had great difficulty in obtaining guides, as the natives believed the
cave to be the abode of Satan. The entrance is about half-way up a
hill, and about fifty feet in height, and about the same in breadth.
Squeezing their way through a narrow passage between two rocks, probably
the remains of Genghis Khan's fatal wall, they came to a drop of about
sixteen feet. Down this, by means of ropes, they were lowered by two
men, who remained to haul them up again. Passing through a narrow
tunnel, over a floor of smooth ice, they reached a vast hall, damp and
dripping, the light of their torches not enabling them to form any idea
of its size. Here they discovered hundreds of skeletons, the victims of
Genghis Khan's cruelty. Among them was one, evidently the skeleton of a
mother, holding in its long arms the skeletons of two infants. The
bodies of others had been preserved, and lay as they had fallen,
shrivelled into mummies. After leaving this vast sepulchre, they
proceeded through several low arches with smaller caverns, until they
reached an enormous hall, in the centre of which was a prodigious mass
of clear ice, in the form of a bee-hive, its dome-shaped top just
touching the long icicles which depended from the jagged roof.
A small opening led into the centre of this wonderful ice-heap, which
was divided into several compartments, presenting numerous fantastic
forms. In some the glittering icicles hung like curtains from the roof,
in others the whole compartment was as smooth as glass. The prismatic
colours which presented themselves as the torches flashed on the surface
of the ice were beautifully brilliant.
On every side they were surrounded by solid ice, and, scarcely able to
keep their feet, they slid noiselessly over the glittering surface of
the mysterious hall.
The icicles having reached the floor of one of the largest of the
compartments, had the appearance of pillars supporting the roof.
In Italy and the South of France there are caverns with some distant
aperture through which the wind enters, and being cooled in its
subterraneous passage, sends forth a cold blast at the other end, such
as the Aeolian Cavern, near Terni. It has been utilised by the
proprietors of some of the neighbouring villages, who have conducted the
cold air to their houses by means of leaden pipes, which on sultry
summer days convey a pleasant coolness through plaster-of-paris masks,
with wide distended mouths, fixed in the walls of the rooms.
CHAPTER EIGHT.
COPPER MINES.
Next to England, Sweden is one of the chief copper-producing countries
of Europe.
The mine of Fahlun, in Dalecarlia, has been worked from times
immemorial. In consequence of the careless way in which the excavations
were propped up, in the year 1678 the surface of the ground fell in,
forming a vast pit of above 180 feet in depth, 1200 feet long, and 600
feet broad, with precipitous and sometimes overhanging walls, so that
the spectator appears to be standing on the brink of an enormous crater.
The bottom is filled with masses of rubbish and the remnants of ancient
shafts, and thick beams of wood are seen protruding in all directions.
A broad and convenient wooden staircase has, however, been formed on the
northern side of the pit, by which not only the miners, but even horses
can descend to their work. Passing through the entrance, the mine
gradually widens underground to a depth of 1062 feet. The chief mass of
ore is 600 feet broad on its upper surface, greatly narrowing as it
descends to a depth of 1200 feet. Round it are other similar deposits.
As the copper pyrites are deposited generally on the circumference of
the outer shell of these masses, which are of a very irregular outline,
the mining operations are carried on in a perfect labyrinth of winding
passages and galleries, situated at various depths, and supported either
by pillars or walls. It at one time yielded 5000 tons of copper
annually, but has of late years furnished no more than 600 tons.
A romantic incident is connected with this mine. In the year 1719,
while some miners were exploring an abandoned passage, they discovered a
human body, preserved from corruption by the blue vitriol or sulphate of
copper produced in the mine under the influence of the atmosphere and
water. It was that of a handsome young man. On being brought to the
surface, people from all directions flocked to see it, but nobody could
recognise in its features a lost kinsman or friend. At length a woman,
with tottering steps, upwards of eighty years of age, approached the
corpse, when scarcely had she cast a glance at it than she uttered a
piercing shriek, and exclaimed,--"It is he! It is Gustavus, for whom I
have mourned so long, whom I accused of fickleness in deserting me."
