Fort Moultrie—Edisto Island—Alligators—Savannah—Funeral
Monuments—Augusta—State of Georgia.
The roads of South Carolina being generally very bad, the Charleston
committee resolved to conduct the general by sea to Savannah, where he
had been expected for some time. We embarked on the 17th of March, on
board of an elegant steam-boat, prepared and well provisioned by the
attentions of the committee, and took leave of the inhabitants of
Charleston, who, assembled on the wharf and crowding the vessels,
responded, by their acclamations, to the parting salutations of their
guest. Before losing sight of Charleston, we directed our course towards
Sullivan’s Island, upon which stands Fort Moultrie, which saluted
General Lafayette with all its guns. This fort, commanding the pass by
which the vessels are obliged to enter the port of Charleston, was
defended with extraordinary courage by the Carolinian militia, on the
28th of June, 1776, against the English forces, superior both in numbers
and experience.
The militia were commanded by General Moultrie, who, during the
revolutionary war, sustained the highest reputation for the valour and
ability with which he defended this important post. We afterwards
continued our navigation between the continent and the islands which
border it, and extend as far as Savannah. We landed on one of these,
called Edisto, where General Lafayette was expected; but, as it was
impossible for him to remain there more than two or three hours, the
inhabitants, who were collected at one of the principal proprietor’s,
decided to offer him at once all the festivals they had prepared for
several days. We had, at the same time, the harangue, the public dinner,
the ball, and even the baptism of a charming little infant, to which the
name of Lafayette was given. We then rapidly traversed the island in a
carriage, to join our steam-boat, which awaited us on the side next the
ocean. What we saw of the island, in this short ride, appeared to us
enchanting; the vegetation was particularly striking from its variety;
odoriferous shrubs of the most elegant form, were agreeably interspersed
among large forest trees; and, in the downs which border the sea-shore,
we saw some beautiful palm-trees, which gave to the small dwellings they
shaded an aspect altogether picturesque. This island, which lies at the
mouth of Edisto river, forty miles south-west of Charleston, is twelve
miles in length and five broad. It has been inhabited since 1700.
During the rest of our voyage to Savannah, we coasted the islands of
Hunting, Beaufort, Port Republican, Hilton Head, &c.; and often through
passages so narrow, that our vessel almost touched the land on each
side, and had rather the appearance of rolling on the surrounding
meadows, than of gliding on the water which disappeared beneath us It
was nearly midnight when we passed Beaufort, and all on board were
asleep; but we were soon awakened by the acclamations of citizens, who
were waiting on the shore, and General Lafayette having arisen, yielded
with readiness to their desire that he would land for some moments among
them.
At sunrise, as we approached the mouth of the Savannah river, we began
to see some alligators extended on the shore, or swimming round our
vessel. Our captain shot one, and sent the boat for it. It was about
eight feet long, and we were assured that it was but of a middling size;
some of them extend to twelve feet, and sometimes even, it is said, to
fifteen or eighteen. The size of their body is then equal to that of a
horse. When of this size, the alligator is a formidable animal, from its
prodigious power and agility in the water. Its form is nearly like that
of a lizard; it differs from it only by its cuneiform tail, flattened on
the sides, and which, from the root to the extremity, diminishes
insensibly. Like all the rest of the body, it is covered with a scaly
coat, impenetrable to all arms, even to a musket-ball.[4] The head of an
alligator of the largest size is about three feet; the opening of the
jaws is of the same dimensions; its eyes are very small, sunken in the
head, and covered; its nostrils are large, and so much developed at the
summit, that, when it swims its head at the surface of the water
resembles a large floating beam. Its upper jaw, only, is moveable; it
opens perpendicularly, and forms a right angle with the lower jaw.[5] On
each side of the upper jaw, immediately below the nostrils, are two long
and strong teeth, slightly pointed and of a conical form. They have the
whiteness and polish of ivory, and being always exposed, give to the
animal a frightful aspect. In the under jaw, just opposite these two
teeth, are two sockets proper to receive them. When the alligator
strikes his jaws together, it produces a noise absolutely like that made
by slapping a board violently against the ground, and which may be heard
a great distance.
