in the stove.--This rose tree grows in the most rapid manner out of
doors, and is a great ornament to the conservatory, one end of which it
covers entirely with its bunches of small white flowers tinged with
pink. It produced some shoots last autumn, of nine or ten feet in
length, which the gardener bent downwards, and laying them in the
ground, he conducted them towards the adjoining wall, to which he
nailed up the ends. They now look healthy and have fine swelling buds,
as if they would soon be in a very flourishing state. He has found that
the way to manage this rose is to plant it in a sandy loam, and to keep
it very closely nailed to the wall, just like the Morella cherry.
I take great pleasure in watching the progress of the garden. The peach
blossoms are really opening, and are lovely. The gardener has been very
busy protecting them from the harsh winds, and from rain and hail, by
woollen nettings stretched completely over them. But my uncle is always
trying some pretty experiments; and one small tree is covered, or at
least its blossoms are covered, by wool attached to the branches.
Another is covered by small branches of birch, about two feet long,
which were collected as soon as the leaves were full grown, in the end
of June, and preserved under cover. There are studs in the wall, which
project eight or ten inches, and to these the birchen branches are
nailed with shreds. In order to try these experiments fairly, the trees
which he has selected for them are on the same wall and in the same
aspect.
We have been watching the tomtits, and find that they really do eat up
the insects and larvæ that would be destructive to the blossoms; but I
cannot say so much for the pretty, but mischievous bulfinch, which too
often amuses itself in picking off the flower-buds.
What endless entertainment, mamma, there is in observing the operations
of the birds! For some days we had heard a bird in the low wet grounds,
for ever going on with two notes, like the whetting of a saw; and at
last we traced it to a place by the river side, where there are some
willow trees, and the remains of an orchard. We found it nestling in the
decayed stems. Mary pronounced it to be the little black-capped marsh
titmouse. We went two or three times to the old orchard, where we saw it
very busy picking off little chips, in order to deepen a hole in a
decayed willow tree for its nest; and I am told, that it makes the
bottom much larger than the entrance.
The birds of passage which came here for winter are now all taking their
departure; and others will, I suppose, soon replace them. Frederick
often points out large flocks of them at a great height; but it is the
charming singing birds that interest me: the blackbird, for instance,
with his sweet whistle; and the thrush, who constantly varies his song.
But still more, the missel thrush, the largest of the species, who,
perched on a lofty tree, warbles a loud carol to the coming Spring, with
a very strong note. This bird is eleven inches long, and Frederick
shewed me that it is distinguished by its having the three outer
tail-feathers tipped with white.--It goes as far north, he says, as
Norway; and is common in Russia. It is welcomed here as the harbinger of
spring, and yet the country people call it the storm cock, because it is
sometimes heard in stormy weather, drowning the voice of the other
birds. It is particularly fond of building in old ash trees overgrown
with lichens.
_23rd._--Franklin is going to have several hives of bees, and is
preparing an enclosure for them, in which there will be some of their
favourite flowers; it is placed near a rivulet, as they use a great deal
of water. They are particularly fond of mignonette, thyme, mustard when
left to go to seed, turnips, white clover, and beans of all kinds. These
are their principal favourites; and it is said they afford the purest
honey. Rosemary too is a favourite, but seldom produces much honey in
this country, unless the season be warm and dry. It is worth
cultivating, however, my aunt says, being one of the principal plants
which gives the flavour to the famous Narbonne honey. She has had some
planted in the warmest part of the bee enclosure, or Franklin’s apiary,
as Frederick calls it. There are several lime, poplar, and berberry
trees, planted round it; and a broom hedge is sown outside.
In a new swarm, their first care is to build cells to serve as cradles;
and very little honey is collected, until an ample store of _bee-bread_
has been laid up for their food. This is composed of the pollen or dust
of the anthers of flowers, which the _workers_ are constantly employed
in gathering. They fly from flower to flower, to collect it in the
little baskets formed of hair, with which their hind legs are provided;
and having deposited their booty in the hive, they return for a new
load. This bee-bread, after it has been received into the bees’ second
stomach, is brought up again, changed into a whitish jelly; and with
that substance, the young brood are diligently fed by other bees, till
they change into _nymphs_.
