An animal similar, in some respects, has been subsequently found on the
Straits of St. Mary's, Michigan, a specimen of the dried skin of which I
presented to the National Institute at Washington; but, from the absence
of the head bones and teeth, it is not easy to determine whether it is a
sciurus, or arctomys.
(B.)
The duplicature of the cheeks of this animal having been extended
_outwardly_ in drying the skin, was left in its rigid state, giving it
an unnatural appearance, which doubtless led to the incredulity of
Cuvier when he saw the figure and description of Dr. Shaw. Dr. Mitchell
was led to a similar error of opinion, at first, as to the natural
position of these bags; but afterwards, when the matter was explained to
him, corrected this mistaken notion.
(C.)
By reference to the descriptions of Mr. Barnes and Mr. Lea, recited
above, the number will be seen to have exceeded this estimate.
XVI.
Mus Busarius. Vide _Medical Repository_, vol. xxi. p. 248.
XVII.
Sciurus Tredecem Striatus. _Medical Repository_, vol. xxi.
XVIII.
Proteus. _American Journal of Science_, vol. iv.
6. METEOROLOGY.
XIX.
_Memoranda of Climatic Phenomena and the Distribution of Solar Heat in
1820._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
The influence of solar heat on the quantity of water which is discharged
from the great table lands which give origin to the sources of the
Mississippi was such, during the summer months of 1820, that, on
reaching those altitudes in latitude but a few minutes north of 47°, on
the 21st of July, it was found impracticable to proceed higher in
tracing out its sources. Attention had been directed to the phenomena of
temperatures, clouds, evaporations, and solar influences, from the
opening of the year, but they were not prosecuted with all the
advantages essential to generalization. Still, some of the details
noticed merit attention as meteorological memoranda which may be
interesting in future researches of this kind, and it is with no higher
view that these selections are made.
_Observations made at Geneva, N. Y._
1820. 7 A.M. 1 P.M. 7 P.M. REMARKS.
April 20 64° 73° 60° Clear.
" 21 62 74 61 Clear.
" 22 65 78 66 Clear.
" 23 60 69 59 Clear.
" 24 59 70 61 Clear.
" 25 54 64 55 Clear.
" 26 55 67 54 Cloudy, with rain.
" 27 50 60 51 Rainy.
" 28 64 ... ... Clear.
_Observations made at Buffalo, N. Y._
1820. 8 A.M. 2 P.M. REMARKS.
April 30 43° 60° Clear.
May 1 49 64 Clear.
" 2 45 63 Clear.
" 3 44 65 Clear.
" 4 46 79 Cloudy.
" 5 40 68 Cloudy, with rain.
" 6 44 ... Cloudy.
These places are but ninety miles apart, yet such is the influence of
the lake winds on the temperature of the latter position, that it
denotes an atmospheric depression of temperature of 5°. At the same
time, the range between the maximum and minimum was exactly the same.
_Observations made at Detroit._
1820. 8 A.M. 12 M. 6 P.M. REMARKS. WIND.
May 15, 50° 61° 51° Fair. N. E.
" 16, 49 62 50 Fair. N. E.
" 17, 50 64 51 Fair. N. E.
" 18, 52 64 60 Fair. N. E.
" 19, 60 68 60 Fair. N. E.
" 20, 64 68 63 Fair. N. E.
" 21, 67 82 66 Fair. S. W.
" 22, 64 88 82 Fair. S. W.
" 23, 72 84 76 Cloudy, some rain W. N. W.
" 24, 53 64 ... Cloudy. N. W.
The average temperature of this place for May is denoted to be some five
or six degrees higher while the wind remained at N.E., but on its
changing to S.W. (on the 21st), the temperature ran up four degrees at
once. As soon as it changed to N.W. (on the 24th), the thermometer fell
from its range on the 21st fourteen degrees.
The uncommon beauty and serenity of the Michigan autumns, and the
mildness of its winters, have often been the subject of remark. By a
diary of the weather kept by a gentleman in Detroit, in the summer and
fall of 1816, from the 24th of July to the 22d of October, making
eighty-nine days, it appears that
57 were fair,
12 cloudy, and
20 showery and rainy.
By a diary kept at the garrison of Detroit (Fort Shelby), agreeable to
orders from the War Department, from the 15th of Nov. 1818, to the 28th
of Feb. 1819, making 105 days,
40 of them are marked "clear,"
40 "cloudy,"
13 "clear and cloudy," and
12 "cloudy, with rain or snow."
By Fahrenheit's thermometer, kept at the same place, and under the same
direction, it appears that the medium temperature of the atmosphere was
agreeable to the following statement:--
7 A.M. 2 P.M. 9 P.M. Average. Lowest deg. Highest deg.
Nov. 13 to 30, 41° 47° 41° 43° 31° 58°
December, 22 29 25 25 2 50
January, 30 31 30 30 10 58
February, 29 39 31 33 8 58
Prevailing winds, S. W. and N. W.
_Observations on Lake and River St. Clair, Michigan._
1820. 6 A.M. 8 A.M. 12 M. 2 P.M. 6 P.M. 8 P.M. REMARKS.
May 24, ... ... ... ... ... 51°
" 25, 47° 56° 56° ... 46° ... Clear. Wind N. W.
" 26, ... 52 53 56° 45 ... Clear. Wind N. W.
" 27, ... 54 55 ... ... 44 Clear. Wind N. W.
_Temperature of the Water of Lake and River St. Clair._
May 25, at 6 A. M., 49° at 12 M., 54°
" 26, at 8 A. M., 55 at 2 P. M., 55
" 27, at 8 A. M., 54 at 12 M., 55 at 8 P. M., 50°
_Observations on Lake Huron._
--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+----
May| 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 |June 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6
--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+----
5 A.M. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 46° | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..
--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+----
6 A.M. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 50°| 52 | 48 | ..
--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+----
8 A.M. |54° | 44 | 46 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 49
--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+----
9 A.M. | .. | .. | .. | 54°| 57 | .. | .. | 51 | .. | ..
--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+----
11 A.M.| .. | .. | .. | .. | 61° | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..
--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+----
12 M. |53° | .. | 53 | .. | .. | 55 | .. | .. | 57 | 57
--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+----
1 P.M. | .. | .. | .. |55° | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..
--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+----
2 P.M. | .. | 70°| .. | .. | .. | .. | 61 | .. | .. | ..
--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+----
3 P.M. | .. | .. | .. | 54°| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..
--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+----
5 P.M. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 49°| .. | ..
--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+----
6 P.M. | .. | 53°| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 44| 46
--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+----
7 P.M. | .. | .. | 48°| 48 | 54 | 50 | 47 | 45 | .. | ..
--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+----
8 P.M. | 41°| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..
--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+-------+--------
Average | 51°| 55 | 49 | 53 | 54 |52-½|52-½| 49 |49-½| 50-½ |51 6-10
temp. | | | | | | | | | | |
--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+-------+--------
REMARKS.|[A] |[B] |[C] | | | | |[D] |[E] | [F] | [G]
--------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+-------+--------
[Note A: Clear. Wind N. W.]
[Note B: Clear in the morning; in the afternoon high wind from N. W.
with thunder and lightening.]
[Note C: Clear. Wind high; N. W.]
[Note D: Cloudy, with rain. Winds strong; N. W.]
[Note E: Flying clouds. Wind strong; N. W.]
[Note F: Clear. Wind Strong; N. W.]
[Note G: Average temperature]
_Water at Lake Huron._
Average.
May 28, at 5 A.M., 55° at 12 A.M., 58° at 7 P.M., 56° 56°
" 29, at 7 A.M., 54 at 12 A.M., 60 at 7 P.M., 63 59
June 1, at 5 A.M., 42 at 11 A.M., 52 at 7 P.M., 44 40
" 3, at 6 A.M., 46 at 2 P.M., 56 at 8 P.M., 46 47
" 6, at 8 A.M., 50 at 12 A.M., 52 at 6 P.M., 49 50-½
_Observations at Michilimackinac and on the Straits of St. Mary's._
------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------+-----------------
1820.| 6 | 8 | 9 | 1 | 3 | 7 | 9 | |
|A.M.|A.M.|A.M.|P.M.|P.M.|P.M.|P.M.|Average.| WEATHER.
------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------+-----------------
June 7|... |... | 59°|61° |... |... |59° |59-½° |Clear.
" 8 |... |... | 59 |... |64° |... |59 |60 |Clear.
" 9 |... |... | 53 |... |... |53° |... |52-½ |Cloudy with rain.
" 10 |... |55° | ...|... |60 |... |54 |56 |Cloudy with rain.
" 11 |... |52 | ...|... |54 |... |51 |52 |Clear.
" 12 |... |54 | ...|55 |... |... |52 |53 |Clear.
" 13 |53° |... | ...|63 |... |... |58 |58 |Fair.
" 14 |55 |... | ...|73 |... |... |57 |61 |Cloudy.
" 15 |... |66 | ...|... |68 |62 |... |65 |Clear.
" 16 |... |52 | 70 |82 |... |66 |... |69 |Clear.
" 17 |... |58 | ...|... |82 |... |78 |74 |Clear.
" 18 |56 |... | ...|76 |... |... |68 |66 |Cloudy; rain.
------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------+-----------------
------+---------------
1820. | WIND.
------+---------------
June 7| W. N. W.
" 8 | W. N. W.
" 9 |
" 10 | W.
" 11 | S. E.
" 12 | S. E.
" 13 | S. W.
" 14 | S. W.
" 15 | S. W. }
" 16 | S. W. } St.
" 17 | S. W. } Mary's
" 18 | N. W.
------+---------------
The chief conclusion to be drawn, is the extreme fluctuations of winds
and temperatures, in these exposed positions on the open lakes.
_Observations on Lake Superior._
--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
1820. | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12
| A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M.
--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
June 19 | .. | .. | 64 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..
" 20 | .. | 72 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 75
| | | | | | | | |
" 21 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 65 | .. | ..
" 22 | .. | .. | 55 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..
" 23 | .. | 65 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 68
" 24 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 58 | .. | .. | .. | 74
" 25 | .. | .. | .. | 60 | .. | .. | .. | 62 | ..
" 26 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 69 | .. | .. | ..
" 27 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 68 | .. | .. | .. | ..
" 28 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 74 | .. | .. | .. | ..
" 29 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 79 | .. | .. | .. | ..
" 30 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 76 | .. | .. | 84
July 1 | 54 | .. | .. | .. | 61 | .. | .. | .. | ..
" 2 | 70 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 75 | .. | ..
" 3 | .. | .. | 70 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..
| | | | | | | | |
" 4 | .. | .. | .. | 57 | .. | 61 | .. | .. | ..
--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
1820. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8
| P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M.
--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
June 19 | 78 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 72 | .. | ..
" 20 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 68 | 71 | .. | ..
| | | | | | | |
" 21 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 70 | .. | ..
" 22 | .. | .. | 63 | .. | .. | .. | 49 | ..
" 23 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..
" 24 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 60 | 63 | ..
" 25 | .. | 76 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..
" 26 | .. | 83 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 68
" 27 | .. | 71 | .. | .. | .. | 69 | .. | ..
" 28 | 91 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 74 | .. | ..
" 29 | 94 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 86 | ..
" 30 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 60
July 1 | .. | 75 | .. | 80 | .. | 68 | .. | ..
" 2 | .. | 76 | .. | .. | .. | 65 | .. | 65
" 3 | .. | .. | 66 | .. | .. | 52 | .. | 61
| | | | | | | |
" 4 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | ..
--------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
--------+------+------+---------+------------------------------
1820. | 9 | 10 | Average | REMARKS.
| P.M. | P.M. | temp. |
--------+------+------+---------+------------------------------
June 19 | .. | .. | 70-½ | Stormy and rain. Wind N. W.