When, on the morning of the 19th, we arrived in sight of Savannah, we
perceived all the population on the shore, and the militia assembled,
who had waited during several hours. We soon heard the majestic salute
of the artillery, and the acclamations of the people. We replied to them
by a salute from the guns of our vessel, and by the patriotic airs with
which our music caused to re-echo from the shore. To this first feeling
of pleasure caused by the reception of the citizens of Savannah, a
sentiment of painful regret suddenly succeeded. We had to separate from
our travelling companions of South Carolina. Among them were the
governor of this state, several general officers, and some members of
the committee who had received us at Charleston. The governor, faithful
to the laws which inhibited his passing beyond the limits of the state,
resisted all entreaties to induce him to land, and bade farewell to the
general with all the emotion of a child who separates himself from a
parent he is to see no more. Some minutes after, we were in Georgia, at
the entrance of Savannah, where the general was received and addressed
by Governor Troup, in the midst of an eager crowd. The triumphal car and
arches, the acclamations of the people, the wreaths and flowers
scattered by the ladies, the sound of bells and cannon, every thing
proved to Lafayette that though he had passed into another state, he was
nevertheless among the same friendly and grateful people.
A commodious lodging had been prepared in the elegant mansion of Mrs.
Maxwell; thither they conducted General Lafayette with a grand escort.
After he had reposed some moments, the mayor and council of the city
came to compliment him, and the day was terminated by a public repast,
at which the civil and military authorities of the state and of
Savannah, the members of the bar, the clergy, and a great number of
citizens, were present. After the thirteen usual toasts, the company
offered many volunteer toasts, all strongly indicative of the patriotic
and republican character which always distinguishes American assemblies.
General Lafayette replied to the toast addressed to him, by the
following: “_To the City of Savannah_—May her youthful prosperity prove
more and more to the old world, the superiority of republican
institutions, and of the government of the people by themselves.” A hymn
to liberty, to the air _la Marseillaise_, terminated the banquet, and we
returned to our quarters by the light of an illumination which blazed
over all the city.
The next day, Sunday, the general received, at an early hour, the visit
of the French and the descendants of Frenchmen residing in Savannah. At
their head was Mr. Petit de Villers, who spoke in their name, and who,
in a discourse fully expressive of the sentiments of his compatriots
towards Lafayette, portrayed with ardour the benefits of American
hospitality towards proscribed Frenchmen, forced by every kind of
despotism successively to demand an asylum in the United States.
To the visit of the French, succeeded those of the officers of the
different bodies; the clergy came afterwards; at their head was the
reverend Mr. Carter, who, in complimenting the general, felicitated him
above all, that his efforts in favour of American independence had also
resulted in the establishment of religious liberty.
To his acknowledgments, general Lafayette joined the expression of his
satisfaction in seeing America giving so good an example of true
religious liberty to old Europe, which still enjoys a very limited
toleration. “In religious, as in political societies,” added he, “I am
persuaded that the election by the people is the best guaranty of mutual
confidence.”
The citizens of Savannah had for a long time cherished the intention of
paying a tribute of gratitude to the memory of General Greene, justly
considered as the southern hero of the revolutionary struggle; and to
that of General Pulaski, the brave Pole, who, despairing of the cause of
liberty in his own country, came to sacrifice his life in the cause of
American independence. They thought that the presence of General
Lafayette would add to the solemnity of the ceremony, and resolving to
profit by his sojourn at Savannah, obtained his consent to lay the first
stone of the funeral monuments they intended to raise. Consequently,
every thing being ready, they made the proposition, which he accepted
with the more readiness and ardour, as he was gratified to have an
occasion of publicly testifying his esteem for the character of General
Greene, to whom he had been particularly attached.
The ceremony was strongly characterized by the association of those
exalted religious and patriotic feelings, which particularly distinguish
the actions of the American people. Agreeably to the resolution adopted
at a meeting of the citizens, of which Colonel John Shellman was
president, the masonic society, which was charged with all the details
relative to the construction of the monument, formed itself into a
procession on the 21st March, at nine in the morning, and moved to the
sound of music, to the lodgings of General Lafayette. The high priest,
the _king_ and other officers of the _royal_ chapter of Georgia, were
decorated with their finest apparel and richest masonic jewels. Before
them was carried a banner elegantly embroidered. When they marched with
the general, the procession was augmented by the militia and citizens.