She had in truth recognised her affianced lover, who had mysteriously
disappeared more than sixty years previously, but whose image she still
bore in her memory. As he was not employed in the mines, no one thought
of searching for him underground. The surface is traversed by various
crevices, some leading to the workings underground; and probably
Gustavus, prompted by curiosity, had looked down one of them, and had
either, losing his balance, fallen in, or been precipitated by some
jealous rival in the good graces of the once blooming girl, now a
tottering old woman, weighed down with a double burden of infirmity and
age. She probably forgot how years had passed away, as she gazed once
more on the face of her youthful and handsome lover.
Besides copper, Sweden produces iron of great excellence, won from its
celebrated mines of Dannemora, and largely imported into England for the
manufacture of steel.
Leaving the university town of Upsala, and passing through a natural
barrier of forests and lakes, in which lie the iron-works of Oesterby,
the travellers reached the place in which the pit of Dannemora is
situated; not a sign announced the vicinity of the mine, until they saw
the machines for lifting the ore, and a few huts scattered about, when
they found themselves standing on the brink of a vast pit or crater,
whose black and precipitous walls fence an abyss of a mile in
circumference, and a depth of 450 feet. Here and there in that cold
region they perceived patches of perennial snow and along the black
walls, the dark entrance to labyrinthine caves fringed with long
stalactites of ice. In some of these hollows flames were seen creeping
along the cliff as they issued from piles of fir wood to soften the hard
rock, while on every part of the deep gulf human beings were at work,
the clang of their hammers sounding like the clicking of numberless
clocks, mingled with the creaking of machinery, which brings to the
surface the casks of ore. At length a bell tolled, and men, women, and
children were seen ascending in the tubs, some standing on the edges,
holding on with perfect confidence to the rope by which they were
hoisted up.
Silence now reigned below, except when the voices of overseers were
heard summoning those who had lagged behind, to ascend in haste.
Scarcely had they reached the upper surface when a loud thundering roar
was heard, which echoed through the cavern. The ground trembled as if
convulsed by an earthquake, while black masses of smoke with pieces of
stone or ore ascended from the gulf, and the crashing sound of falling
masses rent from the mother earth was heard. When all the charges had
exploded, the miners again descended to their work.
Although it cannot be classed among the wonders of the subterranean
world, the famous Erzgebirge or iron mountain in the Styrian Alps
deserves mention. It rises to the height of 3000 feet, the whole being
coated with a thin mantle of the richest ore. In all directions it is
covered with machines of various forms, horizontal and vertical
galleries, tunnels and roads, and represents, as it were, a mine turned
inside out. The whole of the operations are exposed to view, like those
in the Carclaze tin mine in Cornwall, only in the former the ore is
conveyed by tram-roads, galleries, and shafts to the bottom of the
mountain, where they all unite in one main shaft, from which a tramway
runs to the smelting-ovens of Eisenerz and Vordernberg.
Among the beautiful productions of nature, rock-crystal may be classed,
known as the false topaz when yellow, the morion when black, and the
smoky quartz when brown. The colourless kinds are often called Bristol
or Irish diamonds, and the violet the amethyst. Some few years ago, a
party of tourists, led by a guide, Peter Sulzer, set out from Guttannew,
in Switzerland. When descending the mountain they reached a dark
cavity, out of which they extracted some pieces of black rock-crystal
with the handles of their Alpine stocks. The following year, Sulzer and
his son, with a few companions, made an attempt to force their way into
the cave, by widening the entrance with gunpowder. In spite of hail,
rain, and bitter cold, they persevered, remaining during the night close
to the cavern, in order to renew their labours the next morning.
Having widened the entrance, they penetrated to a considerable depth
into the mountain, through a large cave piled up with debris, in which
were embedded large planes of jet-black morions. These beautiful
crystals had grown originally from the sides or roof, and had either
fallen from their own weight, or been shaken out by some convulsion of
nature. Their toil was rewarded by upwards of a thousand large
crystals, varying from fifty pounds to more than three hundredweight.