" 20 | .. | .. | 71-½ | Stormy and rain. Wind N. W.
| | | | Hurricane at night.
" 21 | 50 | .. | 62 | Calm.
" 22 | .. | .. | 55-½ | Clear. Wind light from N. W.
" 23 | .. | 70 | 67-½ | Clear. Wind S. E.
" 24 | .. | .. | 63 | Clear. High wind, N. W.
" 25 | 53 | .. | 62-½ | Clear. Wind N. W.
" 26 | .. | .. | 73 | Rainy. Wind W. N. W.
" 27 | .. | .. | 69 | Clear. Wind E. N. E. (Fair!)
" 28 | .. | .. | 79-½ | Sky clear. Wind N. W.
" 29 | .. | .. | 88 | Clear. Wind N. W.
" 30 | .. | .. | 73 | Clear. Wind N. W.
July 1 | .. | .. | 67-½ | Misty. Wind light at N. N. W.
" 2 | .. | .. | 70 | Clear. Wind W. S. W.
" 3 | .. | .. | 65 | Cloudy, mist, and rain. Wind
| | | | S. S. W.
" 4 | .. | .. | | Wind S. S. W.
--------+------+------+---------+------------------------------
_Temperature of Lake Superior._
Lake
average.
June 20, at 6 P.M., 55° 55°
" 21, at 10 A.M., 60 at 6 P.M., 56° at 9 P.M., 56° 57
" 22, at 6 A.M., 56 at 3 P.M., 54 55
" 23, at 5 A.M., 52 at 12 A.M., 56 at 10 P.M., 64 57
" 24, at 6 P.M., 54 at 7 P.M., 51 53
" 25, at 7 A.M., 67 at 11 A.M., 66 at 9 P.M., 68 60
" 26, at 9 A.M., 56 at 8 P.M., 57 56
" 27, at 8 A.M., 57 at 6 P.M., 62 60
" 28, at 8 A.M., Superior 62° at 6 P.M., Lake 72 } 67
Ontonagon 54 River 71 }
" 29, at 8 A.M., Lake 64 61
River 68 at 1 P.M., River 76 at 7 P.M., 75°
" 30, at 8 P.M., River 74
July 1, at 8 A.M., 61 at 2 P.M., 65 at 6 P.M., 66 64
" 2, at 4 A.M., 63 at 11 A.M., 64 at 2 P.M., 68 at 9 P.M., 62 64
" 3, at 6 A.M., 62 at 3 P.M., 60 at 9 P.M., 58 60
" 4, at 7 A.M., 58
It will be observed that the fluctuations of temperature noticed at
lower points on the lake chain, about the latitude of Michilimackinac,
have also characterized the entire length of Lake Superior. The
atmosphere observed at three separate times, during twenty-four days, by
Fahrenheit's thermometer, during the months of June and July, has varied
from an average temperature of 62° to 88°, agreeable to masses of clouds
interposed to the rays of the sun, and to shifting currents of wind,
which have often suddenly intervened. Its waters, spreading for a length
of five hundred miles from E. to W., observed during the same time by as
many immersions of the instrument, has not varied more than two degrees
below or above the average temperature of 55° in mere surface
observations.
_Observations on the Sources of the Mississippi River._
--------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+-------+-------
| 5 | 7 | 8 | 12 | 2 | 8 | 9
| A. M. | A. M. | A. M. | M. | P. M. | P. M. | P. M.
--------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+-------+-------
July 17 | ... | ... | ... | 76° | 80° | 79° | 78°
" 18 | ... | ... | 51° | 64 | 66 | 53 | 50
" 19 | ... | ... | 46 | 63 | 70 | 55 | ...
" 20 | ... | ... | 60 | 80 | 84 | 75 | ...
" 21 | ... | ... | 68 | 86 | 88 | 85 | 74
" 22 | ... | ... | 73 | 88 | 90 | 77 | ...
" 23 | ... | ... | 70 | 82 | 88 | 78 | ...
" 24 | ... | ... | 74 | 87 | 80 | 78 | ...
" 25 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 85 | 74 | ...
" 26 | 61° | ... | ... | ... | 81 | 61 | ...
" 27 | 62 | ... | ... | ... | 80 | 75 | ...
" 28 | 62 | ... | ... | ... | 76 | 61 | ...
" 29 | 50 | ... | ... | ... | 74 | 52 | ...
" 30 | ... | 60° | ... | ... | 76 | ... | 63
" 31 | ... | 65 | ... | ... | 81 | ... | 69
Aug. 1 | ... | 67 | ... | ... | 83 | 70 | ...
" 2 | ... | 72 | ... | ... | [263]| ... | ...
--------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+-------+-------
--------+---------------------------------
| REMARKS.
|
--------+---------------------------------
July 17 | Morning rainy, then fair.
" 18 | Fair.
" 19 | Night rainy, morning cloudy,
| then fair.
" 20 |
" 21 |
" 22 | Cloudy, some thunder.
" 23 | Night and morning rain,
| afternoon thunder.
" 24 | Fair.
" 25 | Fair.
" 26 | Morning fair, evening cloudy
| and rain, clear.
" 27 | Morning fair, evening fair.
" 28 | Morning fair, rain in afternoon.
" 29 | Clear.
" 30 | Wind N. W., weather clear.
" 31 | Wind W., weather clear.
Aug. 1 | Fair.
" 2 | Fair.
--------+---------------------------------
[263] Broke instrument.
_Observations at St. Peter's (now Minnesota)._
1820. 7 A.M. 2 P.M. 9. A.M. WINDS. WEATHER.
July 15, 61° 79° 64° S. Clear; fair.
" 16, 62 82 76 S. Clear; rain towards morning.
" 17, 70 88 61 W. Cloudy; rain, thunder and
lightning.
" 18, 58 78 56 E. Clear.
" 19, 59 80 64 S. Cloudy; rain P.M.
" 20, 68 80 65 S. Clear.
" 21, 69 84 72 S. Clear.
" 22, 75 88 72 W. Clear; cloudy P.M., rain,
thunder and lightning during
the night.
" 23, 73 86 70 W. Clear, cloudy; rain and fair
weather alternately.
" 24, 70 89 72 W. Clear; calms.
" 25, 70 80 66 W. Clear; high winds at night.
" 26, 68 82 64 W. Clear; calm.
" 27, 72 78 62 W. Clear.
" 28, 67 75 58 S. E. Clear; fresh winds.
" 29, 60 71 54 N. E. Clear.
" 30, 60 76 63 N. W. Clear.
" 31, 65 81 69 W. Clear.
_Meteorological Journal kept at Chicago by Dr. A. Wolcott._
1820. Daylight. 9 A. M. 2 P. M. 9 P. M. WIND. WEATHER.
Jan. 1, 4° 11° 10° 0° W. N. W. Cloudy; light
snow; first
ice in the
river, 14
inches thick;
none in the
lake.
" 2, 10 14 25 12 W. N. W. Clear.
" 3, 4 9 13 14 W. S. W. Clear.
" 4, 9 14 19 9 W. Clear.
" 5, 9 5 4 10 W. N. W. Clear.
" 6, 11 4 15 28 S. S. W. Clear.
" 7, 36 36 39 36 S. W. Cloudy.
" 8, 32 32 34 33 N. N. E. Cloudy.
" 9, 32 33 36 34 N. E. Cloudy.
" 10, 32 31 31 25 N. E. Snow-storm.
" 11, 14 14 16 2 N. Clear.
" 12, 17 15 2 12 S. S. W. Clear.
" 13, 20 24 25 12 W. S. W. Clear.
" 14, 14 15 15 15 N. Snow-squalls.
" 15, 12 14 15 10 N. N. W. Clear; lake
covered with
moving ice, as
far as the eye
can see.
" 16, 20 20 21 21 E. N. E. Snow-storm.
" 17, 14 14 25 10 W. N. W. Clear.
" 18, 14 18 15 6 W. Cloudy.
" 19, 10 0 10 2 W. N. W. Clear.
" 20, 6 12 25 13 W. Clear.
" 21, 20 22 26 28 E. N. E. Snow-storm.
" 22, 7 11 12 5 N. W. Clear.
" 23, 20 4 0 3 W. Clear.
" 24, 2 6 18 16 W. Clear.
" 25, 4 3 9 7 W. Clear.
" 26, 16 19 26 28 E. S. E. Snow-storm.
" 27, 18 21 25 8 S. W. Cloudy.
" 28, 8 1 11 10 W. N. W. Clear.
" 29, 12 20 31 18 W. Cloudy; ice 18
inches on
river.
" 30, 6 6 4 5 W. Clear.
" 31, 6 5 3 17 W. N. W. Clear; snow 22
inches deep.
Feb. 1, 12 0 14 16 S. E. Cloudy.
" 2, 22 25 29 20 E. N. E. Snow-storm; ice
18-¾ inches on
river.
" 3, 10 7 9 7 W. Clear.
" 4, 0 5 25 24 E. S. E. Clear.
" 5, 30 36 40 40 S. W. Clear.
" 6, 11 12 32 24 S. Clear.
" 7, 28 33 42 30 W. S. W. Clear.
" 8, 30 34 40 32 E. Cloudy and mist;
snow during
the night fell
six inches.
" 9, 30 34 34 31 E. Clear.
Feb. 10, 31 32 39 32 E. Cloudy.
" 11, 28 32 38 34 S. Clear.
" 12, 32 39 34 20 N. E. Cloudy.
" 13, 12 22 39 32 W. S. W. Clear.
" 14, 34 39 37 36 E. Cloudy; some
rain with
thunder.
" 15, 36 38 39 36 E. Cloudy; some
rain with
thunder.
" 16, 38 42 47 33 S. W. Clear.
" 17, 27 27 28 22 W. Light clouds.
" 18, 10 22 28 30 E. Cloudy.
" 19, 32 36 46 24 W. Clear.
" 20, 15 22 24 16 W. Clear.
" 21, 8 20 37 38 S. W. Clear.
" 22, 34 40 45 32 W. Clear.
" 23, 28 37 46 36 S. W. Cloudy; rain
and hail with
thunder.
" 24, 30 33 40 39 E. Clear.
" 25, 44 50 59 54 S. W. Clear.
" 26, 50 49 38 36 S. W. Cloudy; tempest
of wind with
flurries of
rain and hail.
" 27, 30 31 34 28 W. N. W. Clear.
" 28, 20 28 30 39 S. E. Clear.
" 29, 28 36 50 37 S. W. Clear.
Mar. 1, 32 35 36 18 N. N. W. Clear.
" 2, 8 15 25 20 N. N. W. Clear.
" 3, 26 30 36 22 W. N. W. Cloudy.
" 4, 19 28 42 36 S. W. Clear.
" 5, 30 32 36 23 N. E. Cloudy.
" 6, 13 19 25 14 N. N. W. Clear.
" 7, 16 17 24 18 E. N. E. Cloudy;
light snow.
" 8, 17 24 23 21 N. E. Cloudy.
" 9, 22 24 26 23 N. N. E. Cloudy.
" 10, 24 26 31 24 N. N. E. Cloudy.
" 11, 22 24 29 31 E. N. E. Cloudy.
" 12, 28 32 33 32 E. S. E. Cloudy;
light snow.
" 13, 32 37 39 34 E. N. E. Cloudy.
" 14, 32 36 36 33 E. N. E. Cloudy;
light snow.
" 15, 26 32 ... ...
