irregularities.
b. Vessel has been removed from base-mould and covered with white slip
from bowl in foreground. Potter now polishing slip with rubbing
stone.]
[Illustration: PLATE 31
ZUÑI. PAINTING AND FIRING
a. Applying design with yucca-leaf brush. Black pigment in shallow stone
mortar, red in small white bowl. b. Building oven of dung cakes--note
kindling at feet of figure at right. c. Oven domed over and set afire.
(Photographs from American Museum of Natural History).]
In underfired vessels the color of the pigments is not true, being
usually midway between the unfired color and the fired color; as a rule
the paste is also dark and friable. Overfiring is more easily detected
than underfiring. A slight overfiring may be first noticed in the black
guaco paint, which has a tendency to become bluish and light if burned
too much. Other bad results follow in quick succession as overfiring is
increased: at an early stage the white slip becomes smoky; in severe
overfiring it may turn black, as in a smoke-cloud; the paint of the
designs is apt to flake off; and finally, in a bad case, the guaco will
turn nearly white.
TREATMENT AFTER BURNING
Polished black vessels, when removed from the fire, are set directly
upon the ground within a foot or two of the oven. They are at once wiped
hastily with a dry cloth to prevent any fragments of the new manure from
sticking to the surface. When the vessels are sufficiently cooled they
are again wiped with a clean dry cloth and taken into the house for
storage. Occasionally the first wiping, while the bowl is still hot, is
omitted.
When pieces of polychrome ware or red ware are removed from the oven
they are placed on the ground some six or eight feet from the fire,
resting on tins in order to prevent possible discoloration from contact
with the damp soil, as well as to prevent dust and dirt from sticking to
their bases. The vessels are piled on these tins in any manner, often
three or four on top of one another. When the pottery first comes from
the fire, it is still much too hot to touch, and radiates heat
copiously. Ten or fifteen minutes later, when the vessels are cool
enough to handle, they are removed from the tins and collected at some
convenient place to await wiping.
First the pieces are gone over with a clean dry cloth to take off the
guaco ashes and any dust that may remain from the oven (pl. 27, b). Each
vessel is then wiped with a slightly greasy cloth, which gives a faint
sheen to the surface and removes the blue tinge which is apt to be found
in the black guaco-covered areas. Some potters have substituted a
chamois skin for this second cloth. It took the two women shown in pl.
27, b, just fifteen minutes to wipe with the two kinds of cloths the
twenty-two vessels figured. When the wiping is done, the pottery is
carried to the house and stored in one of the rooms. The pieces are
placed on the floor, usually with a carpet or rug under them, and
covered with a sheet to keep off dust and flies.
The time occupied in each of the individual stages of pottery making has
been considered, but the total time, from the beginning of the moulding
until the finished vessels are placed in the store room under a sheet,
is far in excess of the mere sum of the separate hours and minutes used
in each process. Household duties and other tasks are constantly
interfering with the work. About nine o’clock on a certain morning one
potter began moulding the first of a group of perhaps forty pieces. The
scraping was commenced on the morning of the third day, and the
polishing on the fourth morning. Nothing was done on the fifth day, but
early on the sixth the painting began. A fiesta interrupted the work for
two more days, and the burning was done on the morning of the tenth day,
although it could have taken place on the seventh. Another potter
finished burning several large ollas at noon on the ninth day.
PAINTING OF DESIGNS
By means of the decorations on the vessels the potter expresses her
personality. The type of design used by any one potter is very constant,
and is distinctly individual. It is a comparatively easy matter, by an
inspection of the design alone, to distinguish the vessels made by one
potter from those of another.
