made no mistakes. The brief review of some of their work will show us
proof to the contrary; but the mistakes were rare exceptions. If, for
instance, a captious critic turns to Peterborough, and points us to the
defective foundations, which have recently required the rebuilding of
the central tower, and the supposed necessity of reconstructing the west
front, all that the case will prove is that our great monastic
architects' work was not always absolutely eternal. "So there was
jerry-building in those days too!" someone exclaims, with a note of
triumph at the dragging down of the great ideals of the past to the
level of the paltriness of the present. If such be the case, we reply,
there were indeed giants in those days, the very "jerry building" of
which rides out the storms of well-nigh seven centuries before revealing
any fatal weaknesses.
In considering these splendid buildings, of which the present century
has happily proved itself no unappreciative heir, it will be of interest
to devote a few lines to the means which were employed to raise funds
for their construction. Several illustrations of the methods employed in
the case of cathedrals and other churches have come down to us. The
story of the foundation of the new buildings at Crowland Abbey in 1112,
exhibits an outburst of popular enthusiasm which irresistibly recalls
the free gifts of the Hebrew people for the building of the first
temple. "The prayers having been said and the antiphons sung," says
Peter Blesensis, vice-chancellor under Henry II., "the abbot himself
laid the first corner-stone on the east side. After him every man
according to his degree laid his stone; some laid money, others writings
by which they offered their lands, advowsons of livings, tenths of sheep
and other church tithes; certain measures of wheat, a certain number of
workmen or masons, etc. On the other side, the common people, as
officious with emulation and great devotion, offered, some money, some
one day's work every month till it should be finished, some to build
whole pillars, others pedestals, and others certain parts of the
walls."
Indulgences, remitting so many days' penance, were sometimes issued to
encourage the gifts of the faithful. Thus in the time of Henry VIII. a
church brief was issued soliciting help towards the repair of Kirby
Belers Church, in Leicestershire, part of which runs as follows:--"Also
certayne patriarkes, prymates, &c., unto the nombre of sixtie-five,
everie one of theym syngularly, unto all theym that put their helpyng
handes unto the sayd churche, have granted xl dayes of pardon; which
nombre extendeth unto vij yeres and cc dayes, _totiens quotiens_."
Sometimes, by way of penance itself, a fine was imposed, which was
devoted to a local building fund. Gilbert, bishop of Chichester, in
certain constitutions promulgated in 1289 rules that every priest in the
diocese who shall be convicted of certain scandalous sins shall "forfeit
forty shillings, to be applied to the structure of Chichester
Cathedral." In modern money this fine would amount to something like
L40. Walter, Bishop of Worcester, also ordained in 1240 that beneficed
priests who dressed unclerically should be fined to the extent of a
tenth of their annual revenue for the benefit of the building of his
cathedral. A yet earlier order concerning laity as well as clergy was
issued by the Witan at Engsham, in Oxfordshire, in the year 1009, which
decides that "if any pecuniary compensation shall arise out of a mulct
for sins committed against God, this ought to be applied, according to
the discretion of the bishop," to one of several pious purposes, of
which two are "the repair of churches, and the purchase of books, bells,
and ecclesiastical vestments."
Another way of raising money was to exact a contribution from church
dignitaries, as a kind of "entrance fee," on their accepting preferment.
William Heyworth, bishop of Coventry, (a see now owning Chester as its
mother city), decreed in 1428 that "every canon on commencing his first
residence should pay a hundred marks towards the structure of the
cathedral, the purchase of ornaments," and other similar expenses.
In 1247, Bishop Ralph Neville, of Chichester, having died indebted to
some of the canons of the cathedral, left by will a sufficient sum to
discharge his obligations. But these ecclesiastical creditors decided
that it should be devoted to "the completion of a certain stone tower,
which had remained for a long time unfinished." The same canons bitterly
complained because the Pope had ordained that all vacant prebends
throughout the country should remain unoccupied for a year, in order
that their revenues might be devoted to the erection of the minster at
Canterbury; whereas they not unnaturally felt that the needs of their
own cathedral had the first claim upon them.
