The right of soil to all that part of th_Summary Narrative of an Exploratory Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi River, in 1820 Resumed and Completed, by the Discovery of its Origin in Itasca Lake, in 1832

purchased by the United States is divided between the Ojibwais and the

Ottoways. The former claim all the shores and islands of Lake Huron

situated north of the Saganaw purchase, except those in the vicinity of

Michilimackinac and the St. Martin, or Gypsum Islands, which were ceded

by treaty on the 6th of July, 1820.[239] Their territories continue

north, through the River St. Mary's, embracing the country on both

banks, and the islands in the river, saving Drummond's Island, which is

garrisoned by the British, and the Four Mile concession at the Sault or

Falls, now occupied by a detachment of the United States' army. It is

not deemed necessary to point out the limits of their territories with

more precision, or to pursue them into the Canadas, where they are also

very extensive. It will sufficiently appear, from this outline, that the

discoveries of copper on the south shore of Lake Superior are upon their

lands. That some of these discoveries have been made upon, or will be

traced to, the possessions of the North Monomonees, is also probable.

[239] _Vide_ acts passed at the second session of the 16th Congress,

p. 91.

With respect to the practicability of extinguishing the Indian title, no

difficulty is to be apprehended. Living in small villages, or tribes of

the same mark, scattered over an immense territory, and often reduced to

great poverty by the failure of game and fish, it is presumed there

would be a disposition among their chiefs and head men to dispose of

portions of it. Those districts which most abound in minerals,

presenting a rough and rocky surface, are the least valuable to them as

hunting-grounds; and the goods and annuities which they would receive in

exchange must be vastly more important to them than any game which these

mineral lands now afford.

3. "_The probable advantage which may result to the Republic from the

acquisition and working of these mines._" How far metallic mines,

situated upon the public domain, may be considered as a source of

national wealth, and what system of management is best calculated to

produce the greatest advantages to the public revenue, are inquiries

which are not conceived to be presented for consideration in this place;

nor should I presume to offer any speculations upon topics which have

been so often discussed, and so fully settled. In applying axioms,

however, to a species of productive industry, the results of which are

so very various under various situations, great caution is undoubtedly

necessary; and it must appear manifest, on the slightest reflection, how

much the comparative value of metallic mines, equally fertile and

productive, ever depends upon situation and local advantages.

Dismissing, therefore, all questions of abstract policy, I shall here

adduce a few facts in relation to the fertility of these mineral beds,

and their position with respect to a market--points upon which their

value to the nation must ultimately turn.

That copper is abundantly found on the south shore of Lake Superior has

been shown. It is unnecessary here to add to, or repeat the instances of

its occurrence, or to urge, from an inspection of the surface, the

fertility of subterranean beds. All the facts which I possess in

relation to this subject are before you, and you will assign to them

such importance as they merit. It is a subject upon which I have

bestowed some reflection and much inquiry, superadded to limited

opportunities of personal observation, and the result has led me to form

a favorable estimate of their value and importance. It is not only

certain that a prodigious number of masses of metallic copper are found

along the borders of the lake, but every appearance authorizes a

conclusion that they are only the indications of near and continuous

veins. Some of these masses are of unexampled size, and all present

metallic copper in a state of great purity and fineness. Of its ductile

and excellent qualities for the purposes of coinage and sheathing, the

analysis of Utrecht leaves no doubt. It is true that a mistaken idea has

prevailed among travellers and geographers respecting the weight of the

great mass of copper on the Ontonagon River; but it is, nevertheless, of

extraordinary dimensions, and I have endeavored to show, from their

works, how these errors have originated, and that the metal is

disseminated throughout a much greater extent of country, and in masses

of every possible form and size. Until my facts and data can, therefore,

be proved to be fallacious, I must be permitted to consider these mines

not only fertile in native copper and its congenerous species, but

unparalleled in extent, and to recommend them as such to the notice of

the Government.

But, whatever degree of incertitude may exist respecting the riches of

these mines, their situation with respect to a market can admit of no

dispute. As little can there be concerning the advantages which this

situation presents for the purposes of mining and commerce. Let us

compare it with that of other mines, and appeal to acknowledged facts

for the decision. The value of a coal mine, a stone quarry, or a gypsum

bed, often arises as much from its situation as its fertility. But the

proposition may be reversed with respect to a metallic mine, the value

of which to the proprietor arises more from its fertility and less from

its situation. Gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, &c., when separated from

the matrix of the mine, are so valuable that they can bear to be

transported a long journey over land, and the most distant voyage by

water. Their worth in coined money, produce, or manufactures, is not

fixed in the particular circles of country where they are dug up, but

depends upon the seaboard market, and embraces all countries. The silver

of Mexico and Peru circulates throughout Europe, and is carried to

China. It is no objection to those mines that they are situated in the

Cordilleras, or upon the high table-lands of the American continent, and

must be carried a thousand miles upon the backs of mules to the seaside.

The very discovery of those mines has rendered many poor silver mines of

Europe of no value, although possibly situated in the environs of the

best silver markets in the world. It is the fertility, and not the

situation of such mines, that constitutes their chief value; and it is

so with many of the coarser metals.

The tin of the Island of Banka, and the Peninsula of Siam in Asia, and

the copper of Japan, find their way to Europe, and are articles of

commerce in the United States. The cobalt of Saxony is sent to Pekin,

and the platina of Choco, to all parts of the world. In all these

instances, the fertility of the mines compensates for every disadvantage

of situation. But this principle is not alone confined to mines of tin,

copper, &c.; it even holds true of the heavy and bulky articles of iron,

lead, and salt. The lead of Missouri finds a market at New York,

Philadelphia, and Boston, and will be carried to Europe. It is no

objection that it must be conveyed in wagons forty miles from the

interior, and sent a voyage of 3,000 miles in steamboats and merchant

ships. The great fertility of the mines counterbalances the

disadvantages of its remote position from the market, and it is the

price of the metal in the market which always regulates its price at the

mines. The malleable iron of Sweden is consumed on the summits of the

Alleghany, although its strata are replete with iron ore, which is

worked at numerous forges along the rivers which proceed from each side

of it. It is believed that the salt springs of Onondaga, from their

copiousness alone, would supply a vast portion of the interior and

seaboard of the United States with salt, even if the facilities of water

carriage had not been presented by the Erie Canal. The value of such

mines and minerals ever depends as much upon the abundance as upon the

favorable position of them. It is far otherwise with quarries of stone,

gypsum, marl, fossil coal, &c., whose contiguity to a good market

establishes their value. No abundance of these articles would justify a

land carriage of one hundred miles. They constitute a species of

mining, the profits and value of which increases in the ratio of the

surrounding population, and as the country advances in improvements. But

this advantage is far less sensibly felt, and cannot be considered

essential to the successful working of mines of silver, copper, &c.

Neither the remote position, therefore, of the Lake Superior copper

mines, nor the want of a surrounding population, present objections of

that force which would at first seem to exist; and it is confidently

believed that, if their fertility is such as facts indicate, they may be

opened and wrought with eminent advantage to the Republic. But let us

examine their situation with respect to a market, and compare it with

that of other mines of the same metal, and of some of the coarser

metals, which bear a considerable land, and the most distant water

carriage. To favor the inquiry, let it be granted for the moment that

proximity of situation to a market, or free water carriage, are

indispensable to the success and value of the most fertile mines.

