
"And that, which He delights in must be happy.
But when!--or where!--This world was made for Cæsar."
--_Burgh's Sp._, p. 122.
"And that which he delights in must be happy.
But when, or where? This world was made for Cæsar."
--_Enfield's Sp._, p. 321.
"Look next on greatness. Say, where greatness lies?
Where but among the heroes and the wise."
--_Burgh's Sp._, p. 91.