Those churches which contained the shrines of popular saints drew, for
the repair or enlargement of the fabric, no small revenue from the
offerings of pilgrims. The eastern part of Rochester Cathedral was paid
for by the moneys deposited at the tomb of S. William of Perth; and the
large sums given by visitors to the shrine of S. Thomas of Canterbury
materially assisted in keeping the building in repair.
Unquestionably the sums needed for rearing these massive piles were in
most cases given, either in money or in kind, by the faithful; sometimes
the princely offerings of a few wealthy men, sometimes the countless
small gifts of the multitude, have become transmuted into tapering
spire, or ponderous tower, "long-drawn aisle and fretted vault." The
poor, in some instances, as we have seen, voluntarily gave their
labour; in others the hands of the monks themselves raised and cut the
sculptured stones.
In most cases the cathedrals which we now possess are not the first that
have occupied their sites. Some humble building, often reared by one of
the pioneers of the faith, was in the majority of instances the shrine
that first consecrated the spot to the service of God.
It was in 401, during the visit of Germanus and Lupus, bishops of
Auxerre and of Troyes, to aid in exterminating the Pelagian heresy, that
the earliest shrine of S. Alban, a simple wooden oratory, was erected at
Verulam; S. Deiniol built a little stave-kirk, or timber church, at
Bangor about 550; and Kentigern, some ten years later, raised the first
religious establishment at Llanelwy, or S. Asaph; while where now the
ruined Cathedral of Man rears its weather-beaten gables and sightless
windows at Peel, tradition says S. Patrick consecrated S. Germain first
bishop of the Southern Isles in 447.
Many causes, however, combined to sweep away not only all traces of
these earliest churches, but also in many instances more than one more
solidly constructed successor. The growth of architectural taste and
skill made men impatient of the rudeness of their forefathers' simple
fanes; in a surprising number of instances the lightning-flash or the
raging fire destroyed the buildings wholly or in part. The cathedrals of
the north felt more than once the shock of the Border wars; and civil
strife, or religious fanaticism, wrought mischief in many others. Thus
it has come to pass that the centuries have seen four cathedrals in
succession at Hereford, at Gloucester, and at Bangor; and three at a
multitude of places, Canterbury, London, Winchester, Peterborough,
Lichfield, Oxford, and half-a-dozen more.
The incursions of the Danes were answerable for the destruction of
several of the earlier foundations. Canterbury had a cathedral, the most
ancient part of which had been erected, according to tradition, by
Lucius, the first Christian King of the Britons, and afterwards restored
by S. Augustine. To this, about the year 740, Cuthbert, the archbishop,
added a chapel for the interment of the occupants of the see; and Odo,
in the tenth century, enlarged and re-roofed it. But in the days of
saintly Alphege, in 1005, the Danish invaders fell upon the city,
making of the church a ruin, and of its bishop a martyr. A similar fate
befell the metropolitan church of the north. On the site where Paulinus
baptized King Edwin and his two sons into the Christian faith a little
wooden oratory was raised, over which ere long Edwin commenced to build
a stone church, which S. Oswald, his successor, completed. This, after
having been beautified by S. Wilfred, was burnt about 741, but re-built
shortly afterwards by Archbishop Egbert. It was this latter building
which fell before the Danes.
At Ely the religious house founded by S. Etheldreda, which was the
precursor of the modern cathedral, was burnt by the same marauders about
870. Rochester suffered in the same way; and no trace of the church
built, so says the Venerable Bede, by King Ethelbert himself now
remains. Peterborough has been particularly unfortunate in this respect.
The first building here was begun by Peada, King of Mercia, in the
seventh century. In the year 870 the Danes, on one of their forays,
burnt church and monastery to the ground, and massacred the abbot and
all his monks. In 971 King Edgar raised the place once more from its
desolation, but again it was seriously damaged, though not absolutely
destroyed, by the sea-kings shortly before the Norman Conquest. Oxford
was partially burnt in 1002 owing to the same people, but in a different
way. A number of Danes took refuge in the tower of S. Frideswide to
escape the senseless and brutal massacre organised on S. Brice's day in
that year, and the English fired the structure rather than suffer their
prey to escape them.