Assuming the confluence of the Ontonagon River with Lake Superior (which

is apparently the centre of the mine district) as the place where the

metal is first to be embarked for market, it must be carried down the

lake 300 miles to the Sault or rapids of St. Mary's. Here, if it is in

barges, it may descend the rapids in perfect safety, as is the

invariable practice of the traders on arriving with their annual returns

of furs and skins from the north. If in vessels, it must be transferred

either into boats or carts, and carried half a mile to the foot of the

rapids, where it will again be embarked in vessels, and transported

through the Lakes Huron, St. Clair, and Erie, and their connecting

straits, to Buffalo, a distance of 650 miles. The progress made in the

construction of the great canal which is to connect the lakes and

Atlantic, is such as to leave no doubt upon any reasonable mind of the

full completion of that work with the close of the year 1824. Through

this channel, the transportation is to be continued in boats or barges,

by a voyage of 353 miles, to the Hudson at Albany; thence a sloop

navigation of 144 miles, which, for speed and freedom from risk, is

perhaps unequalled in all America, takes it into the harbor of New York,

making the entire distance, from the mouth of the Ontonagon, 1,447

miles. From New York it is distributed to our naval depots, and to the

markets of Europe. It is exchanged for the lead of Missouri, the iron

of Sweden, or the silver of Mexico; and the same ready communication

transports the return cargo to Buffalo, from whence the commerce is

extended, by means of the lakes, throughout western New York,

Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and the interminable

regions of the north. Thus it is seen that, when the Erie Canal is

completed, a free and direct water communication, from the mines to one

of the best markets in America, will exist, in which the rapids of St.

Mary's are the only interruption, and this is only an interruption to

large vessels. Not only so, but the Ontonagon River may be ascended many

miles with vessels of light burden, and thus the copper of Lake

Superior, wafted from the heart of the interior, and from the base of

the Porcupine Mountains, into the harbors of New York, Philadelphia, &c.

Of this whole distance, 1,047 miles are now navigated by the largest

class of river craft and lake schooners; the balance of the distance is

the length of the Erie Canal. (See Note D.)

Let it be recollected that there are no mines of copper situated upon

the margin of the sea, and that every quintal of sheet copper, bolts,

nails, &c., which we receive from Great Britain, Russia, Sweden, or

Japan, is transported a greater or less distance on turnpikes or canals,

before it reaches the place of shipment. The richest copper mines of the

Russian empire are seated on the summits of the Uralian Mountains; those

of Fahlun, in Sweden, and Cornwall, in England, are scarcely more

favored as to position; and, owing to a want of coal, all the ores

raised at the latter are transported into Wales to be smelted.[240] But

we need not resort to Europe for instances. All the lead raised at the

fertile mines in Missouri is transported an average distance of forty

miles in carts and wagons before it reaches the banks of the

Mississippi. Steamboats take it to New Orleans, a distance, by the

shortest computation, of 1,000 miles. But it must still pass through the

Gulf of Mexico, and encounter the perils of the Capes of Florida, and a

voyage of 2,000 miles along the coast of the United States, before it

reaches its principal marts. The average cost of transporting a

hundredweight of lead from Mine au Breton and Potosi to the banks of the

Mississippi, during the year 1818, was seventy-five cents. The distance

is thirty-six miles. The price of conveying the same quantity from the

storehouses at Herculaneum and St. Genevieve to New Orleans, by

steamboats, was seventy cents. The distance exceeds 1,000 miles. Hence,

it costs more to transport a given quantity thirty-six miles by land

than to convey it 1,000 by water. These rates have probably varied

since, but the proportionate expense of land carriage, compared to that

of water, will remain the same. A quintal of copper may, therefore, be

transported from the mines of Superior to Buffalo or Lockport, in New

York, for the same sum required to convey an equal quantity of lead from

Potosi to St. Genevieve. If we consider the city of New York as the

market of both, no hesitancy or doubt can be experienced as to the

decided and palpable advantages possessed by the northern mines. It is

only necessary to adduce these facts; the conclusions are inevitable. In

every point of view, the distance of these mines from the market

presents no solid objection to their being explored with profit to the

nation.

[240] Silliman.

Pig copper, which is the least valuable form in which this metal is

carried to market, is now quoted in the Atlantic cities at 19 cents per

pound; sheathing, at 27; brazier's, at 32. I have no data at hand to

show the amount of these articles consumed in the United States, and for

which we are annually transmitting immense sums to enrich foreign

States. But those who best appreciate the advantages of commerce will

readily supply the estimate. It would be an interesting inquiry to

ascertain how much of the sums yearly paid for sheathing copper, bolts,

nails, engravers' plates, &c., is contributed to the wealth of the

respective foreign States who possess mines of this metal. We can look

back to a period in the history of Great Britain, when that power did

not contribute one pound of copper to the commerce of Europe. During a

period of nine years, closing with the memorable year (in American

history) of 1775, the produce of the copper mines of Cornwall was 2,650

tons of fine copper. (See Note E.) Since that time, the yearly returns

of those mines exhibit a constant increase; and the copper mines of

Great Britain are now the most valuable in the world. The amount

produced by the mines of Cornwall and Devon, after deducting the charges

of smelting, for the single year of 1810, was 969,376 pounds sterling.

(See Note F.) The clear profits of the Dolgoath mine, one of the richest

in Cornwall, for a period of five months, during the year 1805, was

£18,000, which is at the rate of £43,200, or $192,000, per annum. Next

to Great Britain, the most considerable mines of Europe are those of

Russia, Austria, Sweden, and Westphalia, as it was in 1808. Of less

importance are those of Denmark, France, Saxony, Prussia, and Spain. The

proportion in which the British mines exceed those of the most favored

European nation is as 200,000 x 67,000. (See Note G.)

There is another consideration connected with this subject which is

worthy of remark. Should it be inquired what would be the effects of the

purchase of these mines upon the condition of the Indian tribes, the

reply is obvious. It would have the most beneficial tendency. They would

not only profit by an exchange of their waste lands for goods,

implements of husbandry, the stipulated services of blacksmiths,

teachers, &c., but the intercourse would have a happy tendency to allay

those bitter feelings which, through the instigation of the British

authorities in the Canadas, they have manifested, and still continue to

feel, in degree, towards the United States. The measures which the

President has recently directed to be pursued to assuage these feelings

of hostility, and to induce them to cherish proper sentiments of

friendship and respect, are already in a train of execution that bids

fair for success. Continued exertions, and the necessary and proper

means, are all that seem necessary to confirm and complete the effect;

and whatever measures have a tendency to increase the intercourse of

American citizens with these "remote tribes," and to give them a true

conception of the power and justice, and the pacific and benevolent

policy of our Government, must favor and hasten such a result.

I have the honor to be, sir,

With the highest respect,

Your most obedient servant,

HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT,

_U. S. Indian Agent at the Sault Ste. Marie_.

Hon JOHN C. CALHOUN,

_Secretary of War, Washington_.

_Notes._

(B.)

