The common effect of all kinds of exercise is to produce an increase of
the natural heat of animals. But each species has something peculiar to
it. Strong, that is to say, violent exercise gives vigour to the muscles
and nerves: such are digging, and lifting a very heavy burden, while
one remains in the same spot, or moves about; or lifting small weights
and walking about as much as one can. Of this kind, is the exercise
of scaling a rope, and many others of a like kind. The swift kinds of
exercise are such as do not require strength and violence, namely,
running, fighting with one’s shadow, wrestling with the extremities of
the hands, the exercise with the leather bag, and that with the small
Ball. This last is compounded of intension and velocity; and such
exercises as are intense may become violent by adding velocity to them.
Besides, some kinds of exercise bring the loins into action, and some the
hands or legs; others the spine or the chest alone, or the lungs. And
exercise ought to be carried on until the body becomes distended, and the
skin of a florid hue; and until then, the motions ought to be strong,
equable, and spirited, upon which you may see warm sweat, mixed with
vapour, break out. It will then be time for you to stop, when any of the
symptoms which I have mentioned have undergone a change, namely, when the
bulk of the body becomes contracted, or when the florid colour of the
skin declines. And, should any of the motions remit, it will then be time
to stop immediately; or, if there should be any change in the quantity or
quality of the perspiration; for if it should become smaller in quantity,
or colder, we must desist, and, besmearing the body with oil, endeavour
to restore it. It will then be proper to use the Restorative friction, as
the masters of gymnastics are wont to practise.
* * * * *
COMMENTARY. We shall now give a brief account of the ancient exercises,
some of which are altogether omitted by our author.
The σκιομαχία is thus explained by Cornarius: “Porro σκιομαχίαν accipio
umbratilem pugnam, quâ quis privatim domi aut sub umbra, non in propatulo
se exercet, ac veluti præparat ad justam pugnam publicè faciendam.” (Notæ
in Paul. Ægin. h. 1.) This account, however, does not agree with that of
Oribasius, who describes it as a mock encounter at boxing and jumping
with one’s own shadow. (Med. Collect. vi, 29.) It is thus described in
the Latin translation of Avicenna: “Et ex eis est, insequi umbram suam,
ut ipsam percutiat in capite, et manus ad invicem percutere.” (i, 3, 2,
2.) It is mentioned in this sense by Plato (de Legibus, vii), by Plutarch
(Probl. Conviv. vii), and by Achilles Tatius (p. 115.) Juvenal probably
alludes to this sport. (Sat. vi, 246.) We have therefore translated it,
“fighting with one’s own shadow.”
The ἀκροχειρισμὸς is thus described by Scaliger: “Est autem ἀκροχειρίζειν
luctæ pars, cum primoribus tantum digitis insertis roboris faciunt
periculum.” (Poet. i, 22.) Suidas explains it thus: “A man taking hold
of his antagonist’s fingers, strove to break them, and did not give over
until he compelled him to yield.” The term occurs in Aristotle. (Eth.
Nicom. iii, 1.) See also, Athenæus. (Deipnos. iv, 13.) It is called
ἀκροχέιρισις by Hippocrates (De Diæta. ii, 42), who says it reduces the
body.
The exercise with the κώρυκος, or leather bag, is described by Oribasius
in the following manner: A bag filled with flour or sand was suspended
from the top of the house, on a level with the navel; it was then
pushed forwards with the hands to the extremity of the rope, and, as it
recoiled, the person performing the exercise retreated backwards, so as
to escape from it. (Med. Collect. vi, 33.) This exercise is mentioned by
Hippocrates. (De Diæta, ii.) Cornarius and the translator of Hippocrates
confound it with the _follis_ of the Romans; but Mercurialis clearly
shows that they were quite different. The _follis_ was a leather ball,
inflated with air; such is the description of it by Cælius Aurelianus:
“Follis erat pila magna ex aluta confecta, soloque vento repleta.”
Martial represents it as a becoming exercise for boys or old men:
“Ite procul juvenes, mitis mihi convenit ætas,
Folle decet pueros ludere, folle senes.”
(Epigr. xiv, 45.)
They were different from the _pila magna_ and _parva_; that is to say,
the large and small ball. These balls were of different sizes, and were
played with in various ways. They are minutely described by Oribasius.