On arriving at the site of the destined monument, the troops formed a
line to the right and left to receive the procession between them. The
children of the schools uniformly dressed, and carrying baskets filled
with flowers, which they scattered beneath the steps of General
Lafayette, were already assembled. The people, collected in a crowd
behind them, seemed placed there to protect their feebleness, and to
present them to the nation’s guest. After a silence the most profound
was obtained among the attentive crowd, the masons, and the monument
committee arranged themselves at the west of the foundation, and the
other part of the procession occupied the east. General Lafayette then
advanced to the place prepared to receive the corner stone. He was
surrounded by the grand master, the grand keepers, the chaplain, the
grand priest, the king, and the secretary of the chapter of Georgia, the
governor, Colonel Huger, George Lafayette, &c. A national air, executed
by a band of musicians, announced the commencement of the ceremony. Then
the president of the monument committee advanced, and delivered a very
impressive and appropriate address, which he concluded by the following
words.
“Very respectable grand master, in conformity with the wishes of my
fellow citizens, and in the name of the monument committee, I pray you
to celebrate, according to the rites of the ancient fraternity to which
you belong, the laying of the corner stone of the monument we are about
to raise to the memory of General Greene.”
After the orator had made this invitation, General Lafayette made a sign
that he wished to speak, and immediately the silence and attention of
the multitude were redoubled, and all fixing their eyes upon him. He
advanced a little, and said with a solemn voice—
“The great and good man to whose memory we this day pay a tribute of
respect, of affection and profound regret, acquired in our revolutionary
war a glory so true and so pure, that even now the name alone of GREENE
recalls all the virtues, all the talents which can adorn the patriot,
the statesman, and the general; and yet it appertains to me, his brother
in arms, and, I am proud to be able to say, his very sincere friend, to
you, sir, his brave countryman and companion in arms, here to declare,
that the kindness of his heart was equal to the force of his elevated,
firm, and enlightened mind. The confidence and friendship which he
obtained, were among the greatest proofs of the excellent judgment which
characterized our paternal chief. By the affection of the state of
Georgia towards him, the army also felt itself honoured; and I, sir,
present myself before you, before new generations, as a representative
of this army, of the deceased and absent friends of General Greene, to
applaud the honours rendered to his memory, and to thank you for the
testimonies of sympathy which you have accorded me in this touching and
melancholy solemnity, and for the part which your wishes have caused me
to take in it.”
When the aged companion of Greene had ceased to speak, a brother of
Solomon’s Lodge, invested with masonic insignia, advanced from the
crowd, and joining his voice to the grave tones of the music, sung a
hymn, the last strophe of which was repeated in chorus by the assembled
company, and the prayer of the people ascended to heaven with the solemn
reports of the reverberating cannon.
During this time the corner stone had been prepared; and, before placing
it, the grand chaplain, Mr. Carter, pronounced the prayer with a loud
voice.
After this prayer, which was heard in religious silence, the grand
master ordered the secretary of the committee to prepare the different
objects which were to be placed in the foundation as memorials of the
event. These were several medals with the portraits of the nation’s
guest, of Washington, of General Greene, and Franklin; some pieces of
money of the United States, struck at different periods, and also some
paper money of the state of Georgia; some engravings, among which were
the portraits of General Charles Pinckney, and Doctor Kollock, and all
the details relative to the ceremony; lastly, a medal, on which were
these words: “The corner stone of this monument, to the memory of
General Nathaniel Greene, was laid by General Lafayette, at the request
of the citizens of Savannah, the 21st of March, 1825.”
The stone was then lowered, amid strains of funeral music, to the bottom
of the excavation. The general then descended to the stone, and struck
it three times with a mallet; all the brethren came successively to
render their duties, and the grand priest of the royal chapter of
Georgia came, with the censor in his hand, to bless the corner stone.
When all these ceremonies were ended, the grand master remitted to the
principal architect all the objects requisite to be employed in the
completion of the monument, charging him by all the ties which bound
companions in masonry to acquit himself of his duty, in a manner
honourable to his workmen and himself.
With these, and other ceremonies common on these occasions, the stone
was then sealed while the music played a national air. The whole was
terminated by a triple volley discharged by the United States’ troops.
The procession then marched back in the same order as before, and
repaired to Chippeway place, where the ceremony was repeated in laying
the corner stone of the monument of Pulaski.