Among the numerous superstitions which the Indian tribes entertain, that

respecting mines is not the least remarkable. They are firmly impressed

with a belief that any information communicated to the whites,

disclosing the position of mines or metallic treasures situated upon

their grounds, is displeasing to their manitos, and even to the Great

Spirit himself, from whom they profess to derive every good and valuable

gift; and that this offence never fails to be visited upon them in the

loss of property, in the want of success in their customary pursuits or

pastimes, in untimely death, or some other singular disaster or untoward

event. This opinion, although certainly not a strange one to be

cherished by a barbarous people, is, nevertheless, believed to have had

its origin in the transactions of an era which is not only very well

defined, but must ever remain conspicuous in the history of the

discovery and settlement of America. It is very well known that the

precious metals were the principal objects which led the Spanish

invaders to penetrate into the interior of Mexico and Peru, and

ultimately to devastate and conquer the country, to plunder and destroy

its temples, and to tax and enslave its ill-fated inhabitants. It is

equally certain that, to escape these scenes of cruelty and oppression,

many tribes and fragments of tribes, when further resistance became

hopeless, fled towards the north, preferring the enjoyment of liberty

and tranquillity upon the chilly borders of the northern lakes, to the

pains of servitude in the mild and delightful valleys of Mexico, and the

golden plains of the Incas. In this way, many tribes who originally

migrated from the north, along the Pacific Ocean, to the Gulf of

California, and thence over all New Spain, were returned towards the

north over the plains of Texas and the valley of the Mississippi; those

tribes nearest the scenes of the greatest atrocities always pressing

upon the remoter and less civilized, who, in turn, pressed upon the

nations less enlightened than themselves, and finally drove them into

the unfrequented forests of the north. Among these terrified tribes, the

traditions of the Ojibwais affirm that their ancestors came, and that

they originally dwelt in a country destitute of snows. Many tribes who

now speak idioms of their language were left upon the way, and have

since taken distinctive names. Among these, are the Pottawatamies, the

Ottoways, &c. The latter formerly were, as they still remain, the

agriculturists. The Miamis and Shawnees, whose languages bear some

affinity, preceded them in their flight. The Winnebagoes, speaking a

separate and original tongue, came later, and preserve more distinct

traditions of their migration. All these tribes carried with them the

strong prejudices and fixed hatred excited by the cruelty, rapacity, and

cupidity of their European conquerors; and, above all, of that

insatiable thirst for gold and silver which led the Spaniards to sack

their towns, burn their temples, and torture their people. Cruelty and

injustice of so glaring a character must have made upon their minds too

deep an impression ever to be forgotten, or completely erased from their

traditions. To that memorable epoch we must, therefore, look for the

origin of that cautious and distrustful disposition which these tribes

have since manifested with regard to the mines and minerals situated

upon their lands; and the circumstance seems to offer an abundant

excuse, if not a justification, for those prevarications and evasions

which present a continual series of embarrassment to every person who

seeks through their aid to develop the mineral resources, or describe

the natural productions, of their territories. Hence, too, the cause why

they are prone to imagine that all mineral or metallic substances

obtained or sought upon their lands, are susceptible of being converted

or _transmuted_ into the precious metals.

(C.)

The following _additional_ localities of native copper, derived from

sources entitled to respect, and accompanied, in some instances, by

specimens of the metal, may here be given:--

1. Grand Menou, or Isle Royal, Lake Superior. Captain----, of the

schooner----, in the employ of the Hudson's Bay Company, on Lake

Superior, describes this island as affording frequent masses of copper.

While becalmed off its shores in the spring of 1822, and, afterwards, in

coasting along the island for a distance of one hundred miles, his men

frequently went ashore, and never failed to bring back with them lumps

of metallic copper, which they found promiscuously scattered among the

fragments of rock. These were more abundant in approaching its

southwestern extremity, where they unite in representing it to exist in

a solid vein. Specimens of limpid quartz, chalcedony, and striped agate,

were also brought to me from this island. [J. S. J. J.]

2. On the extremity of the great peninsula, called by the natives

Meenaiewong, or Keweena Point, which forms so prominent a feature in the

physiognomy of Lake Superior. It occurs in the detached form. [J. H. J.

J.]

3. At Point aux Beignes, which is the east cape of the entrance into

L'Ance Quewiwenon. A mass from this place was raised from the sandstone

rock, which predominates there. [J. Y. B.]

4. At Caug Wudjieu, or the Porcupine Mountains, Lake Superior; in

masses, enveloped with a green crust, along the banks of the Carp, or

Neemaibee River, which originates in these mountains. [W. M. G. Y. J.

J.]

5. On the banks of Lac Courterroile. This lake lies near the source of

the River Broule, or Cawesacotai, which enters Lake Superior near La

Pointe. It occurs in the alluvial soil, which is a kind of loamy earth,

with pebbles intermixed, but of a rich quality, and timbered with beech

and maple. It is found mostly in small, flat masses, more or less

oxidated. [B. G. J. G. Y.]

6. In a vein on the shore of Lake Superior, between La Riviere de Mort

and St. John's, a little to the west of Presque Isle. [J. J.]

7. On the northeast branch of the Ontonagon River. [J. H.]

8. In the precipitous bluffs called Le Portail, and the Pictured Rocks.

A green matter oozes from the seams in these rocks, and forms a kind of

stalactites, which is apparently a carbonate of copper. [G. Y.]

These localities embrace a range of more than two hundred miles along

the south shore of Lake Superior, which proves how intimately this metal

and its ores are identified with the rocks and the soil of that region.

(D.)

In all our calculations respecting the position and advantages of these

mines, too much stress cannot be laid upon the facilities of the lake

navigation. It is believed that a ton of merchandise, or a barrel bulk,

can be transported through the lakes at the same rates that are paid in

the coasting trade of the United States. Nor is the risk greater. The

best data which I can command, induce me to conclude that a quintal of

copper can be conveyed from the place of shipment on Lake Superior, to

the city of New York, for _one dollar_. The present price of

transportation, for a barrel bulk, from Buffalo to Mackina, may be

stated, on the average of freights, at 8_s._, New York. The mean weight

of a barrel bulk, taking flour as the standard, may be safely put down

at 200 lbs. gross, being 50 cents per cwt. But it must be recollected

that there is no return freight; and, consequently, that this sum covers

the expenses not only of the outward and return voyage, but still leaves

a profit to the owner. Messrs. Gray and Griswold, sutlers of the 2d

regiment, paid 9_s._ 6_d._, New York, per barrel bulk, from Buffalo to

the Sault. This gives a result of 59 cents per cwt. But, if a return

cargo could be obtained, one-half of this sum would afford an equal

profit on the voyage; and it is believed that the article of bar copper

could at all times be conveyed from the Sault to Buffalo for 20 cents

per cwt. Being a very convenient species of ballast, it would oftentimes

be taken in lieu of stone, and, consequently, cost no greater sum than

the price of carrying it on board. But the facilities and cheapness of

the lake navigation cannot, perhaps, be better illustrated than by

stating the price of provisions at the post of St. Mary's, every article

of which is carried from 300 to 700 miles through the lakes. The

following statement of the assistant commissary has been politely

furnished at my request:--

SAULT STE. MARIE, October, 1822.

DEAR SIR: Agreeably to your request, I send you a statement of the

actual cost of subsistence stores furnished at this post for the use of

troops at present making the military establishment, ordered by the

Government to this place.

The prices of the several articles below enumerated are at a small

advance on the stores of the settlers outside of the cantonment.

The expenses of subsisting, or rather of maintaining, a garrison at this

place will be as small, if not less, per annum, than at any other

frontier post in our country. The provisions for the soldier cost as

little, I believe, as at any other post, and next year we shall be able

to raise all the forage for the use of our beef cattle, and the horses

and oxen of the quartermaster's department.

I am, dear sir, yours, &c.,

W. BICKER,

_A. C. S. U. S. A._

_Statement of the Cost of United States Subsistence Stores at the Sault

de Ste. Marie, 1822._

Cents.