The designs are planned in several different ways. Maria Martinez sits
with the bowl in her hands for a few minutes doing nothing; apparently
she is working out in her mind the combination of elements which she
will use. Designs so conceived are generally simple. Maximiliana
Martinez begins painting almost at once. While she is working ideas
occur to her and are incorporated. Occasionally, after the painting has
been completed and the vessel set aside, she will pick it up again to
add some detail. This method of working is apt to cause somewhat
involved figures. Antonita Roybal, in choosing her designs, refers to
drawings of her own, or to photographs which have come into her hands,
of old San Ildefonso vessels. This potter uses a pencil to outline very
sketchily the design upon the vessel, as an aid in obtaining the proper
symmetry. The figures obtained in this manner are usually very
elaborate.[51]
The first lines drawn in a design are almost without exception the
enclosing lines under the rim. These are followed by the enclosing lines
near the shoulder (in the case of an olla), or near the bottom of the
interior (in the case of a bowl). When the design consists of panels,
the vertical division-lines are then added. If there are to be four
panels, one division-line is drawn, and then the one on the opposite
side of the bowl, dividing the surface into halves. Each of these halves
is then bisected. The next step is to double all the vertical
division-lines. Occasionally each quadrant is judged by the eye only,
and the division lines are drawn in sequence about the vessel. When
there are to be either more or less than four panels, they are outlined
one after the other. No measuring instrument of any kind is used.
After the skeleton of the design has been completed, the outlines of the
figure within each panel are drawn. All the lines are first placed in
one panel, then the second panel is finished, and so on, until all have
been filled with the outlines. All the areas on the vessel that are to
be colored black are then filled, followed by the areas which are to be
red. The strokes taken in outlining are not always made in the same
order in the various panels. Such variation is entirely natural and
should be expected in work done without the use of a visible pattern.
When a design is attached to the lower enclosing line of a panel, it
usually consists of a repetition of some small figure of one or two
elements. The position of such added figures has absolutely no relation
in the mind of the potter to the panel-design.
When a design consists of a repetition of figures not enclosed within
panels, the painter always refers, before adding another figure, to the
amount of the surface as yet unfilled. The correctness of the painter’s
judgment is therefore easily determined by the proportions of the last
figure in the design as compared with the remaining figures. As a rule,
with the product of the present-day potters of San Ildefonso, it is
exceedingly difficult to determine in a finished vessel, which of the
figures was the last one drawn.
In designs which consist of a single figure, or of two or more figures,
with several complex elements, the development of the design upon the
vessel is necessarily at variance with that described above. As a
general rule, each element is completed, including the filling of areas,
before the next element is outlined. Similarly, each figure is finished
before the next is begun.
In considering generally the ornamentation of San Ildefonso vessels, a
distinct group-similarity can be observed. The polychrome vessels are
painted in black and orange-red upon a white base. The red-ware vessels
are decorated only in black. The designs usually consist of several
almost identical figures, each composed of a small number of rather
simple elements, in which curved lines are common. And yet, in spite of
this almost indefinable similarity among the vessels, the differences
between the designs made by different potters of the village are
clear-cut and distinct.
Maria Martinez specializes in constricted-mouthed and similarly shaped
bowls of polychrome ware. Her lines are relatively narrow, and the black
of the design is very uniform in color. She uses panelled designs almost
exclusively. The elements within the panels are simple, and few in
number. Her work is easily recognized because of its simplicity and
pleasing composition (see pl. 6). Maximiliana Martinez generally
confines herself to red ware in the form of small ollas and small bowls
with a slightly constricted lip. Her lines are somewhat wider and more
uneven than those of Maria, and the black is of varying shades. As a
result of her custom of developing the design as the work progresses,
the figures are rather complex and intricate, or, as the Indians
themselves say, “mixed up”. The outstanding characteristic of her work
is the use of one or more elements entirely detached from the figure
proper. Antonita Roybal devotes most of her time to making large ollas
of red ware. Her lines are relatively broad, often indeed of double
width. Her blacks are also uneven. The designs upon her vessels are
usually composed of two or four very large, complex figures, in which
spiral curves are conspicuous. Dotting, crosshatching, and filling of
many small areas characterize her work. The products of a man painter,
Julian Martinez, are easily recognized by the abundant use of very
narrow lines. The figures, which are usually composed of many intricate
elements, impress one with the amount of detailed and careful work
lavished upon them. Julian has obviously been strongly influenced by the
technique of modern Hopi potters, such as the famous Nampeo, whose work
he of course often sees in the curio-stores and in the State Museum at
Santa Fe.