Agreeable to a register kept at Council Bluffs during the month of
January, 1820, the highest and lowest temperature at that place were,
respectively, 36° and 22°, the month giving a mean of 17.89. Compared
with the observed temperature, for the same month, at the following
positions in the United States, both east and west of the Alleghanies,
the Missouri Valley reveals the fact of its being adapted to the
purposes of a profitable agriculture.[264]
[264] In Europe, the mean annual temperature necessary for the
production of certain plants is--
For the sugar-cane 67°
" coffee 64
" orange 63
" olive 54
" vine (vitis vinifera) 51
Mean temperature Highest. Lowest.
of the month.
Council Bluffs 17.89° 36° 22°
Wooster 16.69 36 zero
Zanesville 25.34 42 zero
Marietta 28.42 45 zero
Chillicothe 32.48 48 10
Cincinnati 28.76 46 11
Jeffersonville 23.05 50 6
Shawneetown 32.91 52 8
Huntsville 36.43 62 12
Tuscaloosa 46.63 74 17
Cahaba 65.87 73 54
Ouachita 34.16 68 10
New Orleans 52.16 78 25
Portsmouth, N. H. 19.31 40 4[265]
Washington City 29.19 45 4
Council Bluffs, lat. 41° 45´, long. 19° 50´ W. of the capitol.
New Orleans, " 29 57 " 12 53 W. "
Portsmouth, " 43 05 " 6 10 E. "
Difference of lat. 13° 48´. Difference of long. 26°.
[265] Below zero.
Nor does it appear that the same quantity of snow falls in the Missouri
Valley which is common east of the Alleghany Mountains. At the Council
Bluffs, on the last of January, snow was but twelve inches deep; at the
same period, it was three feet or more throughout the Eastern States.
A snow-storm fell over the middle and eastern latitudes of the United
States, for the first time, during the autumn of the year (1820), in the
first half of November. As a precursor to this, slight drifts and gusts
of snow had showed themselves at Albany on the 25th, 26th, and 28th of
October.[266]
[266] Meteorological journal kept at the Albany Academy for October,
1820.
"MONTREAL, CANADA, October 28, 1820.--On Wednesday last we had the first
fall of snow this season. It commenced in the forenoon, and continued
slightly during the remainder of the day. Although expected to
disappear, the frosts in the nights have been pretty severe, and a
considerable quantity still remains (Saturday) at the moment we are
writing."
"SALEM, N. Y. October 31.--On Saturday last (27th), we had our first
snow for the season. It fell during most of the forenoon, and for an
hour or two the atmosphere was quite filled with it. Some cool and
shaded spots still remain whitened, though yesterday was one of our
pleasant autumnal days, with a mild west wind."
_Early Sleighing._--The _Burlington_ (Vt.) _Sentinel_ of the 27th ult.
says: "On Tuesday night and Wednesday, the snow fell in this place about
eight inches deep on the level. It is said to be twelve inches deep in
some of the adjoining towns."--_October, 1820._
At Philadelphia, it began on Saturday, 11th (morning), snow-storm from
the east, and continued all day. At night a hurricane, accompanied by
torrents of rain and snow, which did not subside until the 12th in the
morning. Weather unsettled on the 13th.
At Worcester, a severe snow-storm, from northeast, on the 11th and 12th.
On the 13th, snow was ten inches deep, the weather cold, and sleighing
good.
Snow in Poughkeepsie fell twelve inches deep, and produced excellent
sleighing.
At New Haven (Conn.), it began with snow, hail, and rain, on Saturday
evening, 11th. The day before was wintery cold. The storm continued,
without intermission, till Monday, 13th.
At Boston, it also began on Saturday, 11th, from the northeast, and fell
six inches. On Sunday, rain and snow. Monday cold, and indifferent
sleighing in the _streets_.--_Boston paper_, Nov. 14th.
In Vernon, Oneida County, it began on the 11th, in the evening, and
continued, in all, till Monday, 13th, giving us snow, rain, hail, and
wind, alternately. On the 15th, the snow, which lay six inches deep,
began to thaw, and this was the beginning of our Indian summer.
The Buffalo papers, of November 14th, say that several vessels were
lost in the gale and snow-storm, or driven ashore. The storm closed up
on the 13th, at New York City; the wind at northwest, and very cold. The
rain, snow, and hail which had fallen gave good sleighing a part of that
day. These notices cover an area of about five hundred miles square,
proving, the universality of our autumnal phenomena.
_Indian Summer._
This season appears to be produced by the settling of a thin azure
vapor. It is supposed to arise from the partial decomposition of the
foliage of the forest after the autumnal rains are past. "What is called
the Indian summer," says an observer at Albany, "usually gives us
fifteen or twenty days of uncommonly pleasant fall weather, commencing
in the early part of October. The present season it set in as usual, and
we had a week or ten days of very fine weather, when a northeast storm
commenced, and continued for part of two days; within which time more
rain is supposed to have fallen than during the whole of the preceding
summer and fall. Most of the streams and springs were filled, and the
Hudson River, in many places, overflowed its banks. It however again
cleared off pleasant, and remained so till Tuesday evening, when another
storm of rain commenced, which continued the whole night. In the
morning, there was some fall of hail accompanying the rain, and about 8
o'clock a slight flurry of snow, and another on Thursday evening; since
which the weather has set in cold, and has the appearance of the closing
in of fall or the setting in of winter. We however expect to put off
winter and cold weather for some time yet, and anticipate many pleasant
days in November."
Indian summer, in Oneida, commenced on the 15th November. The weather
had previously been cold, with snow and rain and a murky atmosphere.
Wednesday, Nov. 15. The snow, which lay six inches deep, began to
thaw, and the sky was clear and sunny.
Thursday, " 16. Was a clear and pleasant day throughout; snow
continued to melt.
Friday, " 17. The same, and smoky; warm sunshine; not a cloud to
be seen; snow melts.
Saturday, " 18. The same.
Sunday, " 19. The same; full moon; cloudy, with wind in the
evening; snow gone.
Monday, " 20. The same; sky clear and warm.
Tuesday, " 21. Weather cloudy; wind S. E.; prepares for a change;
a little snow during the previous night, but melts
from the roofs this morning; no sun appears.
Wednesday, " 22. Cloudy, dull morning; rain afternoon; sun appeared
a few moments about 4 P. M.
Thursday, " 23. Cloudy, with alternate sunshine and rain.
Friday, " 24. Clear and pleasant.
Saturday, " 25. Clear and pleasant.
Dr. Freeman, of Boston, in one of his occasional sermons, employs the
following poetic language in relation to this American phenomenon:--
"The southwest is the pleasantest wind which blows in New England. In
the month of October, in particular, after the frosts which commonly
take place at the end of September, it frequently produces two or three
weeks of fair weather, in which the air is perfectly transparent, and
clouds, which float in a sky of the purest azure, are adorned with
brilliant colors. If at this season a man of an affectionate heart and
ardent imagination should visit the tombs of his friends, the
southwestern breezes, as they breathe through the glowing trees, would
seem to him almost articulate. Though he might not be so wrapped in
enthusiasm as to fancy that the spirits of his ancestors were whispering
in his ear, yet he would at least imagine that he heard 'the still small
voice' of God. This charming season is called the Indian Summer, a name
which is derived from the natives, who believe that it is caused by a
wind which comes immediately from the court of their great and
benevolent God Cantantowan, or the Southwestern God; the God who is
superior to all other beings, who sends them every blessing which they
enjoy, and to whom the souls of their fathers go after their decease."
7. INDIAN HIEROGLYPHICS, OR PICTURE WRITING, LANGUAGES, AND HISTORY.
XX.
_Pictographic Mode of Communicating Ideas among the Northwestern
Indians, observed during the Expedition to the Sources of the
Mississippi in 1820, in a Letter to the Secretary of War._ By Hon.
LEWIS CASS.
DETROIT, February 2, 1821.
SIR: An incident occurred upon my recent tour to the Northwest, so rare
in itself, and which so clearly shows the facility with which
communications may be opened between savage nations, without the
intervention of letters, that I have thought it not improper to
communicate it to you.
The Chippewas and Sioux are hereditary enemies, and Charlevoix says they
were at war when the French first reached the Mississippi. I endeavored,
when among them, to learn the cause which first excited them to war, and
the time when it commenced. But they can give no rational account. An
intelligent Chippewa chief informed me that the disputed boundary
between them was a subject of little importance, and that the question
respecting it could be easily adjusted. He appeared to think that they
fought because their fathers fought before them. This war has been waged
with various success, and, in its prosecution, instances of courage and
self-devotion have occurred, within a few years, which would not have
disgraced the pages of Grecian or of Roman history. Some years since,
mutually weary of hostilities, the chiefs of both nations met and agreed
upon a truce. But the Sioux, disregarding the solemn compact which they
had formed, and actuated by some sudden impulse, attacked the Chippewas,
and murdered a number of them. The old Chippewa chief who descended the
Mississippi with us was present upon this occasion, and his life was
saved by the intrepidity and generous self-devotion of a Sioux chief.
This man entreated, remonstrated, and threatened. He urged his
countrymen, by every motive, to abstain from any violation of their
faith, and, when he found his remonstrances useless, he attached himself
to this Chippewa chief, and avowed his determination of saving or
perishing with him. Awed by his intrepidity, the Sioux finally agreed
that he should ransom the Chippewa, and he accordingly applied to this
object all the property he owned. He then accompanied the Chippewa on
his journey until he considered him safe from any parties of the Sioux
who might be disposed to follow him.
I subjoin an extract from the journal of Mr. Doty, an intelligent young
gentleman who was with the expedition. This extract has already been
published, but it may have escaped your observation, and the incident
which it describes is so heroic in itself, and so illustrative of the
Indian character, that I cannot resist the temptation of transmitting it
to you.
EXTRACT FROM MR. DOTY'S JOURNAL.--"The Indians of the upper country
consider those of the Fond du Lac as very stupid and dull, being but
little given to war. They count the Sioux their enemies, but have
heretofore made few war excursions.
"Having been frequently reprimanded by some of the more vigilant Indians
of the north, and charged with cowardice, and an utter disregard for the
event of the war, thirteen men of this tribe, last season, determined to
retrieve the character of their nation by making an excursion against
the Sioux. Accordingly, without consulting the other Indians, they
secretly departed, and penetrated far into the Sioux country.
Unexpectedly, at night, they came upon a party of the Sioux, amounting
to near one hundred men, and immediately began to prepare for battle.
They encamped a short distance from the Sioux, and, during the night,
dug holes in the ground into which they might retreat and fight to the
last extremity. They appointed one of their number (the youngest) to
take a station at a distance and witness the struggle, and instructed
him, when they were all slain, to make his escape to their own land, and
state the circumstances under which they had fallen.
"Early in the morning, they attacked the Sioux in their camp, who,
immediately sallying out upon them, forced them back to the last place
of retreat they had resolved upon. They fought desperately. More than
twice their own number were killed before they lost their lives. Eight
of them were tomahawked in the holes to which they had retreated; the
other four fell on the field! The THIRTEENTH returned home, according
to the directions be had received, and related the foregoing
circumstances to his tribe. They mourned their death; but, delighted
with the bravery of their friends, unexampled in modern times, they were
happy in their grief.
"This account I received of the very Indian who was of the party and had
escaped."
The Sioux are much more numerous than the Chippewas, and would have
overpowered them long since had the operations of the former been
consentaneous. But they are divided into so many different bands, and
are scattered over such an extensive country, that their efforts have no
regular combination.
Believing it equally consistent with humanity and sound policy that
these border contests should not be suffered to continue; satisfied that
you would approve of any plan of pacification which might be adopted,
and feeling that the Indians have a full portion of moral and physical
evils, without adding to them the calamities of a war which had no
definite object, and no probable termination; on our arrival at Sandy
Lake, I proposed to the Chippewa chiefs that a deputation should
accompany us to the mouth of the St. Peter's, with a view to establish a
permanent peace between them and the Sioux. The Chippewas readily
acceded to this proposition, and ten of their principal men descended
the Mississippi with us.