Their expedition and its result becoming known, the whole population of
Guttannew turned out with hammers, spades, and baskets, to carry off
what they had left. As it was reported that the Government intended to
interfere, they laboured night and day for a week, until, by the time
the authorities arrived from Ijri, the whole had been removed. Some of
the finest specimens are still to be seen in the museum at Berne.
Amber, about which all sorts of fabulous stories have passed current, is
found more frequently in the depths of the sea than in those of the
earth. There can be no doubt that it is the product of several
conifers, or cone-bearing trees, overwhelmed by the waves. Although the
gum which exuded from them has remained concealed for ages, until washed
up from the bottom of the ocean, flies and spiders, which must have been
caught when it was in a semi-fluid state, have been found embedded in
it. The insects now appear as perfect as they were thousands of years
ago.
The naturalist, Dr Berndt, has discovered 800 different species of
insects in amber.
The famed cavern in Kentucky is as well worthy of a visit as any
subterranean region. Of late years an hotel has been built near the
entrance, detracting from its once romantic appearance. Visitors first
descend a well-like pit, into which a stream falls, by a flight of
steps, and then passing under a high archway, proceed along a level
road, to what are called the vats, where saltpetre was once
manufactured. Their blazing torches, numerous as they may be, hardly
light up the vast subterranean region. From the large hall they make
their way through a low narrow passage, known as the "Vale of Humility,"
into another hall of enormous extent, the roof so lofty that the torches
scarcely illuminate either the walls or roof. At their feet can be seen
the glitter of water, extending far away into the interior, a bright
stream flowing over a rocky bed into it. Moving on, they in a short
time reach Echo River, on the shore of which a boat is found. When
looking upwards, it appears as if a canopy of black clouds hung over
their heads. On either side can be seen precipitous cliffs, rising
apparently into the sky. Silence and darkness reign around, the smooth
sluggish water alone reflecting the glare of the torches. The visitors
are not disposed to utter a word, until the voice of one of the native
guides suddenly bursts forth into a melancholy chant, which seems as if
echoed by the spirit of his departed brethren. Now the notes rise, now
they fall, as he gives them forth with the full force of his lungs, or
warbles softly, finishing with a melancholy wail, which produces a most
mournful effect. When a pistol is fired off, there comes a succession
of crashing thundering sounds, echoed from every angle of this enormous
vault; backwards and forwards they rush, roaring and reverberating from
wall to wall with terrific crashes. The guides say it is perfectly safe
at all times of the year to traverse the cavern, but there have been
occasions when the waters, rising suddenly, have prevented the return of
explorers. A way, however, was at length discovered through a narrow
passage, the course evidently, at one time, of a stream, up which they
can climb over the mud, and save themselves from being drowned or
starved. This passage has appropriately been called "Purgatory." In
one part the river expands into a lake, the gloomy effect of whose dark
waters, lost in the darkness, is indescribable. Leaving Echo River,
they enter another cavern, known as Cleveland Cabin--a fairy region.
Above their heads, and on either side, the roof and walls are adorned
with delicate flowers, of snowy whiteness, and domes, turrets, spires,
shrubs, and trees, as well as with the forms of birds and beasts of all
descriptions; indeed, figures of every shape which imagination, without
any great exertion, can picture, appear around. The representations of
some are so perfect, that it is difficult to believe that they have not
been carved by the hand of man, and yet all of them have been produced
by the dripping of water from the gypsum rock. The cavern is not
destitute of inhabitants. Huge crickets and spiders of an almost white
colour crawl along over the ground, and rats as big as leverets run by,
exhibiting sharp teeth and long tails. Another cavern is called
"Martha's Vineyard." It appears as if a vine had climbed up the sides
and spread its branches over the roof, from which hang suspended what
look like clusters of grapes, but all of the same stony nature. In
another cave it seems to the visitor that he is standing in a wintry
scene, ice above and ice on the ground, with here and there patches of
snow, the appearance being caused by the excessive whiteness of the
gypsum. Farther on, there is a beautiful grotto, called "Serena's
Arbour," the walls of which are covered with a drapery resembling yellow
satin, falling in graceful folds, while through it murmurs a rivulet,
which makes its way to one of the many rivers running through the
cavern. In another, on the torches being extinguished it appears as if
stars innumerable were glittering in the sky. On a stone being thrown
upwards, it quickly strikes the roof, and it is soon seen that these
seeming stars are produced by pieces of mica embedded in the roof, on
which the light of a lantern being thrown in a peculiar way is brightly
reflected. Although the caverns seem to be of immense height, the
ceiling in most parts is not more than thirty feet from the ground. In
the centre of one cavern, a regular hill rises from the ground, with a
stream running at its base. Several rivers are crossed in this vast
cavern, one is called the Echo River, another the Styx, and a third the
Lethe. They are inhabited by fish and crawfish, sightless and perfectly
white.