Bees do not solely confine themselves to flowers; in collecting honey
they are fond of the juices of fruits also, and for this reason my aunt
recommended this bee enclosure to be placed very near the orchard which
Franklin planted. With their tongue, which my aunt says is not a tube,
as some people have supposed, but a real tongue, they lap or lick the
honey, and convey it into the first stomach, which is called the
honey-bag, and which, when full, is much swelled--it is never found in
the second stomach. How the wax is secreted from the honey, or what
vessels are employed for that purpose, is not yet ascertained. But my
aunt shewed me the wax-pockets of the bee; by gently pressing the body,
we could perceive on each of its four segments, two whitish flaps, of a
soft membranaceous texture, in which the wax is placed.
There is another substance made by the bees, and called _propolis_; it
is collected from poplar, birch, fir, and gummy trees like the
taccamahaca. Bees have been observed to open the buds with their
mandibles, so as to draw from them a thread of viscid matter; and then,
with one of their second pair of legs, they take it from the mouth, and
place it in the baskets on their hind legs. It is used in stopping every
chink of the hive, by which cold, or wet, or insects, can enter; it
gives a finish to the combs, and the sticks which support these combs
are covered with it as well as the interior surface of the hive.
In collecting the pollen from plants, it has been observed that bees
never mix the farina of different flowers; each is made use of in
separate little pellets, and it is said that skilful botanists have been
able to distinguish by the farina what flowers the bee had visited.
My aunt told me that she had read of a lady who had so constantly
attended to her bees, and was so beloved by them, that they seemed to
delight in flying round her and listening to her voice; they had no
sting for their kind mistress, and when, after a storm, she gathered
them up, wiped, and tried to revive them by the warmth of her hand, they
gently buzzed their gratitude as they recovered. When she visited the
hive, she caused no alarm; and if, on seeing them less diligent than
usual, or ill or languid, she poured a little wine at the outside of the
hives, they always expressed their thanks in the same manner.
Franklin’s new apiary, you see, has been of great benefit to me, for it
led to a long conversation with my good aunt, who told me all those
circumstances and many others in her usual clear way; and when we came
home, she put into my hands a little book called _Dialogues on
Entomology_, in which she says I shall find much useful information
about bees and other insects.
_24th._--At breakfast this morning my uncle received a letter from a
brother of Colonel Travers, who you know is at Madras. It was written
while he also was at breakfast, and Mr. T. mentions that there were then
on the table eatables of different kinds, which had come from the four
quarters of the globe.
This set us to consider from whence all the articles that were on our
own table had been collected. Every one named something. The tea from
China, the coffee from Arabia, West Indian sugar, Narbonne honey, the
salt from Cheshire, and our home-made bread, butter, and cream. Then
there were Coalbrook-dale cups and saucers, an urn from Birmingham,
tea-pots and spoons of Mexican silver, a butter-vessel of Bristol
glass, knives of Swedish steel, and an Irish table-cloth and napkins.
Frederick proposed that we should calculate the number of people that
must have been employed in producing all these various articles. He
began with salt, as one of the simplest things on the table, and he
easily ran through the operations of digging it out of the mine, making
the little baskets in which it is sold, and conveying them by land or by
water carriage to Gloucester; nor did he forget the wholesale and retail
dealers, through whose hands they passed before they were deposited with
my aunt’s housekeeper. But my uncle reminded him that making fine salt
was not only a far more complicated process than he seemed to imagine,
but also that, unless he took into account the machines employed in
every one of the operations, and even the tools requisite for making
those machines, he would not be able to give a satisfactory answer to
his own proposition. “The same remark,” he continued, “will apply to the
production of everything else on the table: this roll, for instance,
must not only include the labour of the baker, but that of the bolter,
the miller, the reaper, the sower, and the ploughman, besides the
manufacturers of all the implements they used. Or, take coffee, which,
however simple the mere gathering of the berries and drying them in the
sun may appear, can only be brought to this country through the complex
operations of commerce, and by means of a ship, which of itself includes
the combined efforts of a hundred different trades before she can
proceed a single mile on her voyage.”