The computed distance from Sandy Lake to the St. Peter's is six hundred
miles, and, as I have already had the honor to inform you, a
considerable proportion of the country has been the theatre of hostile
enterprises. The Mississippi here traverses the immense plains which
extend to the Missouri, and which present to the eye a spectacle at once
interesting and fatiguing. Scarcely the slightest variation in the
surface occurs, and they are entirely destitute of timber. In this
debatable land, the game is very abundant; buffaloes, elks, and deer
range unharmed, and unconscious of harm. The mutual hostilities of the
Chippewas and Sioux render it dangerous for either, unless in strong
parties, to visit this portion of the country. The consequence has been
a great increase of all the animals whose flesh is used for food, or
whose fur is valuable for market. We found herds of buffaloes quietly
feeding upon the plains. There is little difficulty in approaching
sufficiently near to kill them. With an eagerness which is natural to
all hunters, and with an improvidence which always attends these
excursions, the animal is frequently killed without any necessity, and
no other part of them is preserved but the tongue.
There is something extremely novel and interesting in this pursuit. The
immense plains, extending as far as the eye can reach, are spotted here
and there with droves of buffaloes. The distance and the absence of
known objects render it difficult to estimate the size or the number of
these animals. The hunters approach cautiously, keeping to the leeward,
lest the buffaloes, whose scent is very acute, should observe them. The
moment a gun is fired, the buffaloes scatter and scour the field in
every direction. Unwieldy as they appear, they move with considerable
celerity. It is difficult to divert them from their course, and the
attempt is always hazardous. One of our party barely escaped with his
life from this act of temerity. The hunters, who are stationed upon
different parts of the plain, fire as the animals pass them. The
repeated discharge of guns in every direction, the shouts of those who
are engaged in the pursuit, and the sight of the buffaloes at full speed
on every side, give an animation to the scene which is rarely equalled.
The droves which we saw were comparatively small. Some of the party whom
we found at St. Peter's, and who arrived at that place by land from the
Council Bluffs, estimated one of the droves which they saw to contain
two thousand buffaloes.
As we approached this part of the country, our Chippewa friends became
cautious and observing. The flag of the United States was flying upon
all our canoes, and, thanks to the character which our country acquired
by the events of the last war, I found in our progress through the whole
Indian country, after we had once left the great line of communication,
that this flag was a passport which rendered our journey safe. We
consequently felt assured that no wandering party of the Sioux would
attack even their enemies, while under our protection. But the Chippewas
could not appreciate the influence which the American flag would have
upon other nations, nor is it probable that they estimated with much
accuracy the motives which induced us to assume the character of an
umpire.
The Chippewas landed occasionally to examine whether any of the Sioux
had recently visited that quarter. In one of these excursions, a
Chippewa found in a conspicuous place, a piece of birch bark, made flat
by being fastened between two sticks at each end, and about eighteen
inches long by fifteen broad. This bark contained the answer of the
Sioux nation to the proposition which had been made by the Chippewas for
the termination of hostilities. So sanguinary has been the contest
between these tribes, that no personal communication could take place.
Neither the sanctity of the office, nor the importance of the message,
could protect the ambassadors of either party from the vengeance of each
other. Some time preceding, the Chippewas, anxious for the restoration
of peace, had sent a number of their young men into these plains with a
similar piece of bark, upon which they had represented their desire. The
bark had been left hanging to a tree in an exposed situation, and had
been found and taken away by a party of the Sioux.
The propositions had been examined and discussed in the Sioux villages,
and the bark which we found contained their answer. The Chippewa who had
prepared the bark for his tribe was with us, and on our arrival at St.
Peter's, finding it was lost, I requested him to make another. He did
so, and produced what I have no doubt was a perfect _fac-simile_. We
brought with us both of these _projets_, and they are now in the hands
of Capt. Douglass. He will be able to give a more intelligible
description of them than I can from recollection, and they could not be
in the possession of one more competent to the task.
The Chippewas explained to us with great facility the intention of the
Sioux, and apparently with as much readiness as if some common character
had been established between them.
The junction of the St. Peter's with the Mississippi, where a principal
part of the Sioux reside, was represented, and also the American fort,
with a sentinel on duty, and the flag flying. The principal Sioux chief
is named the Six, alluding, I believe, to the bands or villages under
his influence. To show that he was not present at the deliberations upon
the subject of peace, he was represented upon a smaller piece of bark,
which was attached to the other. To identify him, he was drawn with six
heads and a large medal. Another Sioux chief stood in the foreground,
holding the pipe of peace in his right hand, and his weapons in his
left. Even we could not misunderstand that. Like our own eagle with the
olive-branch and arrows, he was desirous of peace, but prepared for war.
The Sioux party contained fifty-nine warriors, and this number was
indicated by fifty-nine guns, which were drawn upon one corner of the
bark. The only subject which occasioned any difficulty in the
interpretation of the Chippewas, was owing to an incident, of which they
were ignorant. The encampment of our troops had been removed from the
low grounds upon the St. Peter's, to a high hill upon the Mississippi;
two forts were therefore drawn upon the bark, and the solution of this
enigma could not be discovered till our arrival at St. Peter's.
The effect of the discovery of this bark upon the minds of the Chippewas
was visible and immediate. Their doubts and apprehensions appeared to be
removed, and during the residue of the journey, their conduct and
feelings were completely changed.
The Chippewa bark was drawn in the same general manner, and Sandy Lake,
the principal place of their residence, was represented with much
accuracy. To remove any doubt respecting it, a view was given of the old
northwest establishment, situated upon its shore, and now in the
possession of the American Fur Company. No proportion was preserved in
their attempt at delineation. One mile of the Mississippi, including the
mouth of the St. Peter's, occupied as much space as the whole distance
to Sandy Lake; nor was there anything to show that one part was nearer
to the spectator than another; yet the object of each party was
completely obtained. Speaking languages radically different from each,
for the Sioux constitute one of three grand divisions into which the
early French writers have arranged the aborigines of our country, while
the Chippewas are a branch of what they call Algonquins, and without any
conventional character established between them, these tribes thus
opened a communication upon the most important subject which could
occupy their attention. Propositions leading to a peace were made and
accepted, and the simplicity of the mode could only be equalled by the
distinctness of the representations, and by the ease with which they
were understood.
An incident like this, of rare occurrence at this day, and throwing
some light upon the mode of communication before the invention of
letters, I thought it not improper to communicate to you. It is only
necessary to add, that on our arrival at St. Peter's, we found Col.
Leavenworth had been as attentive and indefatigable upon this subject,
as upon every other which fell within the sphere of his command.
During the preceding winter, he had visited a tribe of the Chippewas
upon this pacific mission, and had, with the aid of the agent, Mr.
Talliafero, prepared the minds of both tribes for a permanent peace. The
Sioux and Chippewas met in council, at which we all attended, and smoked
the pipe of peace together. They then, as they say in their figurative
language, buried the tomahawk so deep that it could never be dug up
again, and our Chippeway friends departed well satisfied with the result
of their mission.
I trust that Mr. Bolvin, the agent at Prairie du Chien, has been able
before this to communicate to you a successful account of the
negotiation which I instructed him to open between the Sacs and Foxes,
forming one party, and the Sioux. Hostilities were carried on between
these tribes, which, I presume, he has been able to terminate.
We discovered a remarkable coincidence, as well in the sound as in the
application, between a word in the Sioux language and one in our own.
The circumstance is so singular that I deem it worthy of notice. The
Sioux call the Falls of St. Anthony HA HA, and the pronunciation is in
every respect similar to the same words in the English language. I could
not learn that this word was used for any other purpose, and I believe
it is confined in its application to that place alone.[267] The
traveller in ascending the Mississippi turns a projecting point, and
these falls suddenly appear before him at a short distance. Every man,
savage or civilized, must be struck with the magnificent spectacle which
opens to his view. There is an assemblage of objects which, added to the
solitary grandeur of the scene, to the height of the cataract, and to
the eternal roar of its waters, inspire the spectator with awe and
admiration.
[267] Iha ha [iha-ikiha] are words given as equivalent to laugh,
_v._ in Riggs's Dictionary of the Dakota language, published by the
Smithsonian Institution in 1852. Ihapi, _n._, is laughter. The letter
_h_, with a dot, represents a strong guttural, resembling the Arabic
_Kha_. Iha, by the same authority, is the lips or cover to anything;
it is also an adverb of doubt. The vowel _i_ has the sound of _i_ in
marine, or _e_ in me.
In his _Anecdotes of Painting_, it is stated by Horace Walpole, that "on
the invention of fosses for boundaries, the common people called them Ha
Ha's! to express their surprise on finding a sudden and unperceived
check to their walk." I believe the word is yet used in this manner in
England. It is certainly not a little remarkable that the same word
should be thus applied by one of the most civilized and by one of the
most barbarous people, to objects which, although not the same, were yet
calculated to excite the admiration of the observer.
Nothing can show more clearly how fallacious are those deductions of
comparative etymology, which are founded upon a few words carefully
gleaned here and there from languages having no common origin, and which
are used by people who have neither connection nor intercourse. The
common descent of two nations can never be traced by the accidental
consonance of a few syllables or words, and the attempt must lead us
into the regions of fancy.
The Sioux language is probably one of the most barren which is spoken by
any of our aboriginal tribes. Colonel Leavenworth, who made considerable
proficiency in it, calculated, I believe, that the number of words did
not exceed one thousand. They use more gestures in their conversation
than any Indians I have seen, and this is a necessary result of the
poverty of their language.
I am well aware, that the subject of this letter is not within the
ordinary sphere of official communications. But I rely for your
indulgence upon the interest which you have shown to procure and
disseminate a full knowledge of every subject connected with the
internal condition of our country.
I am preparing a memoir upon the present state of the Indians, agreeably
to the intimation in my letter of September last. I shall finish and
transmit it to you as soon as my other duties will permit.
Very respectfully, sir,
I have, &c.,
LEWIS CASS.
Hon. JOHN C. CALHOUN,
_Secretary of War_.
XXI.
_Inquiries respecting the History of the Indians of the United States._
By LEWIS CASS.
These queries were published at Detroit in separate pamphlets, about the
era of 1822, and communicated to persons in the Indian country supposed
to be capable of furnishing the desired information. The results became
the topic of several critical disquisitions, which appeared in the pages
of the _North American Review_ in 1825 and 1826; disquisitions the
spirit and tone of which created, as the reader who is posted up on the
topic will remember, a sensation among philological and philosophical
readers.
Whether we are most to admire the bold tone of inquiry assumed by Gen.
Cass, the acumen displayed in the discussions, the eloquence of the
language, or the general soundness of the positions taken, is the only
question left for decision. Certainly, nobody can arise from the perusal
of these papers without becoming wiser or better informed on the
subjects discussed. The mere luxury of high-toned and eloquent language
is a gratification to the inquirer. But he cannot close these
investigations into a subject of deep historical and philological
interest without feeling established in the principles of historic
truth, or warmed in his literary ardor.
Prominent among the topics of the initial discussion, was the work of
John Dunn Hunter, a singular adventurer in the Indian country, or,
perhaps, an early captive, who, after wandering to the Atlantic cities,
where his harmless inefficiency of character gained no favorable
attention, found his way to London, where the booksellers concocted a
book of travels from him, in which the United States is unscrupulously
traduced for its treatment of the Indians. The scathing which this
person and his book received arises from its having fallen in the way of
the business journeys of the critic to visit some of the principal
scenes referred to; and among others, the residence of John Dunn, of
Missouri, after whom he professed to be named, who utterly denied all
knowledge of the man or of his purported adventures.