This vast cavern, the ramifications of which are said to measure nine
miles, was not known to white men until 1802. For many years no one
advanced beyond three miles from the entrance, further progress being
stopped by a deep cavern called the "Bottomless Pit," 1000 feet deep.
At length, however, a daring guide threw a ladder over it, and crossing
by this means, he was able to explore six more miles of this
subterranean region.
A bridge has now been constructed by which people can pass over in
perfect safety. It is said that no dog will willingly enter the cavern;
indeed, few persons can pass along its passages without a sensation of
awe, although with a guide it may be traversed without danger.
CHAPTER NINE.
SILVER MINES, ETCETERA.
If a true history of the silver mines of South America were to be
written it would reveal the cruel death of thousands and thousands of
human beings, sacrificed to the lust of gain. High up among the Andes,
surrounded by a succession of steep and naked rocks, is the town of
Pasco, built above the mines, from which the inhabitants obtain their
subsistence. The entrances to most of the mines are situated in the
midst of the town. The irregular shafts descend directly down into the
interior of the mountain, access being by a series of ladders often
ill-constructed and rough, ropes and chains being employed to hoist up
the ore. Frequently, the overseers having neglected to put up the
necessary props, portions of the mines have broken in and destroyed many
of the hapless workers. In one instance 300 perished at once by this
means. In most of the mines the labourers, after getting out the ore,
have to bring it to the surface in baskets on their backs, often from
immense depths, and were it not for the sustaining coca leaf they would
be unable to undergo such excessive toil. When rich veins are struck,
the wages of the miners increase, but in most instances they spend them
in drinking and debauchery, while the proprietors of the mines are
almost equally uncivilised.
Fourteen miles from the town of Caxamarca is an isolated mountain called
the Cerro de San Fernando de Gualgayoc, traversed by numberless veins of
silver. At its summit rise a number of pyramidal pinnacles. Its steep
sides are pierced by several hundred galleries formed for the extraction
of the ore, as well as by numerous natural openings, while in all
directions are seen the huts of the labourers, sticking like the nests
of birds, wherever a ledge has enabled them to be constructed. One of
the richest silver mines of Peru is that of Salcedo, but nothing is now
known of it except its tragical history. A Don Jose Salcedo, a
Spaniard, without a maravedi in his pocket, made love to an Indian girl,
whose mother promised to reveal to him a rich silver lode on condition
that he married her daughter.
Aided by his Indian relatives, with whom he lived on the most friendly
terms, he obtained vast quantities of silver from the mine, the entrance
to which was kept carefully concealed.
His wealth excited the rapacity of the viceroy Count Lemos, who, to
obtain possession of it, accused him of exciting the natives to
rebellion, and cast him into prison. In vain Salcedo entreated that he
might appeal to the mercy of the king, and promised to give the viceroy
a bar of silver daily, from the time the ship left the port of Callao to
her return from Europe, which would probably be upwards of a year; but
the viceroy, instead of listening to the proposal of Salcedo, ordered
him to be hung. No sooner was this known to the natives than they
destroyed the works, and so carefully concealed the entrance, that even
to the present day it is unknown. The tribes afterwards dispersed, and
even cruel tortures could not induce them to reveal the secret.