“How rich, uncle,” said I, “must any country become, where the people
are employed both in agriculture and manufactures!”
“Yes,” he replied, “as long as they are well paid, or, in other words,
as long as there is a demand for as much as they can produce. But you
know, Bertha, the inhabitants of any country can only consume a certain
quantity of food, or a certain quantity of clothes; and if the hands
employed raise more corn, or make more goods than are wanted, they must
be thrown out of work until the overplus has been called for, as no one
will pay for what they do not want. Something else, you see, is
necessary to enrich a nation besides agriculture and manufactures.”
“Oh yes! I know what you mean, uncle; I am sure--commerce--by which that
overplus is sent to other countries, and exchanged there for things
which we do want.”
“You are right, Bertha. The agricultural and manufacturing classes may
furnish each other with the necessaries, and with many of the comforts
of life; but, without the aid of commerce, they can never raise a nation
to any great degree of wealth. Foreign commerce is the great spur to
their industry; it opens a thousand channels to their activity, and
mutually enriches both themselves and the countries to which they trade.
But it does much more--it brings distant nations into contact with each
other--it makes up for the partial distribution of soil and climate--it
may be said to equalize the bounties of Providence, and it is the grand
means of spreading knowledge and civilization to the most remote corners
of the world.”
_25th._--In consequence of our breakfast conversation yesterday on the
productions of various countries, we invented a very amusing play in the
evening, and I assure you that it was conducted with great precision.
Each person wrote on a bit of paper the name of some town, country, or
province; these tickets were then shuffled together in a little basket,
and whoever drew one out was obliged to give an account of some
production, either natural or manufactured, for which that place was
remarkable. This new-fashioned game was highly entertaining, for it
brought out a number of curious bits of information which we had picked
up, and which we might never have mentioned to each other, only from
some such motive.
One of these was, that in Persia they have the art of carving spoons out
of pear wood, which are so delicate and so thin, that the bowl of the
spoon can be folded up like paper, and opened again. The handles too are
so slender, that it is a particular accomplishment to carry them when
full to the mouth in such a dexterous manner as to prevent their
breaking. These delicate utensils are one of the accompaniments of men
of rank, being only used by princes and noblemen when sipping their
sherbet.
My aunt having drawn Siberia, said she had a nice match for Frederick’s
wonderful spoons. In the province of Wiatka bowls and cups are made of
the knobs which grow on the birch trees; they are yellow, marbled with
brown veins, and when varnished are very pretty. But some of them are
turned so extremely thin, as to be semi-transparent; and when put into
hot water they become so pliant that they may be spread out quite flat
without injury, as they return to their original shape in drying.
The ticket for Constantinople was next drawn, and produced a description
of the rose beads which are so much prized by the Sultan’s wives, that
they are usually called “Beads of the Haram.” Those poor ladies have so
little employment, that they sit for hours passing these beads, when
strung, through their fingers. They are composed of the petals of the
rose carefully picked, and pounded into a smooth paste in an iron
vessel; which makes them quite black, on the same principle, you know,
mamma, that ink is made by mixing a preparation of iron with _gallic
acid_, of which the rose petals contain a small quantity. When the paste
is quite smooth it is made up into little balls, which are perforated
for stringing, and then slowly dried in the shade. When they have become
hard they are rubbed in the palms of the hands along with a little attar
of rose, till quite smooth; and they always preserve their sweet smell.
Paraguay was on the next ticket, and Wentworth, who remembers all he
reads, gave us a description of the famous tea of that country, large
quantities of which are used in Chili and the states of Buenos Ayres. It
is called Maté; and is made by boiling the leaves in an oval-shaped
metal pot, about twice as large as an egg, on the hot embers in a
brasier which stands at all seasons of the year in the middle of the
room. When the water boils, a lump of burnt sugar is added, and the pot,
being placed in a filagree silver stand is handed round; each person
drawing the maté into his mouth through a silver or glass tube which is
furnished at the lower extremity with a bulb pierced with small holes.