(Med. Collect. vi, 32.) See also Horace (Sat. ii, 2), and Martial (Epigr.
iv, 15.) See a most learned and accurate account of all these sports in
Mercurialis. (De Arte Gymnastica, ii, 4.) Galen has written a treatise on
the exercise of the parva pila. To this class of exercises we may refer
_the pitching of a stone_, which is mentioned by Avicenna.
Our author has neglected to make mention of the _halteres_ in this place,
but recommends the exercise for the cure of elephantiasis. (iv, 1.) It
is described by Galen, who says, it can be made to exercise the spine
transversely. (De Sanit. tuend. ii, 11.) The exercise with them is thus
described by Potter: “The exercise of leaping they sometimes performed
with weights upon their heads or shoulders, sometimes carrying them in
their hands; these were called ἁλτῆρες, which, though now and then of
different figures, yet, as Pausanias reports, were usually of an oval
form, and made with holes, or else covered with thongs, through which
the contenders put their fingers.” (Antiquities of Greece, c. 20.)
Mercurialis describes them as masses or weights of different materials,
and of such a size as that they could be held in the hands. Ropes, too,
he adds, were often fastened to them, to hold with. (De Arte Gymnast. ii,
12.) The Pythagoreans were fond of this exercise. (Iamblichus de Vita
Pythagoræ, c. 21.)
The _funambulatio_ consisted merely in scaling ropes, which, as we may
suppose, was done in various ways. See Mercurialis (iii, 5), and Baccius
(de Thermis, viii, 7.)
The ἐκπλεθρίζειν, as Galen and Avicenna explain, consisted in running
round the plethrum, or sixth part of the stadium, and always contracting
the circle of one’s course, until one stopt in the middle. The
πιτυλίζειν, as the same authors explain, consisted in walking upon one’s
toes, and tossing one’s hands backwards and forwards.
The _cricilasia_ appears to have been a large hoop, or circle, which
was rolled on the ground. Even Mercurialis admits the obscurity of
Oribasius’s description of it. (Med. Collect. vi, 26.)
The _petaurum_ was a seat suspended by ropes, in which seat the person
taking the exercise sat, and was tossed about by assistants. It is
mentioned by Juvenal (Sat. xiv), and Martial (Epigr. xi, 22.)
Antyllus thus describes the effects of _equitation_ on the human frame:
“It strengthens the body, especially the stomach, more than any other
mode of exercise; it clears the organs of the senses, and renders them
more acute; but it is most inimical to the thorax.” Oribasius (Med.
Collect. vi, 24), Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxviii, 4), and Aëtius agree with
Antyllus as to the good effects of equitation on the stomach. Hippocrates
and Cælius Aurelianus state that equitation is hurtful in disease of the
hip-joint. All agree that riding on horseback is hurtful in diseases of
the chest.
Of ἀιώρα, or _gestation_, there were various modes. That in a carriage
was very ancient, and is often mentioned by the medical authors. It
appears from Pliny (Hist. Nat. xvi, 42), that carriages were generally
made of fir, and that the axles were of ilex, mountain ash, or elm.
Sometimes, however, the whole chariot was adorned with gold and silver.
(Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxiv, 17.) They appear to have been often covered in
with skins. (Plutarch, Prob. Roman.) They were generally drawn by horses
or mules, sometimes by oxen, and occasionally by slaves. They were so
constructed that a person could either sit or lie, according to pleasure.
(Galen, Hyg.) At first, according to Pliny, they had only two wheels;
the Phrygians, he says, added two more; and Hippocrates mentions that
the Scythians introduced the use of six-wheeled carriages. The sedan and
chair are often mentioned by the Latin poets, as well as by the medical
writers. It is sufficient for our purpose to state that they were so
constructed, that one could either sit or lie in them. They sometimes
had windows, formed from the lapis specularis. (Juvenal, Sat. iv, 21.)
Navigation, or sailing in ships and boats, is often mentioned by ancient
authors as a remedial measure. It was practised on the sea or in rivers.