In the following pages typical designs of Maria, Maximiliana, and
Antonita are discussed in detail, with the aid of figures upon which the
direction and order of the strokes have been indicated. These drawings
are given in order to amplify and clarify the general statements made
above.
DRAWING NO. 1 (fig. 9); original by Maria Martinez. This design was on a
constricted-mouthed polychrome bowl, and consisted of four identical
panels, each four and one-half inches long by two and one-half inches
wide. The work was divided into four distinct sections, or stages, each
of which was completed in all four panels, one after the other, before
the next stage was begun.
_First stage_ (fig. 9, a); construction of the framing lines. Lines 1-4
are drawn completely around the bowl; then lines 5-8. The corresponding
two pairs of lines are then drawn upon the other half of the bowl, thus
dividing the space into four sections.
_Second stage_ (fig. 9, b); placing of the outlines within each panel.
The first three lines drawn (9-11) divide the panel into three
triangles. Then the details are
[Illustration: FIG. 9. The growth of a polychrome design as painted by
Maria Martinez (the shading indicates red).]
outlined in each triangle in turn. When the outlining of one panel has
been completed, each of the other panels is treated in turn in the same
manner. The work of Maria is noteworthy in that the order and direction
of the lines and the filling of spaces is hardly ever changed from one
panel to the next.
_Third stage_ (fig. 9, c); filling certain areas with solid black paint.
The largest area (I) is always filled first. No order is followed in
filling areas II, III, and IV, and in making the dot (V). In one panel,
IV is filled before II, in another V precedes the other three. After
this the dots (VI) are placed below line 21. In the different panels the
number of these dots varies from six to eight. The last area filled in
this stage is the triangle VII. When the first panel has been completed
the other three are treated in like manner before the fourth stage is
begun.
_Fourth stage_ (fig. 9, d); filling of areas with red paint (shown in
the reproduction by shading). In some panels area VIII precedes area IX,
in others the reverse is the
[Illustration: PLATE 32
Design by Maria Martinez]
case. With the completion of this fourth stage in all the panels, the
painting of this comparatively simple design is finished. The time
consumed was twenty-five minutes.
DRAWING NO. 2 (pl. 32); original by Maria Martinez. This design may be
placed upon either a constricted-mouthed bowl or an olla-bowl. It is
made up of five identical panels. During the painting the bowl is turned
counterclockwise. There are eleven distinct stages.
_First stage_ (pl. 32, a); the enclosing lines of the panels are
produced. Each panel is four inches long and one and a half inches wide.
The horizontal lines (1-4) are drawn completely around the bowl before
the dividing lines (5-8) are drawn.
_Second stage_ (pl. 32, b); lines 9 and 10 are drawn, dividing each of
the five panels into a semicircle and two triangles.
_Third stage_ (pl. 32, c); the plumes are outlined in each of the panels
by means of lines 11 to 20.
_Fourth stage_ (pl. 32, d); the two triangles (areas I and II) are
filled with black pigment. Sometimes area I is filled first, sometimes
area II.
_Fifth stage_ (pl. 32, e); when the triangles in all five panels have
been filled, the dots are placed in two of the five plumes in each panel
(areas III and IV). These dots are sometimes six in number, sometimes
seven. They are painted from the base of the plume upwards.
_Sixth stage_ (pl. 32, b); areas V to VII are filled with red pigment,
thus completing the panel-design.
_Seventh stage_ (pl. 32, g); now that the design in the panel has been
finished, the second half of the figure, that below the bottom enclosing
line, is begun. A series of small semicircles (lines numbered 21) are
appended to the lowest enclosing line. The position of the semicircles
bears no relation whatever to the series of panels. Three and a half to
four semicircles fall below each panel or a total of from seventeen to
twenty in the entire extent of the design as it encircles the vessel.
_Eighth stage_ (pl. 32. g); by means of lines 22 and 23, a triangle is
outlined below each of the semicircles.
_Ninth stage_ (pl. 32, h); a very small semicircle (24) is drawn just
below the point of each triangle.
_Tenth stage_ (pl. 32, h); another similar semicircle (line 25) is drawn
just below line 24.