Before returning to his lodgings, General Lafayette went to
Brigadier-general Harden’s to assist at a presentation of colours
embroidered by Mrs. Harden, and presented by her to the first regiment
of the Georgia militia. On these colours, very richly worked, was the
portrait of General Lafayette, and several inscriptions recalling
various glorious epochs of the revolution. The burst of enthusiasm on
receiving them extended alike to the officers and soldiers, who swore
that under these colours, presented by beauty, and consecrated by
Lafayette, they would ever be assured of vanquishing the enemies of
liberty and their country.
Some hours after, notwithstanding the pressing entreaties of the
citizens, and above all, the ladies, who had prepared a ball for the
same evening, the general, pressed by time and his numerous engagements,
was obliged to quit Savannah, and we embarked on board the steam-boat
_Alatamaha_ with the governor of Georgia, and the committee of
arrangement, to visit Augusta, which is situated a hundred and eighty
miles from the mouth of the river Savannah.
We found at Savannah a young man whose name and destiny were calculated
to inspire us with a lively interest; this was Achille Murat, son of
Joachim Murat, ex-king of Naples. On the earliest news of the arrival of
General Lafayette in Georgia, he precipitately quitted Florida, where he
has become a planter, and came to add his homage and felicitations to
those of the Americans, whom he now regarded as his countrymen. Two days
passed in his company, excited an esteem for his character and
understanding, not to be withheld by any who may have the same
opportunity of knowing him. Scarcely twenty-four years of age, he has
had sufficient energy of mind to derive great advantages from an event
which many others, in his place, would have regarded as an irreparable
misfortune. Deprived of the hope of wearing the crown promised by his
birth, he transported to the United States the trifling remains of his
fortune, and sufficiently wise to appreciate the benefits of the liberty
here enjoyed, he has become a naturalized citizen of the United States.
Far from imitating so many fallen kings, who never learn how to console
themselves for the loss of their former power, Achille Murat has become
a cultivator, has preserved his name without any title, and by his
frank, and altogether republican manners, has rapidly conciliated the
regard of all who know him. He possesses a cultivated mind, and a heart
filled with the most noble and generous emotions. For the memory of his
father he cherishes a profound and melancholy veneration. Mr. George
Lafayette, having cited in conversation some traits of that brilliant
and chivalric bravery which Murat so eminently possessed, he appeared to
be much affected by it; and, some moments after, when alone with me, he
said with warm emotion, “Mr. George has caused me a great happiness; he
has spoken well of my father to me.”
The conversation turning upon European politics, he explained himself
with great freedom on the subject of the holy alliance, and, in general,
upon every kind of despotism. I could not avoid saying to him, in
pleasantry, that it was a very extraordinary circumstance to hear such
discourse from the mouth of an hereditary prince. “Hereditary prince,”
replied he with vivacity, “I have found the means to be more than such a
thing—I am a freeman!” One circumstance, however, caused me pain and
surprise, which was, that Achille Murat, free to choose his residence in
the United States, should come to establish himself exactly in the
country afflicted by slavery. This choice could only appear to me
reasonable for a man who had decided to labour all in his power for the
gradual emancipation of the blacks, and to give to his neighbours an
example of justice and humanity, in preparing his slaves for liberty;
but, I believe, this noble project has not entered into the thoughts of
our young republican, who, to judge by some peculiarities of his
conversation, seems but too well prepared to adopt the principles of
some of his new fellow citizens as to the slavery of the blacks. Is it
then, thus, that the original sin of royalty must always show the tip of
its ear?[6]
Savannah is the most important city of the state of Georgia. It is
situated on the right bank of Savannah river, and about seventeen miles
from its mouth. Its large and straight streets cross at right angles,
and are planted on each side with a row of delightful trees, called the
_Pride of India_, and for which the inhabitants of the south have a
marked predilection. Although elevated forty feet above the level of the
river, the situation of Savannah is unhealthy; an autumn seldom passes
without the yellow fever making cruel ravages. Commerce is
notwithstanding very active there; its port, which can admit vessels
drawing forty feet, annually exports more than six millions of dollars
worth of cotton. Its population is 7523 inhabitants, divided thus: 3,557
white individuals, 582 free people of colour, and 3,075 slaves. The
number of persons employed in the manufactories nearly equals that of
those occupied in commerce, which is about six hundred.