The natives drink it almost boiling hot; and they have always some of
this tea ready prepared, whether employed at home or in the fields. No
one even departs on a journey without being provided with a quantity of
the dried herb, as well as with a maté-pot, which is either carried in
the hand, or suspended round the neck by a small chain if the person is
on horseback. I was rather ashamed to confess that all these
circumstances were new to me, as well as that the tree is a species of
holly, the _Ilex Paraguayensis_; but you will tell me if they are
correct.
Then came Kamtschatka, which produced an account of the _Sarana_, a
species of lily that is universal in the eastern parts of Siberia, and
almost covers the ground with its blossoms. The bulbs are gathered in
August, and laid by for use; after being baked they are reduced to
flour, and are not only used in soups and other dishes, but make the
best bread of the country. Sometimes they are boiled and eaten like
potatoes; and besides their own exertions in collecting them, the
Kamtschatkans have a provident little mouse, which not only hoards them
in its magazines, but has the sagacity to bring them out in sunny
weather to dry. The natives search for and seize on these hoards, but
they always leave some of the contents for their poor little purveyors.
There are several species of this lily, from one of which the Russians
produce a sort of wine.
We had afterwards the _Apatea_, or Hottentot bread, made from a parasite
which grows on the roots of a _Euphorbia_ at the Cape of Good Hope, and
which has neither stem nor leaf--only a flower that produces a large
round and excellent fruit; but I really have not time to describe any
more of these interesting little scraps, for my aunt says I must go out
and walk.
_26th, Sunday._--My uncle read to us this morning the history of
Balaam’s expedition with Balak, in order to curse Israel. This produced
a long conversation; and I shall endeavour to give you an outline of
what my uncle said.
“It appears from Scripture that there were two countries called Midian.
That to which Moses had fled from the Egyptians was on the Red Sea; the
other was on the River Arnon, near Moab; and as it was peopled by the
descendants of Abraham and Keturah, we may suppose that the knowledge of
the true God had been preserved there, though mixed with idolatrous
corruptions. We know that in the days of Abraham, and long afterwards,
there was a priesthood amongst the Canaanites, who preserved in great
part the true worship.
“In the age of Joseph, there was a priest of On, and in the time of
Moses, Jethro, a priest of Midian, whose daughters they married; and it
cannot be supposed that either Moses or Joseph would have been allowed
to connect themselves with idolaters.
“It is not surprising, therefore, that Balaam should address the Lord as
his God, though his worship was probably debased by superstition. It
appears, indeed, from several concurring circumstances, that he was a
real priest and prophet of the ancient patriarchal religion; but he was
the last: for it had at that time become so corrupt, that it was
necessary to separate the Israelites from the rest of the world, in
order to preserve their religion.
“We have other instances to prove that this mixture of idolatry with the
true worship did not hinder God from revealing himself to a few
individuals who followed that mixed religion, as Abimelech, and also
Nebuchadnezzar. Another proof that the patriarchal religion had not been
sufficiently forgotten for its language to have become obsolete, is,
that Balaam’s expressions bear a strong resemblance to those used by the
other prophets; and that the epithets which he applies to the Supreme
Being are the same as those employed by Moses, Job, and other inspired
writers.
“But Balaam, though a true priest and prophet, was unsound in heart,
worldly, and mercenary. His selfish disposition and degenerate character
were probably as well known to Balak as his high qualifications as a
prophet were to the people; and both well fitted him for a tool in the
hands of that artful monarch. It was customary among the heathen in
those ages, at the beginning of a war, to devote their enemies to
destruction with all the solemnities of religion; and, terrified by the
recent victories of the Israelites, lest they should “lick up all, as
the ox licketh up the grass,” he applied to the venal prophet in his
distress. He knew Balaam’s eminence in the church, and his influence
over the people; he knew that his interference might be purchased, and
he bribed him to come and curse the invaders.