It will be convenient here, although it may take us in some cases away
from those primitive foundations which so far we have considered, to
glance at the other instances in which war has left its mark upon our
cathedrals. Hereford, lying near the Welsh border, felt the storm and
stress of warfare in 1056. Originally founded at some unknown date in
very early English times, the church at Hereford was rebuilt about 830
by a noble Mercian, named Milfrid, and was repaired, if not actually
renewed, by Athelstan the bishop, who came to the see in 1012. Ten years
before the Norman Conquest, however, Griffith, prince of Wales, at the
head of a combined host of Welsh and Irish, crossed the marches and
plundered and burnt the church and city. In the reign of Hardicanute
(1039-1041) the citizens of Worcester, having risen against the payment
of the ship-tax, were severely punished, a military force being sent to
occupy their city. So thoroughly did it carry out the work of inflicting
discipline on the malcontents, that the church, amongst other buildings,
was left in ruins. The original church at Gloucester was built in 681,
as part of a conventual establishment; this was destroyed, and, after an
interval, rebuilt by Beornulph, King of Mercia, sometime previous to
825. This church was looted by the Danes, but restored by S. Edward the
Confessor. In the year after the Conquest, Gloucester was occupied by
the Normans, whose entrance was not, however, accepted quite peaceably
by the citizens; and in the tumult the Cathedral was seriously injured
by the one or the other party. Exeter provides us with another case.
Here was a cathedral in early English days, which lasted until the time
of Bishop William Warelwast, who began the erection of a new one in
1112. During the stormy reign of Stephen, the city was held for Matilda
and had to stand a siege by the King, to the great damage of the still
unfinished church. To quote one further illustration only: Bangor, whose
wooden church was replaced by a stone one somewhere about 1102, suffered
grievously in the wars waged between Henry III. of England, and David,
Prince of Wales, an episode in which was the destruction of the
Cathedral.
[Illustration: _From a photo by Albert F. Coe, Norwich_
NORWICH CATHEDRAL.]
The conquest of England by William, Duke of Normandy, had a vast
influence on the ecclesiastical buildings of the country. On the
continent art had advanced at a pace unknown in this island, and the
plain and massive churches scattered over the land must have seemed very
rude structures in the eyes of the prelates who came in the victor's
train. S. Edward the Confessor, with his Norman predilections, had no
doubt accustomed his courtiers to some aspects of foreign art, and
through his influence the so-called Norman architecture preceded the
Normans in the country; but such instances of it as were to be seen must
have been few, and probably confined to the southern counties.
Scarcely had the Conqueror's throne been secured before his countrymen,
placed in the abbeys and sees of England, began to rebuild, on new and
grander plans, the churches under their charge.
Lanfranc, who ascended the throne of S. Augustine in 1070, set himself
to the work of rebuilding Canterbury Cathedral, not contenting himself
with any enlargement or embellishment of the older fane, but making a
clean sweep of that, and beginning from the foundations. S. Anselm, and
the prior of the monastery, Ernulph, took up the work and enlarged upon
Lanfranc's design, pulling down and re-building the choir. Early in the
next century, namely in 1130, the new Cathedral, completed under the
supervision of Conrad, successor to Ernulph, was solemnly dedicated with
great pomp in the presence of the Kings of England and of Scotland.
[Illustration: RIPON CATHEDRAL.]
Meanwhile, Thomas of Bayeux, who became Archbishop of York in the same
year as that in which Lanfranc obtained his English see, was busy
rebuilding his Minster at York. William of Carilef commenced the
magnificent pile, forming one of the finest Norman churches in
existence, which crowns the Wear at Durham, in 1093; and Ralph Flambard
took up the work three years later, completing it in 1128. London was
deprived of its Cathedral by fire probably about 1088, and the work of
restoration was at once undertaken by Maurice, its Norman bishop. In
1079 Bishop Walkelyn began the erection of a cathedral church at
Winchester, in the place of the old Saxon building which had first been
founded on the conversion of King Cynegils, about 635. In all parts of
the land, east and west, north and south, the builders were at work,
rearing massive temples to the glory and honour of God. The chink of
chisel and the blow of hammer rang everywhere in the ears of the
eleventh century in England. Bishop Herbert Losinga laid the first stone
of Norwich Cathedral in 1096, at which time Remigius of Fescamp had been
some twenty years at work on that of Lincoln, and had passed away,
leaving the completion to others. The new Norman Cathedral of Hereford
was begun by Robert Losinga, who reigned as bishop from 1079 to 1096.