_Eleventh stage_ (pl. 32, i); the triangles (areas numbered VIII) are
filled with black pigment.
Although this figure is based upon the panel-design, it differs from
pure panel-decoration in the use of a series of simple figures appended
to the bottom enclosing-line of the panel. The time required to paint
this design was thirty-five minutes.
DRAWING NO. 3 (pl. 33); original by Maria Martinez. This design is of an
entirely different type, in that there is no use of a panel. It was
placed upon a constricted-mouthed bowl.
_First stage_ (pl. 33, a); the enclosing lines (1, 2) are drawn around
the rim of the vessel. These are immediately followed by the three lines
(3 to 5) which form the outlines of the five spirals composing the
design. The proportions of the figures were determined by constantly
watching the position of the first spiral as the bowl was turned
counterclockwise.
_Second stage_ (pl. 33, b); the outlines of the details (lines 6 to 17)
are drawn on each spiral in turn.
_Third stage_ (pl. 33, c); the outlining is completed by adding to each
spiral a horizontal triangle at the base of the curve. It is interesting
to note that line 18, the first of the group 18 to 21, was the first one
drawn, although it was entirely detached at that time from the main
figure.
_Fourth stage_ (pl. 33, d); the filling of areas is begun by painting
the four small triangles on the upward curve of the spiral (areas I to
IV). The order in which they are filled is apt to vary with the
different spirals.
_Fifth stage_ (pl. 33, e); the large triangle at the base of the spiral
(area V) is filled with black pigment.
_Sixth stage_ (pl. 33, f); the triangle at the bottom (area VI) is
filled in each unit.
_Seventh stage_ (pl. 33, g); this consists in placing a series of dots
along the median line of the leaf-shaped area in the base of the spiral.
In the various spirals these dots vary in number from eight to ten.
_Eighth stage_ (pl. 33, h); the design is completed by filling the red
areas (VIII and IX). In the first spiral so treated, area VIII was
filled first, but in all the others area IX preceded area VIII.
The base of each spiral is four and one-half inches long. The width of
the design is three inches.
DRAWING NO. 4 (pl. 34); original by Maximiliana Martinez. This rosette
was placed in the interior bottom of a small constricted-mouthed bowl of
red ware. A cloud-design which was painted on the rim of the same bowl
is described and illustrated in fig. 6.
_First stage_ (pl. 34, a); the outlines of one set of four leaves are
drawn (lines 1-8).
_Second stage_ (pl. 34, b); the areas within these enclosing lines are
hatched (areas I-IV). These four areas are filled in clockwise rotation.
_Third stage_ (pl. 34, c); the same areas (numbered V-VIII) are
crosshatched, starting at the tip of each area and working towards the
centre.
_Fourth stage_ (pl. 34, d); four more leaves are drawn between the four
already made. After lines 9 and 10 are drawn, the area between them is
filled with black pigment, leaving an oblique white bar, before lines 11
and 12 are placed upon the vessel. Each of the four leaves is entirely
completed before the next is begun.
_Fifth stage_ (pl. 34, e); this consists in the placing of four lines
(17-20) at the end of each of the four longer leaves. These four groups
of lines are drawn upon the design in clockwise rotation.
_Sixth stage_ (pl. 34, f); at this point Maximiliana glanced at the
drawing which the writer was making in his notes. By accident the ends
of the shorter leaves had there been made more pointed than the actual
painting. When she saw this, she pointed the tips of these leaves with
black to make them correspond in shape to the writer’s drawing.
[Illustration: PLATE 33
Design by Maria Martinez]
[Illustration: PLATE 34
Design by Maximiliana Martinez]
This is an excellent example of the type of work done by a painter who
develops her pattern while drawing it. The contrast between this and the
simple strength of the first three designs (fig. 9 and pls. 32, 33)
should be noticed.
DRAWING NO. 5 (fig. 10); original by Maximiliana Martinez. This is a
border decoration that was applied to the edge of the
constricted-mouthed bowl on which was produced Drawing No. 4.