“Though Balaam was eager to obtain the proffered reward, and though he
was flattered by the high opinion in which his blessings and curses were
held, he well knew that they would be of no avail without the sanction
of God. He, therefore, deferred giving any answer till he should have
consulted the divine will; and when that will was made known to him, he
at once refused Balak’s request, alleging that God had said to him,
‘Thou shalt not curse the people: for they are blessed.’ This refers to
the blessing given to Abraham, Genesis xii., and which was afterwards
renewed to Jacob, Genesis xxvii. Balak, however, was not discouraged by
the first refusal. He repeated his invitation along with promises of an
unlimited recompense; and Balaam, having this time obtained the Divine
permission, departed with the princes of Moab.”
I asked my uncle why he was now permitted to go, since his proposal to
do so before had excited God’s displeasure?
“God often graciously stays the wicked in their sins,” said my uncle,
“or warns us when our inclinations are evil; but if we obstinately
persist in indulging them, he then leaves us to our own free-will, and
abandons us to our foolish imaginations. Balaam had set his heart on the
promised honours and rewards, and was unwilling to forego them,
notwithstanding God’s distinct prohibition; so the foolish man was
allowed to follow his inclination, to proceed in his own way, and to
complete his own destruction. Just in the same manner, when the
Israelites afterwards demanded a king to reign over them, God graciously
condescended to expostulate with them, and to warn them of the
consequences; but they persisted--and, therefore, ‘in his anger, he gave
them a king.’
“But the fatal influence of covetousness and ambition, which made Balaam
persist in desiring to go, soon led to his wishing to comply with
Balak’s desire to curse Israel. That he went with this secret design,
clearly appears from the angel’s saying, ‘Thy way is perverse before
me.’ So you see that God’s anger was now kindled, not at his going, but
because he went with a wicked intention. He was, however, suffered to
proceed on his journey, in order to convince the surrounding nations
that Balak’s cunning devices were useless in retarding the progress of
the Israelites, or in defeating the purposes of the ‘Most High who
ruleth in the kingdoms of men.’
“Balaam was afterwards also very blameable in offering sacrifice on
heathen altars, in the high places of Baal, which he must have been
aware was strictly prohibited.”
My uncle promised to take up this interesting subject again next Sunday;
but on our way to church he told me that these events happened in the
year 1451 B. C., and about two centuries and a half before the Trojan
war.
_27th._--Frederick asked several questions this morning about the
worship of Baal, on which he had been pondering since our conversation
yesterday.
“Baal,” said my uncle, “was the same as Bel or Belus. The name signifies
Lord, and was originally applied to the Supreme Deity; but in
after-times, when idolatry became intermixed with the true religion,
several of the heathen gods, and particularly the sun, were worshipped
under that name. It was not only the general appellation of the sun
throughout the east, but it extended from thence over great part of the
western world; and many remnants of the worship of Baal, both names and
customs, are to be found at this day in the Hebrides and Western
Highlands. _Baal-tine_, for instance, as Hertford mentioned in one of
his letters, is an expression still in use--it means the fire of the
sun; and several other vestiges of solar worship may be also observed
there. The name given in Scripture to the temples of Baal signifies
those high places inclosed within walls in which a perpetual fire was
kept.”
Frederick asked why groves and high places were so positively forbidden
in the Bible as places of worship? To this my uncle replied: “Because it
was usual for those idolatrous nations to place their temples and altars
in commanding situations, and to worship their false gods in the groves
which were formed on those consecrated hills. Such places were well
adapted to their mysterious rites, and the Israelites were enjoined to
break their images and cut down their groves; and were farther commanded
never to plant a grove near an altar dedicated to Jehovah. Peor, to
which Balak took Balaam, was the most famous high place in Moab; and it
was called Baalpeor, because there was a temple there dedicated to the
worship of Baal.”
I asked my uncle why they selected hills for places of worship?