On quitting Savannah, we sailed at first for more than sixty miles
between low marshy grounds whence issued many rivulets, and which was
covered by a vegetation the most rich and varied that it is possible to
imagine. Among the tallest trees we observed four or five species of
pines, nine of oak, tulip-trees, poplars, plantains, sassafras, &c.,
beneath which grew more than forty kinds of shrubs, of which the form,
flower, foliage and perfume, constitute the delicacies of our most
brilliant parterres. Beyond this plain, the soil rises rapidly about two
hundred feet above the level of the sea, and presents at intervals fine
table lands, on which are established rich cotton plantations.
As we approached Augusta, two steam-boats, crowded with a great many
citizens of that town, came to meet us, and saluted General Lafayette
with three cheers, and the discharge of artillery. We answered them by
the patriotic air of _Yankee Doodle_, and by three rounds of our guns.
They joining us we ascended the river together, each forcing the steam
in rivalry of speed. There was something frightful in this contest; the
three roaring vessels seemed to fly in the midst of black clouds of
smoke, which prevented us from seeing each other. The _Alatamaha_ was
victorious, which produced a lively joy in our brave captain, who seemed
to be a man who would blow up his vessel rather than be beaten on such
an occasion.
The general, forced to adhere rigorously to his calculations for
travelling, had at first resolved to pass but one day at Augusta; but it
was impossible for him to resist the earnest solicitations of the
inhabitants to remain two days, that the greater part of the
preparations made for him should not become useless. He yielded, and the
entertainments they gave him were so multiplied, that for the first time
since the commencement of this prodigious journey, he suffered a fatigue
which caused us a momentary inquietude.
Among the citizens who received the general on the wharf at Augusta, we
again met our fellow-passenger in the Cadmus, Mr. King, a young lawyer
much esteemed by his fellow citizens. This meeting was to us not only
very agreeable, but also very useful; in leaving the river Savannah, our
communications with the Atlantic would become more difficult; it was
therefore important for us to transmit our despatches from Augusta, that
our friends in Europe might once more have news from us before we should
have entirely passed into the interior of the country; and Mr. King had
the goodness to undertake to forward them after our departure, as well
as some effects which we retrenched from our baggage, in order to
lighten ourselves as much as possible, for we foresaw that we were going
to travel the worst roads that we had yet encountered since leaving
Washington.
The day after our arrival, the general was engaged to visit, on the
other side of the Savannah river, a sort of prodigy, which proves to
what extent good institutions favour the increase of population, the
developement of industry, and the happiness of man. It is a village
named Hamburg, composed of about a hundred houses, raised in the same
day by a single proprietor, and all inhabited in less than two months by
an active and industrious population. This village is not yet two years
old, and its port is already filled with vessels, its wharves covered
with merchandise, and its inhabitants assured of a constantly increasing
prosperity. Hamburg being on the right bank of the Savannah, belongs to
South Carolina.
On the 25th we left Augusta, which is well built and containing more
than four thousand inhabitants, to visit Milledgeville, passing through
Warrenton and Sparta. The general was very affectionately received in
each of these small towns; but we found the roads every where in a bad
condition, and so much broken up, that we were obliged to travel a part
of the way on horseback. Happily the carriage in which the general rode,
resisted all accidents, but it was near breaking down twenty times. The
first day the jolts were so violent, that they occasioned General
Lafayette a vomiting which at first alarmed us, but this entirely ceased
after a good night passed at Warrenton.
We arrived on the 2d of March, on the banks of little river Oconee, near
to which Milledgeville, the capital of Georgia, is built. This town,
which, from the dispersion of its houses, and the multitude and extent
of its beautiful gardens, rather resembles a fine village than a city,
containing a population of two thousand five hundred souls, among whom
General Lafayette was received as a father and friend. The citizens,
conducted by their magistrates, came to receive him on the banks of the
river, and the aids-de-camp of the governor conducted him with pomp to
the state house, which claimed the honour of lodging him. The day was
passed in the midst of honours and pleasures of every kind. After the
official presentation in the state house, where the general was
addressed by an American citizen of French descent, Mr. Jaillet, mayor
of Milledgeville; after the visit which we made to the lodge of our
masonic brethren, and the review of all the militia of the county, we
dined with Governor Troup, who had assembled at his house all the public
officers and principal citizens, with whom we spent the evening at the
state house, where the ladies of the place had prepared a ball for
General Lafayette; but at this ball there was neither possibility nor
wish for any one to dance; each, anxious to entertain or hear the
nation’s guest, kept near him, and seized with avidity the occasion to
testify gratitude and attachment. Affected almost to tears with the
kindness evinced towards him, the general completely forgot that Georgia
was a new acquaintance. He also forgot, it seemed, that to-morrow we
were to depart early in the morning, and that some hours of repose would
be necessary, as he passed a great part of the night in conversing with
his new friends.