_First stage_ (fig. 10, a); this is the drawing of the two enclosing
lines (1 and 2) about the lip of the bowl. These are followed at once by
3 to 5, which outline three small semicircles. Eight of these triple
semicircles complete the circumference of the bowl.
_Second stage_ (fig. 10, b); the three semicircles are filled with dots
of pigment, two in each of the upper ones, three in the lower.
_Third stage_ (fig. 10, c); the three small lines are added to the
lowest of the three semicircles.
The painting of the rosette (pl. 34) and the eight sets of semicircles
took just sixteen minutes.
DRAWING NO. 6 (pl. 35); original by Antonita Roybal. This elaborate
decoration was placed upon a large red ware olla. Antonita, it may be
noted, specializes
[Illustration: FIG. 10. Raincloud design by Maximiliana Martinez]
in vessels of this sort, and her designs, while not slavishly repeated,
all have a strong family resemblance, due to her bold use of scrolls and
step-figures. The small upper drawing illustrates the method by which
the design under consideration is applied to the vessel. In the larger
one it is projected flat; the centre circle represents the mouth of the
olla. The time taken for painting the various parts of the pattern is
incorporated in the description; the total time at the end of each stage
being given immediately thereafter.
_Framework lines._ The heavy double-width line forming the middle of the
central square is drawn first. Then two narrower lines are drawn, one
inside and one outside, thus completing the square (sixteen minutes;
00:00-16:00).
The two lines encircling the mouth of the olla are next produced (four
minutes; 16:00-20:00).
_Neck-design within the square._ Each of the four corners of the square
is ornamented with a small scroll-ended element. Each element is first
outlined and then filled with black before the next is begun (twelve and
one-half minutes; 20:30-32:00).
Small irregularly placed spots are then dotted into the remaining
surface within the square (six minutes; 33:00-39:00).
_The medallions._ Appended to each of the four corners of the original
square is a flower-like medallion. The drawing of each is done as
follows. The outer line is first traced, then the inner one. Next the
inner part is filled with black, except for a narrow band across the
middle. To the exterior ring are added the outlines of the nine
radiating elements. As a last step these are filled with black. The olla
is then turned counterclockwise and the next medallion is begun.
Each medallion is completed more quickly than the last. The time: No. 1,
ten minutes (39:00-49:00); No. 2, eight minutes (49:00-57:00); No. 3,
seven and one-half minutes (57:00-64:30); No. 4, six and one-half
minutes (64:30-71:00).
_The side patterns._ Each of the four sides of the square bears a design
composed of two scrolls with a double stepped element and two long
appendages between them. Each design is completed before the next is
begun. The drawing proceeds as follows:
1. The outlining of the scrolls and the drawing of the crossbar between
them.
2. The outlining of the central stepped figures.
3. The filling of the stepped figures with black.
4. The outlining of the two long appendages between the scrolls.
5. The filling of the appendages with black, leaving two narrow
crossbars in the ground color.
6. The addition of the two small appendages between the stepped figures.
7. The outlining of a central streak ending in a small circle in each of
the scrolls.
8. The filling of the scrolls with black, leaving the central streak and
small circle in the ground color.
As in the case of the medallions, each one of the side patterns is
completed more quickly than the last. The time: No. 1, twenty-six
minutes (71:00-97:00); No. 2, twenty-two and a half minutes
(97:00-119:30); No. 3, twenty-one and a half minutes (119:30-141:00);
No. 4, fourteen and a half minutes (141:00-155:30). The entire time
required for painting the design was thus two hours, thirty-five
minutes, and thirty seconds.
[Illustration: PLATE 35
Black design on red jar by Antonita Roybal (the small drawing above
shows how this design is applied to the olla).]
SYMBOLISM[52]
Symbolism of one kind or another, plays a very important part in the
existence of the Pueblo Indian. It is generally agreed that even the
minor acts of everyday life have a certain religious symbolic meaning.
For example, the gourd spoons, or kajepes, used in moulding pottery,
must apparently be consecrated before they may be used. Similarly, a new
technique in pottery making must pass through a period of consecration
before it becomes completely established. On the other hand, white men
often overemphasize the importance of symbolism in studying any
civilization whose customs and philosophy differ radically from their
own.