Pork, per pound 4-1/4

Flour, per pound 1-9/10

Whiskey, per gallon 29

Fresh beef, per pound 6-1/2

Vinegar, per gallon 22

Salt, per bushel 90

Soap, per pound 10

Candles, per pound 20-1/2

Beans, per quart 4-7/10

The total cost of a soldier's ration is 9 cents and 1 mill per diem.

WALTER BICKER,

_A. C. S. U. S. A._

H. R. SCHOOLCRAFT, Esq., _U. S. I. Agent_.

(E.)

_Statement of the Returns of Copper Ores Smelted at the Mines of

Cornwall (Eng.) from 1726 to 1775.--[Rees's Cyclopedia.]_

-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------

Periods. |Tons of ore.|Average price| Amount. |Annual quantity

| | per ton. | |of fine copper.

-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------

1726 to 1735 | 64,800 | £7 15 10 | £473,500| 700 tons

1736 to 1745 | 75,520 | 7 8 6 | 560,106| 830 "

1746 to 1755 | 98,790 | 7 8 0 | 731,457| 1,080 "

1756 to 1765 | 169,699 | 7 6 6 |1,243,045| 1,800 "

1766 to 1775 | 264,273 | 6 14 6 |1,778,337| 2,650 "

-------------+------------+-------------+---------+---------------

(F.)

_Statement of the Produce of the Mines of Cornwall and Devon (Eng.) for

a period of four years, ending with 1811._

------------------+-------------+------------+----------+---------

| 1808 | 1809 | 1810 | 1811

------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+----------+---------

------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+----------+---------

Tons. |73,434 |3,725|72,038|3,210| 80,238 |73,579

cwt. | 2 | 0 | 12 | 0 | 14 | 0

qrs. | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 1

------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+----------+---------

Tons. |7,118 | 369 |6,972 | 365 | 7,006 | 6,272

cwt. | 5 | 10 | 17 | 1 | 13 | 0

qrs. | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2

lbs. | 17 | 0 | 17 | 3 | 5 | 2

------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+----------+---------

Average | | | |

standard £ | 107 | 122 | 141 | 125

per ton. | | | |

------------------+-------+------------+----------------+---------

Annual amount £|781,348| 875,784 | 969,376 | 769,379

after deducting | | | |

charges of s.| 16 | 2 | 19 | 4

smelting. | | | |

------------------+-------+------------+----------------+---------

(G.)

_Table of the Annual Quantity of Copper raised from the Earth in

Different Countries, in Quintals--the Quintal valued at 100 lbs._

1. England 200,000

2. Russia 67,000

3. Austria, including Bohemia, Gallicia,

Hungary, Transylvania, Styria,

Carinthia, Carniola, Salzburg, and

Moravia 60,000

4. Sweden 22,000

5. Westphalia, in 1808 17,229

6. States of Denmark 8,500

7. Bavaria, including the Tyrol 3,000

8. France 2,500

9. Saxony, in 1808 1,320

10. Prussia, as left by the treaty of Tilsit 337

11. Spanish European mines 309

--------

Total, 382,186

(H.)

I shall here give the synonoma for this tribe of Indians, which appears

to have been first recognized by the United States as an independent

tribe by Wayne's treaty of 1795,[241] under the name of Chipewa. This

name has been retained in all subsequent treaties with them, not,

however, without some discrepance in the orthography. These variations

are chiefly marked by the introduction of the letter _p_ at the

beginning of the second syllable, or the vowel _y_ annexed to the third;

producing Chip-_pe_-wa, Chip-_pe_-wa_y_, and Chip-e-_way_. The French

missionaries and traders, whose policy it was to discard the names of

the aboriginal tribes from their conversations, bestowed upon this

tribe, at a very early period, the _nom de guerre_ of _Saulteurs_, or

_Sauteurs_, from the Sault or Falls of St. Mary's, which was the ancient

seat of this tribe--a name which is still retained by the Canadians, and

by many of the American traders. Among the early French writers, they

were also sometimes denominated _Outchipouas_. There is as little

uniformity among travellers and geographers. Pinkerton, Darby, Morse,

Carver, Mackenzie, and Herriot, either employ the word according to the

orthography of Wayne's treaty, or with the modifications above noticed.

The name of Chippewyans, employed by Mackenzie, relates to a tribe

residing north and west of the sources of the Mississippi, who speak a

language having no affinity, and are a distinct people. Henry, who was

well versed in the Chippewa language, also conforms to the popular

usage, but observes that the true name, as pronounced by themselves, is

Ojibwa.

[241] This fact is not stated in full confidence. I cannot refer to

any authorities to prove that they were formally recognized by the

United States before this very recent period. By the French and

British governments they were known soon after the first settlements

at Quebec and Albany (A. D. 1608, 1614), and subsequently treated

with. A band of warriors from Chegoimegon, on Lake Superior, under

the command of Waub Ojeag, or the White Fisher, was present at the

taking of Fort Niagara by Sir W. Johnston in 1759.

Having taken pains to ascertain and fix the pronunciation of this word,

I have not hesitated to introduce it into my correspondence and official

accounts; but I am aware of my great temerity in so doing. Popular

prejudices, and several of the authorities above cited, stand opposed to

the proposed innovation. The continued use of the word "Chippewa" is

also sanctioned by a name entitled to conclusive respect. "I write the

word in this way," observes the Executive of Michigan, "because I am

apprehensive the orthography is inveterately fixed, and not because I

suppose it is correct." Still, there are reasons for changing it.

Justice to this unfortunate race requires it. Since the popular apathy

to their condition is such that every remembrance of their actual

customs, manners, and traditions will probably perish with them, and

their _name_, ere long, be all that is left, it is at least incumbent

upon us to transmit _that_ to posterity in its true sound--as the

fathers and sachems pronounced it. If, then, there is an acknowledged

error in this respect, shall we hesitate to correct it?

IX.

_Rapid Glances at the Geology of Western New York, west of the Rome

Summit, in 1820._[242]

[242] At the time these sketches were written, no geological

observations had been made on this field, which has, at subsequent

periods, been so elaborately described; nor had the topic itself

attracted much attention. I landed at New York, in the ship

Arethusa, from New Orleans, in the summer of 1819, and published,

in that city, in the fall of that year, an account of the

lead-bearing rocks of Missouri, and their supporting white

sandstones, which rest, in horizontal deposits, on the primitive

formation of the St. Francis; bringing, at the same time, a rich

collection of the mineralogy of that region, which soon became

known in private cabinets. This became the cause of my employment,

by the United States Government, to visit the alleged copper mines

on Lake Superior, as a member of the expedition to the sources of

the Mississippi. I left Oneida County, in the district remarked on,

on the 10th of April of that year, and reached the banks of the

Niagara River on the 29th of that month. On returning from the

sources of the Mississippi, I entered the same region on the 17th of

October, and reached Oneida on the 21st of the same month. Prior to

my visit to the Great West, I had dwelt some three years--namely,

1809, '10, '11, '12--in Oneida and Ontario counties. These were the

opportunities enjoyed, up to the period, for acquiring a knowledge of

the geography and geology of the country. Mr. A. Eaton's _Index to

Geology_, published early in 1820, embraces nothing extending to

western New York.

ROCK FORMATIONS.--1. Assuming the area of the most eastwardly head of

the Onondaga Valley, the Wood Creek, and the Rome Summit, and the valley

of the Niagara, with an indefinite extent laterally, to form the limits

of this inquiry; it is in coincidence with all known facts to say that

it is a secondary region, consisting of the sedimentary and

semi-crystalline strata, the lines of which are perfectly horizontal.