Before continuing the narrative of the subsequent journey, which
conducted us from the bosom of the most advanced civilization, into the
centre of still savage tribes, the aboriginal children of America, I
shall make some observations on the state of Georgia.
This state, situated between the 30th and 35th degrees of north
latitude, and the 3d and 9th of longitude west from Washington, is
bounded on the north by the state of Tennessee, to the north-east by
South Carolina, to the south-east by the Atlantic ocean, to the south by
Florida, and to the west by the state of Alabama. Its surface is 58,000
square miles, and its population 340,989 inhabitants, of which nearly
150,000 are slaves; a proportion truly alarming, and which will, some
day, bring Georgia into an embarrassing situation, if its government
does not adopt some measure to diminish the evil. Here, as in all the
slave states, the blacks are goods and chattels, which are sold like any
other property, and which may be inherited; but their introduction into
the state as an object of commerce is severely prohibited. According to
existing laws, a person who brings into the state a slave, which he
sells or exposes to sale within the year immediately succeeding his
introduction, is subjected to a penalty of one thousand dollars, and an
imprisonment of five years in the state prison. The prejudices against
the coloured race is very strong among the Georgians, and I have not
remarked that they have made any great efforts for the abolition of
slavery; the laws even interpose a barrier to gradual emancipation, for
a proprietor cannot give liberty to his slave without the authority of
the legislature. The ancient code of slavery introduced by the English,
and which was a code of blood, is fallen into disuse, and has been
supplied by some laws protective of the slaves. Thus, for example,
whoever now designedly deprives a slave of life or limb, is condemned to
the same punishment as if the crime had been committed on a white man,
except in a case of insurrection; but we feel that this law is to be
administered by judges who are themselves slave-holders, and under the
influence of the same prejudices as their fellow citizens; thus may one
say with truth, that if the slaves of Georgia do not perish under the
whip of their master, as too often happens in the French colonies, it is
owing solely to the naturally mild and humane dispositions of the
Georgians, and not to the efficacy of the laws, which admit that a slave
_may accidentally die on receiving moderate correction_, without the
author of the infliction being guilty of murder.
Georgia, it is said, was that one of the ancient colonies in which the
revolution obtained the fewest suffrages. The royal party, for a long
time, preserved there a great influence, which, augmented by the
presence of a numerous body of English, under the orders of Colonel
Campbell, maintained the royal government until the end of the war; thus
the patriots had more to suffer in Georgia than elsewhere.
It was not until 1798, that the constitution, which had been adopted in
1785 and amended in 1789, was definitively and vigorously enforced by a
general assembly of the representatives. This constitution is very
nearly similar to that of South Carolina.
If Georgia is not yet one of the richest states of the Union, by the
abundance and variety of its productions, the cause should be attributed
to the influence of slavery alone. No country, perhaps, is more favoured
by nature than this, and all the products of the most opposite climates
may be easily and abundantly drawn from its soil. The seashores and the
adjacent islands produce six hundred pounds of long cotton per acre, of
which the medium price is thirty cents per pound; and the same soil will
produce four crops without manure. Sugar may be cultivated in the same
soil, with an equal success. The white mulberry grows there in such
quantities, that Georgia could easily liberate the United States from an
annual tribute of several millions which they pay to Europe, if the
culture of silk was confided to skilful and interested hands; that is to
say, to the hands of freemen. Tea grows without culture in the
neighbourhood of Savannah; in some choice places, three crops of indigo
are annually produced; and, in the interior, the lands produce
abundantly of grain and maize; finally, pulse and fruits of all kinds
grow here with an unusual facility. But to fertilize the sources of such
abundant riches, there are requisite an industry and activity, rarely
possessed by men accustomed to confide the care of their existence to
the devotedness of unhappy beings brutalised by slavery.[7]