The question of the authenticity of the Indian traditions of Mr.
Heckewelder, derived from a single tribe, and that tribe telling
stories to salve up its own disastrous history, and the mere literary
capacities of the man to put his materials in order, is propounded and
examined in connection with the contemporary traditions and languages of
other tribes. These traditions had been communicated to the Pennsylvania
Historical Society, in 1816, and were published under the special
auspices of Mr. Duponceau, in 1819. From the internal evidence of the
letters themselves, the critic pronounces them to be reproductions of
Mr. Duponceau himself; and it is an evidence of the aptness of this
deduction to be told that Mr. Gallatin admitted (_vide_ my _Personal
Memoirs_, p. 623), that the letters of Mr. Heckewelder had all been
rewritten previous to publication. It could no longer be a subject of
admiration to philologists, that from such imperfect sources of
information, that distinguished scholar should have pronounced the
opinion that the Delaware language rather exceeds than falls short of
the Greek and Latin in the affluence of syntactical forms and capacities
of expression. _Trans. Hist. and Lit. Com., Am. Philo. Soc._, vol. i. p.
415.
XXII.
_A Letter on the Origin of the Indian Race of America, and the
Principles of their Mode of uttering Ideas; addressed to John Johnston,
Esq., late of St. Mary's Falls, Michigan._ By Dr. J. MCDONNELL, of
Belfast, Ireland.
BELFAST, April 16, 1817.
MY DEAR J.: I feel always as if I am guilty of some great crime, in not
writing to you.
An account came to Sir Joseph Banks, of very curious rocks, with odd
stripes and colors, having been seen, this last war, by sailors on the
lakes, I think on Lake Superior.[268] Pray keep up your thoughts to the
geography of rocks. I got some lately from Bombay, exactly ditto with
our Causeway.[269]
[268] Most probably this idea arose from the very marked precipices
of the coast denominated Pictured Rocks.
H. R. S.
[269] The Giant's Causeway, on the Coast of Antrim.
I shall ever regret the not having seen your daughter. I think it likely
that mingling the European blood and character with the Indian might
bring out some superior traits of character. Lest my letter should
altogether fail of presenting any useful point, I must put some
questions to you that would be worth something if answered.
A man has published, in 1816, an octavo volume in Trenton (United
States), the author's name Boudinot, to explain some things about the
Indian nations, and, among other things, he fancies some resemblance
between their languages and Hebrew. Baron Von Humboldt, a Prussian, was
in Spanish America lately, and he found the natives had Hebrew opinions
and usages, evidently things borrowed from Jewish doctrines. I don't
want you to inquire much about their being of this extraction, but
observe, for me, whether their languages have no pronouns, as one
author, Colden, stated fifty years ago; and whether they are defective
in the prepositions, as this Boudinot states; and whether those near you
have any words, idioms, or traditions that are expressive of their early
origin, or their connection with European nations.
In fact, I think you are better circumstanced, in most respects, than
any other man that I ever heard of, to do something worth notice in that
way; for, although you have not books, nor knowledge of many tongues,
yet you could collect lists of great and radical words, expressed with
proper letters, so that others could compare those words with Asiatic,
and African, and European tongues, so as to enable mankind to judge of
similitudes or dissimilitudes.
The words most apt to pervade different nations, and to pass from one
people to another, are articles, pronouns, auxiliary verbs,
prepositions; next to these, numerals; next to these, whatever terms are
expressive of striking, useful, hurtful, or very clear and definite
objects and ideas; for, if the conceptions we have of things be not very
definite, clear, and distinct, the idea and the word are not likely to
float down the stream of time together, they will be jostled and
separated. Be very careful in spelling the Indian words; spell them in
different ways, where our letters don't square exactly with their
sounds. Take notice of their musical tones, and whether these tones get
in, as essential parts, into their speech; and, above all, remember that
a _word_ is a _thing_, and that it may be examined as a _record_, or
considered like a coin or medal, as well as if it had the stamp of a
king or mint upon it.
I will write more if this vessel does not sail to-day. God bless you and
yours, and believe me, in haste, your affectionate cousin.
J. McDONNELL.
XXIII.
_Difficulties of Studying the Indian Tongues of the United States._ By
Dr. ALEXANDER WOLCOTT, Jr.
Dr. Wolcott will be remembered by the early inhabitants of Chicago, when
that place was still a military post and the site of an Indian agency,
the latter of which trusts he filled. In 1820, the Pottowattomie tribe
of Indians and their confederates--the Illinois--Chippewas, and
Ottowas--possessed the whole surrounding regions, roving as lords of the
prairies. These numerous and fierce hunter-tribes, who traded their
peltries for fineries, had many horses, loved rum and fine clothes, and
despised all restraints, came in to him, at his agency, as the
mouthpiece of the President, to transact their affairs, and they often
lingered for days and weeks around the place, which gave him a good
opportunity of becoming familiar with their manners, customs, and
history.
Dr. Wolcott was a man of education, of high morals, dignified manners,
and noble sentiments, with decidedly saturnine feelings, and a keen
perception of the ridiculous. Constitutionally averse to much or labored
personal effort, his leisure hours, in this seclusion from society, were
hours devoted to reading and social converse, and his attention was
appropriately called by Gen. Cass to the "Inquiries," No. 21, above
referred to. The reply which he at length communicated was written in so
happy a vein, that I obtained permission to publish the substance of it,
in 1824, in my _Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi
Valley_, p. 381. It declares an important truth, which all must concur
in, who have attempted the study of the Indian languages, for they are
required to perform the prior labor of ascertaining and generalizing the
principles of their accidence and concord. When I first came to St.
Mary's, in 1822, and began the study of the Chippewa, I asked in vain
the simple question how the plural was formed. It was formed, in truth,
in twelve different ways, agreeably to the vowels of terminal syllables;
but this could not be declared until quires of paper had been written
over, the whole vocabulary explored, and days and nights devoted to it.
My first interpreter could not tell a verb from a noun, and was
incapable of translating the simplest sentence literally. Besides his
ignorance, he was so great a liar that I never knew when to believe him.
He sometimes told the Indians the reverse of what I said, and often told
me the reverse of what they said.
XXIV.
_Examination of the Elementary Structure of the Algonquin Language as it
appears in the Chippewa Tongue._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
SAULT STE. MARIE, May 31, 1823.
SIR: In order to answer your inquiries, I have improved my leisure
hours, during the part of the summer following our arrival here (6th
July last), and the entire winter and spring, in examining the words and
forms of expression of the Chippewa, or (as the Indians pronounce it)
Odjibwa, tongue. I have found, as I anticipated, my most efficient aid,
in this inquiry, in Mr. Johnston, and the several members of his
intelligent family; my public interpreter being too unprecise and
profoundly ignorant of the rules of grammar to be of much use in the
investigation. Mr. Johnston, as you are aware, perhaps, came from the
north of Ireland, where his connections are highly respectable, during
the first term of General Washington's administration. He brought
letters from high sources to the Governor-General of Canada; but having,
while at Montreal, fallen in with Don Andrew Tod, a countryman, who had
the monopoly of the fur trade of Louisiana, in a spirit of enterprise
and adventure, he threw himself into that, at the time, fascinating
pursuit, and visited Michilimackinac. Circumstances determined him to
fix his residence at St. Mary's, where he has resided, making frequent
visits to Montreal and Great Britain, about thirty years. His children
have been carefully instructed in the English language and literature,
and the whole family are familiar with the Indian. Without such
proficient aid, I should have labored against serious impediments at
every step; and, with them, I have found the inquiry, in a philological
point of view, involved in many, and some of them insuperable
difficulties. The results I communicate to you, rather as an earnest of
what may be hereafter done in this matter, than as completely fulfilling
inquiries which it would require Horne Tooke himself, with the aid of
the Bodleian library, to unravel.
With respect, &c.,
HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
His Excellency Gov. LEWIS CASS.
EXAMINATION OF THE ODJIBWA.
1, 2. _Simple Sounds._--The language is one of easy enunciation. It has
sixteen simple consonental and five vowel sounds. Of these, two are
labials, _b_ and _p_; five dentals, _d_, _t_, _s_, _z_, _j_, and _g_
soft; two nasals, _m_ and _n_; and four gutturals, _k_, _q_, _c_, and
_g_ hard. There is a peculiar nasal combination in _ng_, and a peculiar
terminal sound of _g_, which may be represented by _gk_. Of the mixed
dipthongal and consonental sounds, those most difficult to English
organs are the sounds in _aiw_ and _auw_.
3. _Letters not used._--The language is wholly wanting in the sound of
_th_. It drops the sound of _v_ entirely, substituting _b_, in attempts
to pronounce foreign words. The sound of _l_ is sometimes heard in their
necromantic chants; but, although it appears to have been known to the
old Algonquin, it is supplied, in the Odjibwa of this day, exclusively
by _n_. It also eschews the sounds of _f_, _r_, and _x_, leaving its
simple consonental powers of utterance, as above denoted, at sixteen. In
attempts to pronounce English words having the sound of _f_, they
substitute _p_, as in the case of _v_. The sound of _r_ is either
dropped, or takes the sound of _au_. Of the letter _x_ they make no use;
the nearest approach I have succeeded in getting from them is _ek-is_,
showing that it is essentially a foreign sound to them. The aspirate _h_
begins very few words, not exceeding five in fifteen hundred, but it is
a very frequent sound in terminals, always following the slender or
Latin sound of _a_, but never its broad sound in _au_, or its peculiarly
English sound as heard in the _a_ of _may_, _pay_, _day_. The terminal
syllable of the tribal name (Odjibwa), offers a good evidence of this
rule, this syllable being never sounded by the natives either _wah_ or
_wau_, but always _wa_. These rules of utterance appear to be constant
and imperative, and the natives have evidently a nice ear to
discriminate sounds.
_Rule of Euphony._--In the construction of words, it is required that a
consonant should _precede_ or _follow_ a vowel. In dissyllables wherein
two consonants are sounded in juxtaposition, it happens from the joining
of two syllables, the first of which ends and the last begins with a
consonant, as _muk-kuk_, a box, and _os-sin_, a stone; the utterance in
these cases being confluent. But in longer compounds this juxtaposition
is generally avoided by throwing in a vowel for the sake of euphony, as
in the term _assinebwoin_, the _e_ in which is a mere connective, and
has no meaning by itself. Nor is it allowable for vowels to follow each
other in syllabication, except in the restricted instances where the
being or existence of a thing or person is affirmed, as in the
vowel-words _i-e-e_ and _i-e-a_, the animate and inanimate forms of this
declaration. In these cases, there is a distinct accent on each vowel.
4. _Accent._--The accent generally falls on full or broad vowels, and
never on short vowels; such accented vowels are always significant, and
if they are repeated in a compound word, the accents are also repeated,
the only difference being that there are primary and secondary accents.
Thus, in the long descriptive name for a horse, _Pa-bá-zhik-ó-ga-zhé_,
which is compounded of a numeral term and two nouns, meaning, the animal
with solid hoofs; there are three accents, the first of which is
primary, while the others succeed each other with decreased intensity.
By a table of words which I have constructed, and had carefully
pronounced over by the natives, it is denoted that dissyllables are
generally accented on the final syllable, trisyllables on the second,
and words of four syllables on the second and fourth. But these
indications may not be constant or universal, as it is perceived that
the accents vary agreeably to the distribution of the full and
significant vowels.