Colored sandstone, generally red, forms the lowest observed stratum.

Wherever streams have worn deep channels, they either disclose this rock

or its adjuncts, the grits, or silicious sinter. It is apparent in the

chasm at Niagara Falls, about half a mile below the cataract. It is

often seen on the surface of the country, or buried slightly beneath the

soil. In color, hardness, and other characters, there is a manifest

variety. But, considered as a "formation," no doubt can exist of its

unity. Its thickness can only be conjectured, as no labor has, so far as

we know, penetrated through it.

Judging from observations made in Cattaraugus County, in 1818, the coal

measures have been completely swept from this area.

2. Next in point of altitude, is the series of dark, carbonaceous,

shelly slate rock. The thickness of this formation, as indicated at

Niagara, cannot be less than ninety feet. It is also often a

surface-rock in the district, forming portions of the banks of lakes,

streams, &c. It is characterized by organic remains of nascent species.

Portions of it also disclose rounded masses of pre-existing rocks.

3. Last in the order of superposition, is the secondary limestone

formation. It is, most commonly, of a dark, sedimentary aspect. It is

not invariably so, but portions of it have a shining, semi-crystalline

fracture. Shades of color also vary considerably, but it never, in the

scale of colors, exceeds a whitish-gray. Viewed at different localities,

the mass is either compact, fetid, shelly, or silicious. Much of it

produces good quicklime. It is often rendered "bastard," as the phrase

is, by argillaceous and earthy impurities. Organic impressions, and

remains of sea shells and coarse corals are frequent. Encrinites give

some portions of it the appearance of eyed or dotted secondary marble.

The occurrence of a hard variety of hornstone, which is not flint, is

apparently confined to the compact, fetid variety. This formation, like

the two preceding, may be found to consist of separate strata.

Localities, joining, overlaying, substrata, mineral contents, organic

species, &c., require observation. The following notices are added.

GEOLOGICAL CHANGES.--The evidences which are furnished of ancient

submersion, which has "changed and overturned" vast portions of the

solid land, are neither few nor equivocal. They are seen as well in the

rock strata as the alluvial soils. The most elevated hills and the

lowest valleys are equally productive of the evidences of extensive

changes. The whole aspect of the country seems to attest to the ancient

dominion of water. But the most striking proof of its agency is,

perhaps, found in the sea-shells, polypi, and crustacea, which are

preserved, in their outlines, in solid strata. Some of these are most

vivid in their shapes and ray-like markings, particularly the univalve

shells.

A subsequent change, in the surface of the country, is indicated by the

marks of attrition and watery action upon the faces of these rocks, in

situations greatly elevated above the present water-levels. This action

must, consequently, be referred to a period when extensive submersions,

in the nature of lakes or semi-seas, existed; for there is no power in

present lakes and streams, however swelled and reinforced by rains or

melting snows, to reach even a moiety of the elevation of these ancient

water-marks. It is to the era of these last submersions that we are

encouraged, by evidences, to look, as the disturbing cause which has

buried trees, leaves, and bones in alluvial soils.

_Action of Water._--In examining some portions of the flat lands of

Ontario County, such as the township of Phelps, there are strata of a

fine sedimentary soil, such as might be expected to result from the

settlings of water not greatly agitated. The bottoms of mill-ponds

afford an analogous species of soil. In these level districts, there are

also not unfrequently observed fields of bare flat rock, of the

limestone species, which is checkered in its surface, conveying the idea

of their having formed a flooring to some former lake. An appearance of

this kind may be seen a few hundred yards from the meeting-house in

Phelps. The rock, in this instance, is a carbonate of lime, and affords

organic remains.

The Oak Openings, in Erie County, are a kind of natural meadows or

prairies. Many suppose them to have been ancient clearings; but of this

the Indians have no tradition, and the evidences of such a settlement

are by no means satisfactory. In many places, on these extensive

openings, there are naked and barren layers of calcareous rock, whose

surface exhibits appearances analogous to those in Ontario. The

limestone is, however, of a darker color, and contains numerous imbedded

nodules of hornstone, and it emits a fetid odor on breaking.

In crossing the elevated calcareous highlands, between Danville and

Arkport, in Steuben County, we perceive in the bluff rocks which bound

the valley of the Conestoga River, at an elevation of perhaps two

hundred feet above its bed, horizontal water-marks, deeply impressed

upon the face of the rocks, as if the waters had formerly stood at that

level; and it is impossible to resist the conviction, in travelling over

this rugged district of country, that it has not been totally submerged

by waters, which have been suddenly drawn off, but by gradual or

periodical exhaustions, standing for many ages at different levels.

SLATE ROCKS.--These were, not inaptly, denominated "brittle slate," by

Dr. Mitchell, in 1809. Brittleness is their pervading character; and it

is owing to this quality, in a formation of great thickness, that the

action of the water at Niagara Falls is of so very striking a character.

There is no portion of the Niagara slate solid enough to be used for

building stone. It is uniformly shelly, and exhibits, even in hand

specimens, its reproduced character.[243] Those portions of the general

formation which are solid constitute silicious slate. A locality of this

variety may be seen at the Halfway House, eight miles east of

Canandaigua.

[243] Appropriately pronounced a "secondary graywacke slate," by Mr.

Eaton.

SENECA LAKE.--This clear and picturesque lake has its bed in the

secondary formations, and may be referred to as exhibiting localities of

them. Its upper parts afford the compact limestone in quadrangular

blocks. Large portions of its margin consist of the brittle carbonaceous

slate. The shores, from the vicinity of Rose's Farm to Appletown, are

little else but a continuous bank of the slate. On the opposite coast,

it is also visible at various localities below the Crooked Lake inlet.

Cashong Creek may be particularly referred to. A short ascent of its

valley brings the spectator into a scene where the walled masses of

slaty rock assume a character of grandeur. Among the recent portions

which have been thrown into the valley, may be seen masses having large

species of the stem-like organic remains, which indicate its newness as

a formation. Here are also disclosed orbicular masses, and pebbles of

other rocks, imbedded in the slate. These prove it to be--what its

texture would, in other places, indicate--a secondary slate.

The order of position on the banks of this lake is the same as at

Niagara; but the sandstone is not apparent above the water line. Its

existence, in the bed of the lake, may be satisfactorily inferred, from

the masses of yellow coarse sand which are driven up at the foot of the

lake, and particularly around its outlet. When the winds prevail, the

water is driven violently against this part of the shore. As it is an

alluvial flat, they soon surmount the stated margin, and produce a

partial inundation. On their recession, wreathes of sand remain.

DILUVIAL ELEVATIONS.--Bounding the alluvial plain of the Seneca outlet

westward, there is a series of remarkable wave-like ridges, whose

direction is parallel to that of the lake. On the declivity-stop of the

first of these ridges, stands the village of Geneva, the buildings of

which are thus displayed in an amphitheatric manner above the clear

expanse of the lake. The substratum of these ridges is an argillaceous,

compact soil of the eldest formation. Some parts of it are a stiff clay,

and yield septaria; but there is no considerable portion of it, which

has been examined, wholly destitute of primitive boulders and pebbles.

Little doubt can remain but that it is the result of the broken-down

slaty rock mixed with the extraneous and far-fetched primitive masses.