There can be no doubt that there are many rich lodes in existence worked
by Indians, who, knowing that they will be compelled to labour for the
benefit of their masters, carefully conceal them. In many of the mines
of Peru, the natives having almost been exterminated, the proprietors
endeavoured to kidnap the inhabitants of the Pacific to supply their
places, but after several hundreds had been nefariously captured, the
Governments of England and France interfered and put a stop to the
practice. In another part of South America, near the town of Cumana, is
a vast cavern in the Valley of Caripe, which was many years ago visited
by Baron Humboldt, who found it inhabited by a remarkable species of
nocturnal bird, called the guacharo. The mouth of the cavern is pierced
in the side of the cliff looking towards the south, in the form of an
arch, eighty feet wide and seventy-two in height. The summit of the
cliff is covered with trees of gigantic size, and with shrubs and plants
growing in all the luxuriance of a tropical vegetation, while a variety
of creeping plants hang in elegant festoons before its entrance.
Visitors can proceed for upwards of 430 feet without being compelled to
light their torches. When the light of day begins to fail, the hoarse
cries of the nocturnal birds are heard coming out of the dark recesses
of the interior. The guacharo is of the size of the common fowl; its
hooked bill is white, like that of the goat-sucker, and furnished at the
base with stiff hairs, directed forwards. The plumage is of a sombre
brownish grey, mixed with black stripes and large white spots. Their
eyes are incapable of bearing the light of day, and their wings are
disproportionately large, measuring no less than four and a-half feet
from tip to tip. The birds quit the cavern only at nightfall, to feed
on fruits. A most horrible noise is made by them in the dark recesses
of the cavern, and the clamour increases as they are disturbed by the
visitors advancing deeper into it with torches, and those nestling in
the side avenues begin to utter their mournful cries. When the first
sink into silence, it seems as if the more remote inhabitants were
alternately complaining to each other of the intruders. The nests of
these birds are fixed fifty or sixty feet from the ground, in
funnel-shaped holes, with which the cavern roof is pierced like a sieve.
Armed with poles, the natives once a year, about mid-summer, enter the
cavern and knock down the young birds, while the old ones, with
lamentable cries, hover over the heads of the robbers. The young which
are taken are opened on the spot, when the peritonaeum is found loaded
with fat, and a layer of substance reaches from the abdomen to the vent,
forming a kind of cushion between the bird's legs. At this period,
called by the Indians the oil harvest, huts are erected by them, with
palm leaves, near the entrance. Here the fat of the young birds is
melted in clay pots, over a brushwood fire; but although thousands are
killed, not more than 160 jars of clear oil are obtained. A small river
flows through the cavern, and the visitor is compelled, as he proceeds,
to wade through water, not, however, more than two feet deep. From the
entrance as far as 1458 feet the cavern maintains the same direction,
width, and height, after which it loses its regularity, and its walls
are covered with stalactites. The same bird has been found in the
province of Bogota, and may probably be discovered in other caverns.
Animal life exists in considerable quantities in many subterranean
regions, such as beetles, eyeless spiders, scorpions, millipedes, and
crustaceans. The most curious is the Proteus anguinus, which breathes
at the same time through lungs and gills. It has a long eel-like body,
with an elongated head, and four very short and thin legs. The skin is
flesh-coloured, and so translucent that the liver and heart, which beat
about fifty times a minute, can be seen distinctly beneath. Two little
black spots, resembling eyes, lie buried under the skin, and are only
partially developed. Weak as it appears, it glides rapidly through the
water, when its four little legs remain motionless; it uses them,
indeed, only for creeping, and then in a very imperfect manner. Seven
distinct species of proteus have been discovered, six of which were
found in the cavern of Carniola, besides crickets, spiders, and a few
crustaceae. A peculiar blind rat is found in the Mammoth Cave of
Kentucky. A blind fish swims in its rivers, and Professor Agassiz is of
opinion that they, like all other blind animals of the cavern world,
have at no time been connected with the world of light.
Vegetable life also exists in caverns, but consists of such mushrooms or
fungi which, shunning the light, love darkness and damp. For their
existence, however, moisture and warmth of air is necessary, but they
are invariably dependent on organic basis, and are commonly found
germinating on pieces of wood, particularly in a state of decomposition.
More than seventy subterranean fungi have been discovered, some
remarkable for their size. A few years ago a fungus was found growing
from the wood-work of a tunnel near Doncaster, which measured no less
than fifteen feet in diameter.