5. _Emphasis._--Stress is laid on particular words in sentences to which
the speaker designs to impart force, and the whole tone of the entire
sentiment and passages is often adapted to convey particular
impressions. This trait more frequently comes out in the private
narrative of real or imaginary scenes, in which the narrator assumes the
very voice and tone of the real or supposed actor. Generally, in their
dealings and colloquial intercourse, there is a significant stress laid
on the terms, _meenungaika_, certainly; _kaigait_, truly; _kaugaigo_,
nothing at all; _tiau_, behold; _woh-ow_, who; _auwanain_, were; and
other familiar terms of inquiry, denial, or affirmation in daily use.
6. _Conjugation._--The simplest form in which their verbs are heard, is
in the third person singular of the indicative, as _he speaks_, _he
says_, _he loves_, _he dances_, or in the first person present of the
imperative. The want of a distinction between the pronouns _he_ and
_she_, is a defect which the language shares, I believe, with other very
ancient and rude tongues. Conjugations are effected for persons, tenses,
and number, very much as they are in other rude languages, particularly
those of the transpositive class. The verb is often a single root, or
syllable, as _saug_, love; but owing to the tendency of adding
qualifying particles, their verbs are cluttered up with other meanings.
The word _saug_ is therefore never heard as an element by itself. In the
first place, it takes before it the pronoun, and in the second place,
the object of action; so that _nesaugeau_, I love him, or her, or a
person, is one of the simplest of their colloquial phrases. And of this
term, the e, being the fourth syllable, is mere verbiage, means nothing
by itself, and is thrown in for euphony.
Tenses are formed by adding _gee_ to the pronoun for the perfect, and
_gah_ for the future, and _gahgee_ for the second future. These terms
play the part, and supply the want of, auxiliary verbs. The imperative
is made in _gah_, and the potential in _dau_ where the second future is
_daugee_. The subjunctive is made by prefixing the word _kishpin_,
meaning if. The inflection _nuh_, asks a question, and as it can be put
to all the forms of the conjugation, it establishes an interrogative
mood. The particle see, negatives the verb, and thus all verbs can be
conjugated positively and negatively.
To constitute the plural, the letter _g_ is added to the conjugations;
thus, _nesaugeaug_ means, I love them. But this is an animate plural,
and can only be added to words of the vital class. Besides, if the verb
or noun to be made plural does not end in a vowel, but in a consonant,
the _g_ cannot be added without interposing a vowel. It results,
therefore, that the vowel class of words have their plurals in _äg_,
_eeg_, _ig_, _og_, or _ug_. But, if the class of words be non-vital and
numerical, the plural is made in the letter _n_. But this letter cannot,
as in the other form, be added, unless the word terminate in a vowel,
when the regular plurals are _än_, _een_, _in_, _on_, or _un_. This
simple principle clears up one cause of perplexity in the conjugations,
and denotes a philosophical method, which divides the whole vocabulary
into two classes; while this provision _supersedes_, it answers the
purpose of _gender_. There is, in fact, no gender required by the
conjugations, it being sufficient to denote the _vitality_ or
_non-vitality_ of the class. Nothing can be clearer. This is one of the
leading traits of the grammar of the language, upon the observance of
which the best speakers pride themselves.
It does not, however, result that, because there is no gender required
in the conjugations, the idea of sexuality is unknown to the
nomenclature. Quite the contrary. The tenses for male and female, in the
chief orders of creation, are _iaba_ and _nozha_. These words prefixed
to the proper names of animals, produce expressions of precisely the
same meaning, and also the same inelegance; as if we should say, male
goose, female goose, male horse, and female horse, male man and female
man. The term for man (_inini_) is masculine, and that for woman
(_equa_) feminine in its construction. It is only in the conjugations
that the principle of gender becomes lost in that of vitality.
7. _Active and passive voices._--The distinction between these two
classes of verbs is made by the inflection _ego_. By adding this form to
the active verb, its action is reversed, and thrown back on the
nominative. Thus, the verb to carry is _nim bemön_, I carry; _nim
bemön-ego_, I am carried. _Adowawa_ is the act of thumping, as a log by
the waves on the shore._ Adowawa-ego_ is a log that is thumped by the
waves on shore. _Nesaugeah_, I love; _Nesaugeigo_, I am loved. In the
latter phrase, the personal term _au_ is dropped, and the long sound of
_e_ slips into _i_, which converts the inflection into _igo_ instead of
_ego_.
8. _Participles._--My impression is, that the Indians are in the habit
of using participles, often to the exclusion of other proper forms of
the verb. The vocabulary contains abundantly the indicative forms of the
verb. To run, to rise, to see, to eat, to tie, to burn, to strike, to
sing, to cry, to dance, are the common terms of parlance; but as soon as
these terms come to be connected with the action of particular persons,
this action appears to be spoken of as if existing--both the past and
future tenses being thrown away; and the senses appear to be, I, you,
he, or they; running, rising, seeing, eating, tying, burning, striking,
singing, crying, dancing. At least, I have not been able to convince
myself that the action is not referred to as existing. When the
participles should be used, they, on the contrary, employ the indicative
forms, by which such sentences are made as, he run, he walk, for
running, walking.
The general want of the substantive verb, in their colloquial phrases,
constantly leads to imperfect forms of syntax. Thus, _nëbä_ is the
indicative, first person of the verb to sleep; but if the term, I am
sleeping, be required, the phrase is _ne nëbä_, simply, I sleep. So,
too, _tshägiz_ is the first person indicative to burn; but the
colloquial phrase, I am burned, or burning, is _nen tshägiz_--the verb
remaining in the indicative, and not taking the participle form.
It is not common to address persons by their familiar names, as with
us--as John, or James. The very contrary is the usage of Indian society,
the object being to conceal all personal names, unless they be forced
out. If it be required to express this sentence, namely: Adario has gone
out (or temporarily departed), but will soon return; the equivalent is
_Ogima_, _ke mahjaun_, _panema_, _ke takooshin_. This sentence literally
retranslated is, Chief, he gone; by and by, he (will) return--the noun
chief being put for the personal noun Adario. It will be perceived that
the pronoun _ke_ is repeated after the noun, making, chief, he gone.
_Panema_ is an adverb which is undeclinable under all circumstances, and
_tahkooshin_, the future tense of the verb to arrive, or come (by land).
The phraseology is perfectly loaded with local or other particulars,
which constantly limit the action of verbs to places, persons, and
things.
XXV.
_A Vocabulary of the Odjibwa Algonquin Language._ BY H. R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
On referring to the manuscript of this vocabulary, it is found to fill a
large folio volume, which puts it out of my power to insert it in this
connection. It is hoped to bring it into the series of the Ethnological
volumes, now in the process of being published at Philadelphia, under
the auspices of Congress.
APPENDIX
No. 2.
THE EXPEDITION TO ITASCA LAKE IN 1832.
SYNOPSIS.
1. INDIAN LANGUAGES.
I. II. Observations on the Grammatical Structure and Flexibility of
the Odjibwa Substantive. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
III. Principles Governing the Use of the Odjibwa Noun-adjective. By
HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
IV. Some Remarks respecting the Agglutinative Position and Properties
of the Pronoun. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
2. NATURAL HISTORY.
V. Zoology.
1. Limits of the Range of the Cervus Sylvestris in the Northwestern
parts of the United States. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.--_Northwest
Journal._
2. Description of the Fringilia Vespertina, discovered by Mr.
Schoolcraft in the Northwest. By WILLIAM COOPER.--_Annals of the
New York Lyceum of Natural History._
3. A list of Shells collected by Mr. Schoolcraft during his Expedition
to the Sources of the Mississippi in 1832. By WILLIAM COOPER.
VI. Botany.
1. List of Species and Localities of Plants collected during the
Exploratory Expeditions of Mr. Schoolcraft in 1831 and 1832. By
DOUGLASS HOUGHTON, M. D., _Surgeon to said Expeditions_.
VII. Mineralogy and Geology.
1. A Report on the Existence of Deposits of Copper in the Trap Rocks
of Upper Michigan. By Dr. DOUGLASS HOUGHTON.
2. Remarks on the Occurrence of Native Silver, and the Ores of Silver,
in the Stratification of the Basins of Lakes Huron and Superior.
By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
3. A General Summary of the Localities of Minerals observed in the
Northwest. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
4. Geological Outlines of the Valley of Takwymenon in the Basin of
Lake Superior. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
5. Suggestions respecting the Geological Epoch of the Deposit of Red
Sandstone of St. Mary's Falls, Michigan. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
3. INDIAN TRIBES.
VIII. Condition and Disposition.
1. Official Report to the War Department, of an Expedition through
Upper Michigan and Northern Wisconsin in 1831. By HENRY R.
SCHOOLCRAFT.
2. Brief Notes of a Tour in 1831, from Galena, in Illinois, to Fort
Winnebago, on the source of Fox River, Wisconsin. By HENRY R.
SCHOOLCRAFT.
3. Official Report of the Expedition to Itasca Lake in 1832. By HENRY
R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
4. Report of the Vaccination of the Indians in 1832, under the
authority of an Act of Congress. By Dr. DOUGLASS HOUGHTON.
4. TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHY.
IX. Astronomical and Barometrical Observations.
1. Table of Geographical Positions observed in 1836. By J. N.
NICOLLET.
5. SCENERY.
X. Letters on the Scenery of Lake Superior. By MELANCTHON WOOLSEY.
_Vide_ Southern Literary Messenger, 1836.
APPENDIX.
1. INDIAN LANGUAGE.
I.
_Observations on the Grammatical Structure and Flexibility of the
Odjibwa Substantive._[270]
[270] Mr. Du Ponceau did me the honor, in 1834, to translate these
two inquiries on the substantive in full, for the prize paper on the
Algonquin, before the National Institute of France.
INQUIRY 1.
Observations on the Ojibwai substantive. 1. The provision of the
language for indicating gender--Its general and comprehensive
character--The division of words into animate and inanimate
classes. 2. Number--its recondite forms, arising from the terminal
vowel in the word. 3. The grammatical forms which indicate
possession, and enable the speaker to distinguish the objective
person.
Most of the researches which have been directed to the Indian languages,
have resulted in elucidating the principles governing the use of the
verb, which has been proved to be full and varied in its inflections.
Either less attention has been paid to the other parts of speech, or
results less suited to create high expectations of their flexibility and
powers have been attained. The Indian verb has thus been made to stand
out, as it were in bold relief, as a shield to defects in the
substantive and its accessories, and as, in fact, compensating, by its
multiform appendages of prefix and suffix--by its tensal, its
pronominal, its substantive, its adjective, and its adverbial
terminations, for barrenness and rigidity in all other parts of speech.
Influenced by this reflection, I shall defer, in the present inquiry,
the remarks I intend offering on the verb, until I have considered the
substantive, and its more important adjuncts.
Palpable objects, to which the idea of sense strongly attaches, and the
actions or condition, which determine the relation of one object to
another, are perhaps the first points to demand attention in the
invention of languages. And they have certainly imprinted themselves
very strongly, with all their materiality, and with all their local, and
exclusive, and personal peculiarities upon the Indian. The noun and the
verb not only thus constitute the principal elements of speech, as in
all languages; but they continue to perform their first offices, with
less direct aid from the auxiliary parts of speech, than would appear to
be reconcilable with a clear expression of the circumstances of time and
place, number and person, quality and quantity, action and repose, and
the other accidents, on which their definite employment depends. But to
enable the substantives and attributives to perform these complex
offices, they are provided with inflections, and undergo changes and
modifications, by which words and phrases become very concrete in their
meaning, and are lengthened out to appear formidable to the eye. Hence
the polysyllabic, and the descriptive character of the language, so
composite in its aspect and in its forms.