They are conclusive of its diluvial character. I have attentively

examined this formation, in the section of it exposed on the shores of

the lake between the village of Geneva and Two-mile Point. All its

solid, stony contents are piled along the margin of the lake, the soil

being completely washed away. Granite, quartz, and trap pebble-stones

and boulders, are here promiscuously strewn with recent debris. Over the

argillaceous deposit is spread a mantle of newer soil, of unequal depth

and character, which forms, exclusively, the theatre of farming and

horticultural labors.

WHITE SPRINGS.--On the declivity of one of these parallel ridges, at the

distance of two miles from the lake, is found an extensive bed of white

marl. This deposit, which is on the estate of the late Judge Nicholas,

covers many acres, and yields so copious a spring of pure water that it

is sufficient, at the distance of about three hundred yards from its

issue, to turn a gristmill. There are to be found in this bed of marl

several species of helix and voluta. The marl is generally covered with

an alluvial deposit of two feet in depth. The depth of the marl itself

is unexplored. Is not this marl the result of decomposed sea shells?

BEDS OF QUARTZOSE SAND.--In certain parts of the Seneca Valley are found

limited deposits of a white quartzose sand, in a state of comparative

purity. This substance is capable of being readily vitrified by the

addition of alkaline fluxes, and is thus converted into glass. Its

existence, as a local deposit, beneath separate strata of alluvial soil,

supporting a growth of trees and shrubs, is such as to render it

probable that the present stream, in its exhausted state, could have had

no agency in producing these deposits. If we are compelled to look to a

former condition of the waters passing off through this valley, as

affording the requisite power of deposit, we are then carried back to an

era in the geology of the country which we must refer to, to account for

by far the greater number of changes in all its recent soils. Indeed,

wherever we examine these soils, out of the range comprehended between

high- and low-water mark, on any existing lake or stream, there will be

found occasion to resort to the agency of more general and anterior

submersions. A few localities may be appealed to.

FOSSIL WOOD.--In digging a well in the Genesee Valley, one mile east of

the river (at Hosmer's), part of the trunk of a tree, of mature growth,

was found at the depth of forty-one feet below the surface. The soil was

a loose sand mixed with gravel. The position is more elevated than the

flats, so called.

ANTLERS.--A large pair of elk's horns were discovered in an excavation

made for the foundation of a mill at Clyde, in Seneca County. They were

imbedded in alluvial soil, ten feet below the surface. This surface had

been cleared of elm and other forest trees of mature growth. Near the

same place, logs of wood were found at the depth of fourteen feet. These

discoveries were made in the valley of Clyde River, which is formed by

the junction of the Canandaigua Outlet with Mud Creek.

FROGS ENCLOSED IN THE GEOLOGICAL COLUMN.--At Carthage, on the Genesee,

twelve or fifteen frogs were found in excavating a layer of compact clay

marl, about nine feet below the surface. The position is several hundred

feet above the bed of the Genesee River, to which elevation no one,

after viewing the spot, will deem it probable its waters could have

reached, this side of the diluvian era.

A frog was dug out of the solid rock, at Lockport, Niagara County, by

the workmen engaged in excavating the canal. It was enveloped by the

limestone which abounds in cavities filled with crystals of strontian

and dog-tooth spar. It came to life for a few moments, and then expired.

There was no aperture by which it could possibly communicate with the

atmospheric air. The cavity was only large enough to retain it, without

allowing room for motion.

The inclosure of animals of the inferior classes in the sedimentary

strata, and even in the most solid substance of rock, is a fact which

has been frequently noticed, without, however, any very satisfactory

theory having been given of the process, at least to common

apprehension. _Vide_ Addenda, for some further notices of this kind.

FOSSIL VEGETATION.--A well was dug in the lower part of the village of

Geneva, in 1820, which disclosed, at the depth of thirteen feet, the

branches and buds of a cedar-tree. They were found lying across the

excavation, and in the sides of it; and were in excellent preservation.

No one could conjecture in what age they had been buried. But this

discovery would seem to establish the position that the catastrophe

occurred _in the spring_.

MADREPORE.--A madrepore, measuring eight inches in diameter, was found

in the upland soil of Caledonia, Genesee County. Smaller specimens of

the same species occur in that township. Madrepores of a large size have

also been found imbedded in the soil, or lying on the surface, in

various places in Cattaraugus and Alleghany counties. They are locally

denominated petrified wasps' nests. The lands containing these loose

fossil remains are contiguous to, or based on, secondary rocks at

considerable elevations.

BOULDERS AND PRIMITIVE GRAVEL.--But the most abundant evidences of

diluvial action are furnished by the masses of foreign crystalline rocks

which are scattered, in blocks of various sizes, on the surface of the

soil, or imbedded at all depths within it. Primitive rocks are foreign

to the district, and these masses could not, therefore, have resulted

from local disintegration. They must have been transported from a

distance. They required not only an adequate cause for their removal,

but one commensurate with the effects. Such a cause Cuvier supposes, in

discussing the general question, may have existed in eruptions, or in

the action of oceanic masses of water, operating at an ancient period.

The latter opinion appears to be generally adopted. Dr. Mitchell, in

reference to northwestern boulders, attributes their distribution over

secondary regions to the draining of interior seas or lakes. Mr. Hayden,

in his _Geological Essays_, refers them to the action of oceanic

currents setting "from north and east to south and west."

SUBORDINATE AND EQUIVALENT STRATA.--These constitute the most intricate

subjects of reference. They are either adjuncts or residuary deposits of

leading formations. But their order, as accompanying series, must

sometimes be sought for by a previous determination of the formations

themselves. Could we certainly know, for instance, that the sandstone of

Western New York is or is not the true coal-sandstone, or the limestone

is or is not the carboniferous limestone, it would at once direct to

positive eras, and serve to impart confidence in the prediction of

unknown deposits of an important character. But, in order to fix the

formations, it is often the safest mode of procedure to employ the

subordinate and local deposits as evidences of the character of the

formations embracing them.

GYPSUM.--A stratum of gypsum of the plaster of Paris kind--that is,

consisting of an admixture of the carbonate with the sulphate of

lime--occurs on the banks of the Canandaigua outlet. It has been chiefly

explored in the township of Phelps, Ontario. In visiting the principal

bed (1820), I found the following order of deposits composing the banks

of the outlet:--

1. Alluvial soil of a dark, arenaceous, and mellow character, having

small stones of the primitive kind sparingly interspersed, two and a

half to three feet. Cultivated in improved farms.

2. Shelly limestone, of an earthy, dull-gray color and loose texture, in

layers, three feet.

3. Limestone of a more firm character, but still shelly, or rather

slaty, fissile, and easily quarried, six feet. This stratum contains

iron pyrites in a decomposed state. Also, nodular or kidney-shaped

masses of what the quarrymen call _plaster-eggs_--apparently snowy

gypsum.

4. Plaster of Paris, ten feet. This stratum yields granular, earthy,

fibrous, and foliated gypsum. It is the first two varieties which are

quarried. In some places, the mass is firm enough to admit of blasting.

In others, it is loose and veiny, and is readily broken up with iron

bars and sledges. Portions of it appear to consist of a shelly limestone

identical with No. 2. They are rejected in quarrying.

5. Limestone similar to No. 3, four feet.

At this depth it is covered by the waters of the outlet. How deep it

extends is uncertain. The rapids at the village of Vienna are caused by

shelving strata of this limestone.