According to Aëtius, gestation in general ventilates the natural heat,
produces excitement, dispels collected humours, strengthens the frame,
and rouses the actions when in an indolent state. (iii, 6.) Celsus has an
interesting chapter on gestation. The following rule for the application
of it is very judicious: “Gestatio quoque longis et jam inclinatis
morbis aptissima est; utilisque est et iis corporibus quæ jam ex toto
febre carent, sed adhuc exerceri per se non possunt; et iis quibus lentæ
morborum reliquiæ remanent, neque aliter eliduntur.” Upon the whole, he
holds it to be a doubtful practice in ardent fever, although sanctioned
by the authority of Asclepiades Bithynus: at all events, he insists that
gestation is improper when there is any local pain or swelling. After
characterizing the different modes of gestation, he remarks respecting
them: “Levia quidem genera exercitationis infirmis conveniunt: valentiora
vero iis qui jam pluribus diebus febre liberati sunt; aut iis, qui
gravium morborum initia sic sentiunt, ut adhuc febre vacent, quod et in
tabe, et in stomachi vitiis, et cum aqua cutem subiit, et interdum in
regio morbo fit; aut ubi quidam morbi, qualis comitialis, qualis insania
est, sine febre, quamvis diu, manent.” (ii, 15.)
Galen eulogises _hunting_ as being an excellent exercise to the body,
and an agreeable recreation to the mind. He says, that by the mental
excitement which it produces, many have been cured of dangerous diseases.
(De parva Pila.) Rhases mentions, that during the prevalence of a certain
pestilential epidemic, it was observed, that huntsmen were the only class
of people who escaped its contagion. (Contin. iii.) The ancients have
transmitted to us many elegant treatises, both in prose and in verse,
on this delightful recreation. Those of Xenophon, Oppian, Gratius, and
Nemesianus will be found particularly interesting. The younger Pliny
attributes his recovery from a certain complaint, to the exercise of
hunting. (Epist. v, 6.)
The occupation of _fishing_, according to Plato, produces neither mental
nor bodily excitement. (In Sophista.) Galen and Avicenna briefly mention
it as an exercise which may tend to the preservation of health; but
neither of them appears to have attached much importance to it. The poet
Oppian, however, in his ‘Halieutica’ has celebrated the pleasures and
dangers of fishing, with all the enthusiasm of an Isaac Walton, or a
Washington Irving.
Oribasius states that _swimming_ tends to warm, strengthen, and attenuate
the body. He says that swimming in the sea is particularly applicable in
cases of dropsy, eruptive diseases of the skin, and elephantiasis. It
is apt, however, he adds, to prove injurious to the head, and also to
the nerves when too long continued. We have mentioned in the fifteenth
Section, that the ancients got their bodies rubbed with oil before going
into the water. Celsus gives nearly the same account of it, as a remedy
for the cure of diseases, as Oribasius. Swimming may be said to have
been the national exercise of the ancient Romans. Horace in particular
makes frequent allusions to it as an invigorating and manly exercise. The
Romans had artificial lakes or ponds connected with their baths, for the
purpose of swimming. (Pliny, Epist. v, 6.)
_Jumping_ and _dancing_, according to Oribasius, occasion a determination
downwards, and hence, they may prove useful in cases of amenorrhœa. (Med.
Collect. vi, 31.) It appears from a case related in a work attributed
to Hippocrates, that jumping was had recourse to, to procure abortion.
(De nat. Pueri.) The most eloquent encomiast of dancing is Lucian, who
has written an ingenious treatise in praise of it. He contends that it
is an excellent training, not only to the body, but also to the mind! He
refers to Socrates and other sage philosophers who practised dancing.
(De Saltatione.) The Pyrrhic dance of the ancients was particularly
celebrated. It was performed by armed men. See Vossius (de Nat. Art. i,)
and Athenæus (Deipn. xiv, 19, ed. Schweigh.)
On the Apotherapia or Restorative process, see Galen (Hyg. iii);
Oribasius (Med. Collect. vi, 16); and Avicenna (i, 3, 2.) It consisted
simply in rubbing the body softly and moderately with oil. According
to Galen, the object of it was to relieve the feelings of lassitude,
and prevent any bad effects from the exercise. Mercurialis states that,
when applied after the bath, it was with the intention of preventing the
humidity from being dissipated. Odoriferous ointments and powders were
sometimes used instead of the oil. (De Arte gymnast. i; also Baccius de
Thermis, 10.)