To utter succinctly, and in as few words as possible, the prominent
ideas resting upon the mind of the speaker, appear to have been the
paramount object with the inventors of the language. Hence,
concentration became a leading feature. And the pronoun, the adjective,
the adverb, and the preposition, however they may be disjunctively
employed in certain cases, are chiefly useful as furnishing materials to
the speaker, to be worked up into the complicated texture of the verb
and the substantive. Nothing, in fact, can be more unlike, than the
language, viewed in its original, elementary state--in a vocabulary, for
instance, of its primitive words, so far as such a vocabulary can now be
formed, and the same language as heard under its oral, amalgamated form.
Its transpositions may be likened to a picture, in which the copal, the
carmine, and the white lead, are no longer recognized as distinct
substances, but each of which has contributed its share towards the
effect. It is the painter only who possesses the principle, by which one
element has been curtailed, another augmented, and all, however
seemingly discordant, made to coalesce.
Such a language may be expected to abound in derivatives and compounds;
to afford rules for giving verbs substantive, and substantives verbal
qualities; to concentrate the meaning of words upon a few syllables, or
upon a single letter, or alphabetical sign; and to supply modes of
contraction and augmentation, and, if I may so say, _short cuts_, and
_by-paths_ to meanings, which are equally novel and interesting. To
arrive at its primitives, we must pursue an intricate thread, where
analogy is often the only guide. We must divest words of those
accumulated syllables, or particles, which, like the molecules of
material matter, are clustered around the primitives. It is only after a
process of this kind, that the _principle of combination_--that secret
wire, which moves the whole machinery can be searched for, with a
reasonable prospect of success. The labor of analysis is one of the most
interesting and important, which the subject presents. And it is a labor
which it will be expedient to keep constantly in view, until we have
separately considered the several parts of speech, and the grammatical
laws by which the language is held together; and thus established
principles and provided materials wherewith we may the more successfully
labor.
1. In a general survey of the language as it is spoken, and as it must
be written, there is perhaps no feature which obtrudes itself so
constantly to view, as the principle which separates all words, of
whatever denomination, into animates and inanimates, as they are applied
to objects in the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdom. This principle
has been grafted upon most words, and carries its distinctions
throughout the syntax. It is the gender of the language; but a gender of
so unbounded a scope, as to merge in it the common distinctions of a
masculine and feminine, and to give a twofold character to the parts of
speech. The concords which it requires, and the double inflections it
provides, will be mentioned in their appropriate places. It will be
sufficient here to observe, that animate nouns require animate verbs for
their nominatives, animate adjectives to express their qualities, and
animate demonstrative pronouns to mark the distinctions of person. Thus,
if we say, "I see a man; I see a house," the termination of the verb
must be changed. What was in the first instance _wâb imâ_, is altered
to _wâb indân_. _Wâb_, is here the infinitive, but the root of this verb
is still more remote. If the question occurs "Is it a good man, or a
good house," the adjective, which, in the inanimate form is
_onishish-í_, is, in the animate _onishish-i[n']_. If the question be
put, "Is it this man, or this house," the pronoun _this_, which is _mâ
bum_, in the animate, is changed to _mâ ndun_, in the inanimate.
Nouns animate embrace the tribes of quadrupeds, birds, fishes, insects,
reptiles, crustacæ, the sun, and moon, and stars, thunder, and
lightning, for these are personified; and whatever either possesses
animal life, or is endowed, by the peculiar opinions and superstitions
of the Indians, with it. In the vegetable kingdom, their number is
comparatively limited, being chiefly confined to trees, and those only
while they are referred to, as whole bodies, and to the various species
of fruits, and seeds, and esculents. It is at the option of the speaker
to employ nouns, either as animates or inanimates: but it is a choice
seldom resorted to, except in conformity with stated exceptions. These
conventional exceptions are not numerous, and the more prominent of
them, may be recited. The cause of the exceptions it is not always easy
to perceive. It may, however, generally be traced to a particular
respect paid to certain inanimate bodies, either from their real or
fancied properties--the uses to which they are applied, or the
ceremonies to which they are dedicated. A stone, which is the altar of
sacrifice to their Manitoes; a bow, formerly so necessary in the chase;
a feather, the honored sign of martial prowess; a kettle, so valuable in
the household; a pipe, by which friendships are sealed and treaties
ratified; a drum, used in their sacred and festive dances; a medal, the
mask of authority; vermilion, the appropriate paint of the warrior;
wampum, by which messages are conveyed, and covenants remembered. These
are among the objects, in themselves inanimates, which require the
application of animate verbs, pronouns, and adjectives, and are thereby
transferred to the animate class.
It is to be remarked, however, that the names for animals, are only
employed as animates, while the objects are referred to as whole and
complete species. But the gender must be changed, when it becomes
necessary to speak of separate numbers. Man, woman, father, mother, are
separate nouns, so long as the individuals are meant; but hand, foot,
head, eye, ear, tongue, are inanimates. Buck, is an animate noun, while
his entire carcass is referred to, whether living or dead; but neck,
back, heart, windpipe, take the inanimate form. In like manner, eagle,
swan, dove, are distinguished as animates; but beak, wing, tail, are
arranged with inanimates. So oak, pine, ash, are animate; branch, leaf,
root, inanimates.
Reciprocal exceptions, however, exist to this rule--the reasons for
which, as in the former instance, may generally be sought, either in
peculiar opinions of the Indians, or in the peculiar qualities or uses
of the objects. Thus the talons of the eagle, and the claws of the bear,
and of other animals, which furnish ornaments for the neck, are
invariably spoken of, under the animate form. The hoofs and horns of all
quadrupeds, which are applied to various economical and mystic purposes;
the castorum of the beaver, and the nails of man, are similarly
situated. The vegetable creation also furnishes some exceptions of this
nature; such are the names for the outer bark of all trees (except the
birch), and the branches, the roots, and the resin of the spruce, and
its congeners.
In a language, which considers all nature as separated into two classes
of bodies, characterized by the presence or absence of life; neuter
nouns will scarcely be looked for, although such may exist without my
knowledge. Neuters are found amongst the verbs and the adjectives, but
it is doubtful whether they render the nouns to which they are applied
neuters, in the sense we attach to that term. The subject in all its
bearings is interesting, and a full and minute description of it would
probably elicit new light respecting some doubtful points in the
language, and contribute something towards a curious collateral
topic--the history of Indian opinions. I have stated the principle
broadly, without filling up the subject of exceptions as fully as it is
in my power, and without following its bearings upon points which will
more properly come under discussion at other stages of the inquiry. A
sufficient outline, it is believed, has been given, and having thus met,
at the threshold, a principle deeply laid at the foundation of the
language, and one which will be perpetually recurring, I shall proceed
to enumerate some other prominent features of the substantive.
2. No language is perhaps so defective, as to be totally without
number. But there are, probably, few which furnish so many modes of
indicating it, as the Odjibwa. There are as many modes of forming the
plural, as there are vowel sounds, yet there is no distinction between a
limited and unlimited plural; although there is, in the pronoun, an
_inclusive_ and an _exclusive_ plural. Whether we say _man_ or _men_,
_two men_ or _twenty men_, the singular _inin´i_, and the plural
_nin´iwug_, remains the same. But if we say _we_, or _us_, or _our men_
(who are present), or _we_, or _us_, or _our Indians_ (in general), the
plural _we_, and _us_, and _our_--for they are rendered by the same
form--admit of a change to indicate whether the objective person be
_included_ or _excluded_. This principle, of which full examples will be
given under the appropriate head, forms a single and anomalous instance
of the use of particular plurals. And it carries its distinctions, by
means of the pronouns, separable and inseparable, into the verbs and
substantives, creating the necessity of double conjugations and double
declensions, in the plural forms of the first person. Thus, the term for
"Our Father," which, in the inclusive form is _Kósinân_, is, in the
exclusive, _Nósinân_.
The particular plural, which is thus, by the transforming power of the
language, carried from the pronoun into the texture of the verb and
substantive, is not limited to any fixed number of persons or objects,
but arises from the operations of the verb. The general plural is
variously made. But the plurals making inflections take upon themselves
an additional power or sign, by which substantives are distinguished
into animate and inanimate. Without this additional power, all nouns
plural would end in the vowels _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_. But to mark the
gender, the letter _g_ is added to animates, and the letter _n_ to
inanimates, making the plurals of the first class terminate in _âg_,
_eeg_, _ig_, _ôg_, _ug_, and of the second class in _ân_, _een_, _in_,
_ôn_, _un_. Ten modes of forming the plural are thus provided, five of
which are animate, and five inanimate plurals. A strong and clear line
of distinction is thus drawn between the two classes of words; so
unerring, indeed, in its application, that it is only necessary to
inquire how the plural is formed, to determine whether it belonged to
one or the other class. The distinctions which we have endeavored to
convey will, perhaps, be more clearly perceived, by adding examples of
the use of each of the plurals.
Animate Plural.
a. Odjibwâi, a Chippewa. Odjibwaig, Chippewas.
e. Ojee, a Fly. Oj-eeg, Flies.
i. Kosénan, Our father, (in.) Kosenân-ig, Our fathers, (in.)
o. Ahmô, a Bee. Ahm-ôg, Bees.
u. Ais, a Schell. Ais-ug, Shells.
Inanimate Plural.
a. Ishkôdai, Fire. Ishkôdain, Fires.
e. Wadôp, Alder. Wadôp-een, Alders.
i. Adetaig, Fruit. Adetaig-in, Fruits.
o. Nôdin, Wind. Nôdin-ôn, Winds.
u. Meen, Berry. Meen-un, Berries.
Where a noun terminates with a vowel in the singular, the addition of
the _g_, or _n_, shows at once, both the plural and the gender. In other
instances, as in _peenai_, a partridge--_seebi_, a river--it requires a
consonant to precede the plural vowel, in conformity with a rule
previously stated. Thus, _peenai_, is rendered _peenai-wug_--and
_seebi_, _seebi-wun_. Where the noun singular terminates in the broad,
instead of the long sound of _a_, as in _ogimâ_, a chief, _ishpatinâ_, a
hill, the plural is _ogim-ag_, _ishpatinân_. But these are mere
modifications of two of the above forms, and are by no means entitled to
be considered as additional plurals.
Comparatively few substances are without number. The following may be
enumerated:--
Missun´, Firewood. Ussáimâ, Tobacco.
Pinggwi, Ashes. Naigow, Sand.
Méjim, Food. Ahwun, Mist.
Kôn, Snow. Kimmiwun, Rain.
Mishk´wi, Blood. Ossâkumig, Moss.
Ukkukkuzhas, Coals. Unitshimin, Peas.
Others may be found, and indeed, a few others are known. But it is less
an object, in this lecture, to pursue exceptions into their minutest
ramifications, than to sketch broad rules, applicable, if not to every
word, to at least a majority of words in the language.
There is, however, one exception from the general use of number, so
peculiar in itself, that not to point it out would be an unpardonable
remissness in giving the outlines of a language, in which it is an
object neither to extenuate faults nor to overrate beauties. This
exception consists in the want of number in the _third person_ of the
declensions of animate nouns, and the conjugation of animate verbs. Not
that such words are destitute of number, in their simple forms, or when
used under circumstances requiring no change of these simple forms--no
prefixes and no inflections. But it will be seen, at a glance, how very
limited such an application of words must be, in a transpositive
language.