There is a suite character in these strata which appears to constitute

them a single deposit. The plaster-bed at Canasaraga exists in a ledge

more elevated in reference to the local stream, and presents a broader

section of the limestone. The shades of difference which are observable

in its color and texture, do not appear to indicate a difference of

geological era. Nor do appearances denote, for the calcareous formation

which embraces these beds, much antiquity in the scale of secondary

rocks.

SALIFEROUS RED CLAY-MARL.--Examinations, at various points, render it a

probable supposition that the red clay-marl of western New York is the

equivalent for the new red sandstone, in positions where the latter

is--as it often is--wanting. It is extensively deposited in the upland

soils, in the range of the salt rock and gypsum counties, from the

summit grounds of Oneida County west. It may be seen in various stages

of the decomposition. I have more attentively examined it on the upper

parts of the Scanado[244] and Oneida creeks. Large areas of it exist in

Westmoreland, Verona, and Vernon townships, and bordering the valley

grounds of the Oneida reservation, and the northerly portions of

Sullivan County. The existence of salt water might, apparently, be

searched for with as much probability of success, in the district thus

indicated, as at more westerly points.

[244] Usually written Skenanodoah, but pronounced as above.

COAL-FORMATION.--With a strong predisposition to regard our leading

sandstone and limestone surface-formations as members of the

"independent" or true coal-formation, inquiry has led me to relinquish

the impression that they will, to any great degree, be found to yield

this mineral. If the sandstone is--as facts indicate it to be--the new

red or saliferous sandstone, it may be expected to yield thin seams of

coal, in distant places, but no deposit of this mineral which will

reward exploration in this or its super-incumbent series of rocks, the

slates, limestones, &c. It will result, that the coal-measures, properly

so denominated, are a prior deposit in the order of series; and, should

they hereafter be found, such a discovery must take place above the

range of the sandstone, which is the basis rock at Niagara and Genesee

Falls.

Having premised the character of the sandstone, all the series occupying

a position above it must derive their character, as secondary deposits,

from this. The limestone cannot, therefore, be a part of the

carboniferous or "medial." The slates, as shown at Cashong, are

fragmentary, and rather nearer slaty grauwacks. The arenaceous and

calcareous upper deposits assume nearly the position of the oolitic

series, and, in fact, ought, in some localities, to be regarded as

equivalents.

WESTERN COAL-MINES.--Much of the data employed in these inquiries is the

result of previous examinations of the great coal deposits in the Ohio

Valley, and other parts of the western country. Here we have the

coal-sandstone and the slate clay, with slate, &c., alternating with the

coal-measures. Such is the order of deposits at the junction of the

Alleghany and Monongahela, where the formation is well developed, and

where there exists, too, in the elevated valley hills, several

repetitions of the series. The zechstone, or compact limestone, which is

a pervading rock in the Mississippi Valley, occupies a position next

above the great Mississippi sandstone.[245] It may always be

distinguished from the shelly, entrochal limestone of the Genesee,[246]

by the absence of gypsum and of the fetid odor emitted on fracture.

[245] This formation cannot be called "red sandstone," from its being

generally white or gray, but appears to occupy the position of the

"horizontal red sandstone" among European rocks.

[246] The cornutiferous lime-rock of Mr. Eaton.

ALLEGHANY VALLEY.--A question of interest, in connection with the extent

of the Ohio Valley coal-formation, arises from the attempt to fix the

point to which this formation ascends the Alleghany Valley--being the

direct avenue into Western New York. I have examined this valley in its

entire length between Pittsburg and Olean, in Cattaraugus County, and

have not been able to observe that there are any evidences of its

termination below the latter point. The general order and parallelism

of strata remain the same. The coal stratum is apparently present. The

qualities of the coal at Armstrong, and at various points below French

Creek--the first primary fork of the river--are not distinguishable from

the products of the Pittsburg galleries. Less search has been made above

that point, but wherever the hills have been penetrated, they have--as

at Brokenstraw--produced the bituminous coal. Above the Conawango

Valley, which brings in the redundant waters of Chatauque Lake, the

Alleghany discloses frequent rapids. The effect of parallelism upon the

strata is to sink the coal-measures deeper as they ascend the Alleghany;

and this cause may, in connection with the unexplored character of the

country, be referred to in accounting for the absence of coal along this

part of the line. The reappearance of traces of this mineral at Potato

Creek, forty miles above Olean, is a proof, however, that the

coal-formation extends to that point. This locality is a few miles

within the limits of Pennsylvania. It occurs in a valley.

COAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK.--The coal-bed above Olean is south of the

summit of the Genesee, and not remote from its primary source. The

expectation may be indulged that the western coal-formation embraces

portions of Cattaraugus and Alleghany or Steuben counties. The noted

spring of naphtha, called Seneca Oil, is on Oil Creek in this county. As

this substance, in the class of bitumens, is nearly allied to the coal

series, it may be deemed favorable to the existence of the formation in

the substrata.[247] Fragments of carbonized wood are frequently found in

the large tracts of marine sand,[248] as well as in some of the mixed

alluvions of these counties; and it needs but an examination, as cursory

as it has fallen to my lot to make, of this portion of the country, to

render it one of high geological interest, and to denote that the

coal-measures probably extend into some portions of Western New

York.[249]

[247] These tracts bear a valuable growth of pines, which constitute

the source of a profitable lumber trade with the Ohio Valley.

[248] This mineral oil also occurs in several of the lower tributaries

of the Alleghany River, within the coal district.

[249] A discovery of coal has been announced in Alleghany County, New

York, as these sheets are going through the press, more than thirty

years after these lines were penned.

ADDENDA.

_Animals inclosed in Rock, &c._

TOADS.--In 1770, a toad was brought to Mr. Grignon inclosed in two

hollow shells of stone; but, on examining it nicely, Mr. G. discovered

that the cavity bore the impression of a shell-fish, and, of

consequence, he concluded it to be apocryphal.

In 1771, another instance occurred, and was the subject of a curious

memoir read by Mr. Guettard to the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris.

It was thus related by that famous naturalist:--

In pulling down a wall, which was known to have existed upwards of a

hundred years, a toad was found without the smallest aperture being

discoverable by which it could have entered. Upon inspecting the animal,

it was apparent that it had been dead but a very little time; and in

this state it was presented to the Academy, which induced Mr. Guettard

to make repeated inquiries into the subject, the particulars of which

will be read with pleasure in the excellent memoir we have just cited.

WORMS.--Two living worms were found, in Spain, in the middle of a block

of marble which a sculptor was carving into a lion, of the natural

color, for the royal family. These worms occupied two small cavities to

which there was no inlet that could possibly admit the air. They

subsisted, probably, on the substance of the marble, as they were the

same color. This fact is verified by Captain Ulloa, a famous Spaniard,

who accompanied the French academicians in their voyage to Peru to

ascertain the figure of the earth. He asserts that he saw these two

worms.

ADDER.--We read in the _Affiches de Provence_, 17 June, 1772, that an

adder was found alive in the centre of a block of marble thirty feet in

diameter. It was folded nine times round, in a spiral line. It was

incapable of supporting the air, and died a few minutes after. Upon

examining the stone, not the smallest trace was to be found by which it

could have glided in or received air.

CRAWFISH.--Misson, in his _Travels through Italy_, mentions a crawfish

that was found alive in the middle of a marble in the environs of

Tivoli.