Abbot Simeon began to build the Minster at Ely about 1092; Worcester was
commenced by Wulfstan in 1084; five years later the foundation of
Gloucester was laid; and in 1091 S. Osmund consecrated the church of
S. Nicholas at Newcastle. Other cathedrals which were built, or
rebuilt, at about the same date include those of Carlisle, S. Albans,
Rochester, Chester, Lichfield and Oxford.
Surely never was an age so enthusiastic in building! All these
cathedrals, many still remaining largely as their Norman builders left
them, most retaining many relics of their work, were commenced within
the space of two reigns of by no means great duration, lasting only from
1066 to 1100.
The energy of the time was not, however, exhausted by the fervour of
this outburst. The twelfth century took up and vigorously prosecuted the
tasks handed on to it by the eleventh.
Among cathedrals which were entirely, or almost entirely, rebuilt during
this century we have Chichester, Rochester, Peterborough, Lincoln,
Oxford, Bristol, Southwell, S. David's, Llandaff, and Ripon. In the
first of these a great part of the work was done twice over within this
period. Ralph de Luffa was bishop of the see when the cathedral was
consecrated in 1108; two fires, however, did such serious damage to this
building, the first in 1114, and the second in 1186, that it had
practically to be re-constructed, and was re-dedicated in the year
1199. The Cathedral at Rochester was largely re-built by John of
Canterbury between 1125 and 1137, and like Chichester suffered twice
during the century from the ravages of fire. Indeed, so frequently do we
find mention of conflagrations in the cathedrals in the early mediaeval
days, that it is quite obvious that William I. was fully justified in
taking such precautions against this enemy as the use of the curfew
involved. In more than one instance the cathedral went up in flames as
part only of a fire which destroyed a large portion of the town.
[Illustration: SOUTHWELL MINSTER.]
The undertaking of new work at Peterborough was the result of a similar
cause. In the year 1116 fire destroyed almost the whole church and
monastery, but in two years' time the re-erection had commenced, and was
continued throughout the remainder of the century. The choir was ready
for the resumption of the Divine offices in 1143, but the builders did
not reach the end of their labours until 1237. Re-construction was
necessitated at Lincoln by the occurrence of an earthquake in 1185,
following once more upon a fire which took place in 1141. The stone
vaulting and the western towers were undertaken by Alexander, bishop
from 1123 to 1147; and in 1192 S. Hugh of Avalon, who held the see from
1186 to 1203, began a thorough re-building of the pile. This work marks
an epoch in the progress of architecture in England, as in the choir of
S. Hugh we meet with the earliest examples of the use of the lancet form
of arch to which we can assign a known date. About the middle of this
century a new church, not yet advanced to the dignity of a cathedral,
was commenced at Oxford, and by the year 1180 it was sufficiently
advanced to allow of the translation of the relics of S. Frideswide to
their new shrine. In 1142 was founded the Abbey of Bristol, and its
church was consecrated on Easter Day, 1148, although the completion of
the buildings occupied the attention of the abbots for many years after.
Southwell Minster was also building during the first half of the twelfth
century; Peter de Leia, who became Bishop of S. David's in 1176,
commenced the erection of his cathedral four years later, following the
example of Arban, who entered upon the neighbouring see of Llandaff in
1107, and reared a mother church for his diocese. Finally, Ripon also
saw the masons busily at work almost through the century. First
Thurstan, Archbishop of York in 1114, began the enlargement of the
Abbey Church, and after him Archbishop Roger (1154-1181) entirely
rebuilt it.
But the record of the churches re-built during this century by no means
exhausts the tale of work performed during that time. At Winchester, for
example, in 1107 the central tower fell, necessitating the building of a
new one. Lucy, bishop here from 1189 to 1205, erected a new Lady Chapel
and made other alterations. At Hereford, too, operations were going
forward almost throughout the century, the bishops Reynelm (1107-1115)
and Betun (1131-1148) being especially energetic in pressing them on;
and the closing years of this period saw the rearing of the eastern
transepts. At this time also the beautiful Galilee Chapel was added to
Durham Cathedral; Ely was consecrated in 1106, and towards the end of
the century received its central tower and other additions; and
S. Albans, moreover, had a facade built on its western front by John
de Cella.