Thus _mang_ and _kâg_ (loon and porcupine) take the plural inflection
_wug_, becoming _mang wug_ and _kâg wug_ (loons and porcupines). So, in
their pronominal declension:--
My loon Ni mang oom
Thy loon Ki mang oom
My porcupine Ni gâg oom
Thy porcupine Ki gâg oom
My loons Ni mang oom ug
Thy loons Ki mang oom ug
My porcupines Ni gâg oom ug
Thy porcupines Ki gâg oom ug
But his loon, or loons (_o many oom un_), his porcupine or porcupines
(_o gâg oom un_), are without number. The rule applies equally to the
class of words in which the pronouns are inseparable. Thus, my father
and thy father, _nôs_ and _kôs_, become my fathers and thy fathers, by
the numerical inflection _ug_, forming _nôsug_ and _kôsug_. But _ôsun_,
his father or fathers, is vague, and does not indicate whether there be
one father or twenty fathers. The inflection _un_, merely denotes the
_object_. The rule also applies equally to sentences in which the noun
is governed by or governs the verb. Whether we say, "I saw a bear,"
_ningi wâbumâ mukwah_, or "a bear saw me," _mukwah ningi wâbumig_, the
noun, itself, undergoes no change, and its number is definite. But _ogi
wâbumân muk-wun_, "he saw bear," is indefinite, although both the verb
and the noun have changed their endings. And if the narrator does not
subsequently determine the number, the hearer is either left in doubt,
or must resolve it by a question. In fine, the whole acts of the third
person are thus rendered questionable. This want of precision, which
would seem to be fraught with so much confusion, appears to be obviated
in practice, by the employment of adjectives, by numerical inflections
in the relative words of the sentence, by the use of the indefinite
article, _paizhik_, or by demonstrative pronouns. Thus, _paizhik mukwun
ogi wâbumân_, conveys with certainty the information "he saw _a_ bear."
But in this sentence both the noun and the verb retain the objective
inflections, as in the former instances. These inflections are not
uniformly _un_, but sometimes _een_, as in _ogeen_, his mother, and
sometimes _ôn_, as in _odakeek-ôn_, his kettle, in all which instances,
however, the number is left indeterminate. It may hence be observed, and
it is a remark which we shall presently have occasion to corroborate,
that the plural inflection to inanimate nouns (which have no objective
form), forms the objective inflection to animate nouns, which have no
number in the third person.
3. This leads us to the consideration of the mode of forming
possessives, the existence of which, when it shall have been indicated
by full examples, will present to the mind of the inquirer, one of those
tautologies in grammatical forms, which, without imparting additional
precision, serve to clothe the language with accumulated verbiage. The
strong tendency to combination and amalgamation, existing in the
language, renders it difficult, in fact, to discuss the principles of it
in that elementary form which could be wished. In the analysis of words
and forms we are constantly led from the central point of discussion. To
recur, however, from these collateral unravellings to the main thread of
inquiry, at as short and frequent intervals as possible, and thus to
preserve the chain of conclusions and proofs, is so important, that,
without keeping the object distinctly in view, I should despair of
conveying any clear impressions of those grammatical features which
impart to the language its peculiar character.
It has been remarked that the distinctions of number are founded upon a
modification of the five vowel sounds. Possessives are likewise founded
upon the basis of the vowel sounds. There are five declensions of the
noun to mark the possessive, ending in the possessive in _âm_, _eem_,
_im_, _ôm_, _um_, _oom_. Where the nominative ends with a vowel, the
possessive is made by adding the letter _m_, as in _maimai_, a woodcock,
_ni maimaim_, my woodcock, &c. Where the nominative ends in a consonant,
as in _ais_, a shell, the full possessive inflection is required, making
_nin daisim_, my shell. In the latter form, the consonant _d_ is
interposed between the pronoun and noun, and sounded with the noun, in
conformity with a general rule. Where the nominative ends in the broad
in lieu of the long sound of _a_, as in _ogimâ_, a chief, the
possessive is _âm_. The sound of _i_, in the third declension, is that
of _i_ in pin, and the sound of _u_, in the fifth declension, is that of
_u_ in bull. The latter will be uniformly represented by _oo_.
The possessive declensions run throughout both the animate and inanimate
classes of nouns, with some exceptions in the latter, as knife, bowl,
paddle, &c.
Inanimate nouns are thus declined.
Nominative.
Ishkôdai, Fire.
Possessive.
My, Nin Dishkod-aim.
Thy, Ki Dishkod-aim.
His, O Dishkod-aim.
Our, Ki Dishkod-aim-inân. (in.)
-- Ni Dishkod-aim-inân. (ex.)
Your, Ki Dishkod-aim-iwâ.
Their, O Dishko-aim-iwâ.
Those words which form exceptions from this declension, take the
separable pronouns before them as follows:--
Môkoman, A Knife.
Ni môkoman, My Knife.
Ki môkoman, Thy Knife.
O môkoman, His Knife, &c.
Animate substantives are declined precisely in the same manner as
inanimate, except in the third person, which takes to the possessive
inflections, _aim_, _eem_, _im_, _ôm_, _oom_, the objective particle
_un_, denoting the compound inflection of this person, both in the
singular and plural, _aimun_, _eemun_, _imun_, _ômun_, _oomun_, and the
variation of the first vowel sound, _âmun_. Thus, to furnish an example
of the second declension, _bizhiki_, a bison, changes its forms to
_nim_, _bizhik-im_, my bison--_ke bizhik-im_, thy bison, _O
bizhik-imun_, his bison, or bisons.
The cause of this double inflection in the third person, may be left for
future inquiry. But we may add further examples in aid of it. We cannot
simply say, "The chief has killed a bear," or, to reverse the object
upon which the energy of the verb is exerted, "The bear has killed a
chief." But, _ogimâ ogi nissân muk-wun_, literally, "Chief he has has
killed him bear," or, _mukwah ogi_ _nissân ogimân_, "Bear he has killed
him chief." Here the verb and the noun are both objective in _un_, which
is sounded _ân_, where it comes after the broad sound of _a_, as in
_nissân_, objective of the verb to kill. If we confer the powers of the
English possessive (_'s_), upon the inflections _aim_, _eem_, _im_,
_ôm_, _oom_, and _âm_, respectively, and the meaning of _him_, and of
course _he_, _her_, _his_, _hers_, _they_, _theirs_ (as there is no
declension of the pronoun, and no number to the third person), upon the
objective particle _un_, we shall then translate the above expression,
_o bizhik-eemum_, his bison's hisn. If we reject this meaning, as I
think we should, the sentence would read, "His bison," him, a mere
tautology.
It is true, it may be remarked, that the noun possessed, has a
corresponding termination, or pronominal correspondence, with the
pronoun possessor, also a final termination indicative of its being the
_object_ on which the verb exerts its influence--a mode of expression,
which, so far as relates to the possessive, would be deemed superfluous,
in modern languages; but may have some analogy in the Latin accusatives
_am_, _um_, _em_.
It is a constant and unremitting aim in the Indian languages to
distinguish the actor from the object, partly by prefixes, and partly by
inseparable suffixes. That the termination _un_, is one of these
inseparable particles, and that its office, while it confounds the
number, is to designate the object, appears probable from the fact, that
it retains its connection with the noun, whether the latter follow or
precede the verb, or whatever its position in the sentence may be.
Thus we can, without any perplexity in the meaning say,
_Waimittigôzhiwug ogi sagiân Pontiac-un_, "Frenchmen, they did love
Pontiac him." Or to reverse it, _Pontiac-un Waimittigôzhiwug ogi sagiân_,
"Pontiac, he did Frenchmen he loved." The termination _un_, in both
instances, clearly determines the object beloved. So in the following
instance, _Sagunoshug ogi sagiân Tecumseh-un_, "Englishmen, they did
love Tecumseh," or _Tecumseh-un Sagunoshug oji sagiân_, "Tecumseh, he
did Englishmen he loved."
In tracing the operation of this rule, through the doublings of the
language, it is necessary to distinguish every modification of sound,
whether it is accompanied or not accompanied by a modification of the
sense. The particle _un_, which thus marks _the third person and
persons_, is sometimes pronounced _wun_, and sometimes _yun_, as the
harmony of the word to which it is suffixed may require. But not the
slightest change is thereby made in its meaning.
Wâbojeeg ogi meegân-ân nâdowaisi-wun.
Wâbojeeg fought his enemies. L.[271] W. he did fight them, his
enemy, or enemies.
O sâgi-ân inini-wun.
He, or she, loves a man. L. He, or she, loves him-man, or men.
Kigo-yun waindji pimmâdizziwâd.
They subsist on fish. L. Fish or fishes, they upon them, they live.
Ontwa o sagiân odi-yun.
Ontwa loves his dog. L. O. he loves him, his dog, or dogs.
[271] L. for _literally_.
In these sentences, the letters _w_ and _y_ are introduced before the
inflection _un_, merely for euphony's sake, and to enable the speaker to
utter the final vowel of the substantive, and the inflective vowel,
without placing both under the accent. It is to be remarked in these
examples, that the verb has a corresponding inflection with the noun,
indicated by the final consonant _n_, as in _sagiâ-n_, objective of the
verb _to love_. This is merely a modification of _un_, where it is
requisite to employ it after broad _a_ (_aw_), and it is applicable to
nouns as well as verbs whenever they end in that sound. Thus, in the
phrase, "He saw a chief," _O wâbumâ-n O gimâ-n_, both noun and verb
terminate in _n_. It is immaterial to the sense, which precedes. And
this leads to the conclusion, which we are in some measure compelled to
state in anticipation of our remarks on the verb: That verbs must not
only agree with their nominatives in number, person, and _gender_ (we
use the latter term for want of a more appropriate one), but also with
their objectives. Hence, the objective sign _n_ in the above examples.
Sometimes this sign is removed from the ending of the verb, to make room
for the plural of the nominative person, and is subjoined to the latter.
Thus,
O sagiâ(wâ)n.
They love them (him or them).
In this phrase, the interposed syllable (_wâ_) is, apparently, the
plural--it is a reflective plural--of _he_--the latter being indicated,
as usual, by the sign _O_. It has been observed, above, that the
deficiency in number, in the third person, is sometimes supplied "by
numerical inflections in the relative words of the sentence," and this
interposed particle (_wâ_) affords an instance in point.
The number of the nominative pronoun appears to be thus rendered
precise, but the objective is still indefinite.
When two nouns are used without a verb in the sentence, or when two
nouns compose the whole matter uttered, being in the third person, both
have the full objective inflection. Thus,
Os-(un). Odi-(yun).
His father's dog. L. His father--his dog or dogs.
There are certain words, however, which will not admit the objective
_un_, either in its simple or modified forms. These are rendered
objective in _een_, or _ôn_.
O wâbumâ-(n), ossin-(een).
He sees the stone. L. He sees him--stone or stones.
O wâbumâ-(n) mittig o mizh-(een). L. He sees him, tree or trees.
He sees an oak tree.
O mittig wâb (een), gyai o bikwuk-(ôn).
His bow and his arrows. L. His bow him, and his arrows, him or them.
Odyâ | wâ | wâ (n), akkik-(ôn).
They possess a kettle. L. They own them, kettle or kettles.
The syllable _wâ_, in the verb of the last example included between bars
(instead of parentheses), is the reflective plural _they_ pointed out in
a preceding instance.
I shall conclude these remarks, with full examples of each pronominal
declension.
_a._ First declension, forming the first and second persons in _aim_,
and the third in _aimun_.
Nominative.
Pinâi, a partridge.
Pinâi-wug, partridges.
First and second person.
My, Nim Bin-aim.
Thy, Ki Bin-aim.
Our, Ki Bin-aim inân. Inclusive plural.
Our, Ni Bin-aiminân. Exclusive plural.
Your, Ki Bin-aim wâ.
Third person.
His, O Bin-aim (un).
Their, O Bin-aim iwâ (n).
_e._ Second declension forming the first and second persons in eem, and
the third in _eemun_.
Nominative.
Ossin, a stone.
Ossineen, stones.
First and second persons.