The chronicle of the damages by fire during the twelfth century is not
complete without mentioning that S. Paul's, London, which was
re-building during a large portion of that time, was injured by it in
1136; and the same foe destroyed the roof of Worcester Cathedral in the
early days of the century.
The period which our rapid survey has so far covered embraces broadly
the eras of the Norman and of the so-called Early English architecture.
In the thirteenth century the Decorated Style came into being, and with
its rise arose also the desire for greater richness of ornament even in
those churches which had already, to all appearances, been completed. On
all hands, therefore, in this new century, we find the pulling down of
portions of the stern Norman work and the substitution of lighter and
more graceful designs.
The great work of the thirteenth century, however, was begun before the
birth of the more florid style, and shows little trace of the dawning of
its influence. Salisbury Cathedral was begun in 1220, the work
commencing, as was usual, at the eastern end and advancing westward. The
whole was proceeded with continuously, and since its completion no
alteration of any importance has been made in it. Other cathedrals in
England exhibit in almost every case a conglomerate of several orders of
architecture, blended generally with great skill, but necessarily
lacking to some extent in unity of design in consequence. In Salisbury
we have one complete and splendid example of English architecture of the
best period, carried out from beginning to end with unbroken unity of
purpose.
Other churches which then were, or were subsequently to become,
cathedrals, dating in their present form from the thirteenth century,
are those of Lichfield, Wells, Manchester, Bangor, and S. Asaph.
A Norman church had been reared at Lichfield of which very few relics
have survived to the present day, a new building having been begun about
the year 1200, and the work of construction carried on for the major
part of the century, the west front being reached about 1275. Bishop
Joceline was the chief founder of the existing Cathedral at Wells, most
of the previous work having been taken down in his time, and the new
church solemnly dedicated by him in 1239. The Church at Manchester was
probably built about 1220, but the present building is of a later date.
The Cathedral at S. Asaph suffered from the great mediaeval enemy of such
foundations, fire, twice during this period. On the first occasion, in
1247, the troops of Henry III. of England must be held responsible for
the destruction wrought; on the second, in 1282, the outbreak was
probably accidental. Repairs, if not actual rebuilding, took place in
consequence of these injuries towards the end of the century. Bangor
Cathedral was probably also rebuilt about 1291.
Fire played its old part throughout the century in providing work for
the ecclesiastical masons, in other instances besides that referred to
in the Welsh diocese. The choir at Carlisle was rebuilt probably about
1250 and the following years, but had scarcely been fully completed
before it fell in a fire which destroyed a large portion of the city. In
1216, S. Nicholas, Newcastle, was almost destroyed by the same fatal
agency. Worcester Cathedral was again burnt in 1202, and was rebuilt
between then and 1218 sufficiently to be re-dedicated; although the
retro-choir, the choir, the Lady Chapel, and some details were added at
a later time in the same century.
Imperfections in the work of the preceding age were answerable for a
certain amount of loss and consequent re-construction (not seldom
actually a gain) in this. At Lincoln, for instance, the central tower
fell in 1237, and was replaced by the present one, which has been
described as one of the finest in Europe. The east end of Ripon had to
be rebuilt owing to the structure giving way in 1280; and in consequence
again of the fall of the tower, repairs had to be undertaken at
S. David's in 1220.
The popular regard for Hugh, the sainted bishop of Lincoln, led to the
building of one of the most beautiful sections of that Minster, namely
the Angel-choir, erected as a worthy chapel for the shrine of S. Hugh,
between 1255 and 1280. At Hereford, the Lady Chapel was built about the
middle of this century; and at Ely, the presbytery and retro-choir at
about the same date; at Bristol, the elder Lady Chapel probably a little
earlier; at Southwell, the choir between 1230 and 1250; and the choir
also at S. Albans, in 1256.
Several of our cathedral towers, moreover, besides that at Lincoln, date
from the thirteenth century. York, S. Paul's, Chichester and Gloucester,
all had the towers erected during this period.