FROGS.--M. Peyssonel, king's physician at Guadaloupe, having ordered a

pit to be dug in the back part of his house, live frogs were found by

the workmen in beds of petrifaction. M. P., suspecting some deceit,

descended into the pit, dug the bed of the rock and petrifactions, and

drew out himself green frogs, which were alive, and perfectly similar to

what we see every day.

We are informed by the _European Magazine_, February 21, 1771, that M.

Herissan inclosed three live toads in so many cases of plaster, and shut

them up in a deal box, which he also covered with thick plaster. On the

6th of April, 1774, having taken away the plaster, he opened the box,

and found the cases whole and two of the toads alive. The one that died

was larger than the others, and had been more compressed in its case. A

careful examination of this experiment convinced those who had witnessed

it, that the animals were so inclosed that they could have no possible

communication with the external air, and that they must have existed

during this lapse of time without the smallest nourishment.

The Academy prevailed upon M. Herissan to repeat the experiment. He

inclosed again the two surviving toads, and placed the box in the hands

of the Secretary, that the Society might open it whenever they should

think proper. But this celebrated naturalist was too strongly interested

in the subject to rest satisfied with a single experiment; he made,

therefore, the two following:--

1. He placed, 15 April, 1771, two live toads in a basin of plaster,

which he covered with a glass case that he might observe them

frequently. On the 9th of the following month, he presented the

apparatus to the Academy. One of the toads was still living; the other

had died the preceding night.

2. The same day, April 15, he inclosed another toad in a glass bottle,

which he buried in sand, that it might have no communication with the

external air. This animal, which he presented to the Academy at the same

time, was perfectly well, and even croaked whenever the bottle was shook

in which he was confined. It is to be lamented that the death of M.

Herissan put a stop to these experiments.

We beg leave to observe upon this subject, that the power which these

animals appear to possess of supporting abstinence for so long a time,

may depend upon a very slow digestion, and, perhaps, from the singular

nourishment which they derive from themselves. M. Grignon observes that

this animal sheds its skin several times in the course of a year, and

that it always swallows it. He has known, he says, a large toad shed its

skin six times in one winter. In short, those which, from the facts we

have related, may be supposed to have existed many centuries without

nourishment, have been in a total inaction, in a suspension of life, or

a temperature that has admitted of no dissolution; so that it was not

necessary to repair any loss, the humidity of the surrounding matter

preserving that of the animal, who wanted only the component parts not

to be dried up, to preserve it from destruction.

The results of modern chemistry and philosophy have proved the number of

elementary substances to be far greater than was admitted in the

preceding century. And this discovery is progressive, and will probably

go on a long time; after which, it is not improbable a new race of

chemical and philosophical observers will spring up, who will be able to

decompose many substances we now consider elementary, and thus again

reduce the number of elements of which all external matter is composed.

It would not be wonderful if posterity should reduce the number of

elements even as low as the ancients had them. Such a result would throw

new light on the mysterious and intricate connection which seems to

exist between animal, vegetable, and mineral matter. We should then,

perhaps, have less cause to wonder that toads, &c., are capable of

supporting life in stone, that birds should exist in solid blocks of

wood, &c.

But toads are not the only animals which are capable of living for a

considerable length of time without nourishment and communication with

the external air. The instances of the oysters and dactyles, mentioned

at the beginning of this article, may be advanced as a proof of it. But

there are other examples.--_European Magazine_, March, 1791.

A beetle, of the species called capricorn, was found in a piece of wood

in the hold of a ship at Plymouth. The wood had no external mark of any

aperture.--_European Magazine_.

A bug eat itself out of a cherry table at Williamstown, Mass. See an

account of this phenomenon, by Professor Dewey, in the _Lit. and Philos.

Repertory_.

These phenomena remind us of others of a similar nature and equally

certain.

In a trunk of an elm, about the size of a man's body, three or four feet

above the root, and precisely in the centre, was found, in 1719, a live

toad, of a moderate size, thin, and which occupied but a very small

space. As soon as the wood was cut, it came out and slipped away very

alertly. No tree could be more sound. No place could be discovered

through which it was possible for the animal to have penetrated, which

led the recorder of the fact to suppose that the spawn from which it

originated must, from some unaccountable accident, have been in the tree

from the very moment of its first vegetation. The toad had lived in the

tree without air, and, what is still more surprising, had subsisted on

the substance of the wood, and had grown in proportion as the tree had

grown. This fact was attested by M. Hebert, Ancient Professor of

Philosophy at Caen.

In 1731, M. Leigne wrote to the Academy of Sciences at Paris an account

of a phenomenon exactly similar to the preceding one, except that the

tree was larger, and was an oak instead of an elm, which makes the

instance the more surprising. From the size of the oak, M. Leigne judged

that the toad must have existed in it without air or any external

nourishment, for the space of eighty or a hundred years.

We shall cite a third instance, related in a letter the 5th Feb. 1780,

written from the neighborhood of Saint Mexent, of which the following is

a copy.

"A few days ago, I ordered an oak tree of a tolerable size to be cut

down, and converted into a beam that was wanting for a building I was

then constructing. Having separated the head from the trunk, three men

were employed in squaring it to the proper size. About four inches were

to be cut away on each side. I was present during the transaction.

Conceive what was their astonishment when I saw them throw aside their

tools, start back from the tree, and fix their eyes on the same point

with a kind of amazement and terror. I instantly approached, and looked

at that part of the tree which had fixed their attention. My surprise

equalled theirs, on seeing a toad, about the size of a large pullet's

egg, incrusted, in a manner, in the tree, at the distance of four inches

from the diameter and fifteen from the root. It was cut and mangled by

the axe, but still moved. I drew it with difficulty from its abode, or

rather prison, which it filled so completely that it seemed to have been

compressed. I placed it on the grass; it appeared old, thin,

languishing, decrepit. We afterwards examined the tree with the nicest

care, to discover how it had glided in; but the tree was perfectly whole

and sound."--_European Magazine._

BAT.--A woodman engaged in splitting timber for rail-posts in the woods

close by the lake in Haming (a seat of Mr. Pringle's in Selkirkshire),

lately discovered, in the centre of a large wild cherry tree, a living

bat, of a bright scarlet color, which he foolishly suffered to escape,

from fear, being fully persuaded it was (with the characteristic

superstition of the inhabitants of that part of the country) a "being

not of this world." The tree presented a small cavity in the centre,

where the bat was inclosed, but is perfectly sound and solid on each

side.--_N. Y. Lit. Journ. and Belles-Lettres Repository_, taken from the

_London Semi-Monthly Magazine_.

SKULL IN WOOD.--A tenant of the Rev. J. Cattle, of Warwick, lately

presented to him a part of the solid butt of an oak tree, containing

within it the skull of some animal (unknown). It was in the part of the

tree nine feet above the ground, and was perfectly inclosed in solid

timber.--_N. Y. Lit. Journ. and Belles-Lettres Repository_, from

_European Magazine_.

_A Memoir on the Geological Position of a Fossil-Tree in the Series of

the Secondary Rocks of the Illinois._

The spirit of inquiry which has been excited in this country in regard

to objects of natural history, while it has enlarged the boundaries of

our knowledge of existing species, has directed some of its more

valuable researches to those organized forms which have perished and

become embalmed in the shape of petrifactions, in the body of solid

rocks. A petrified tree of this kind has recently been discovered in the

secondary[250] rocks at the source of the Illinois River. Having

recently visited this evidence of former changes in the flora of the

West, I embrace the occasion, while my recollections are fresh, to give

an account of it.

[250] This term is superseded, in geological discussions of the

present day, by the term _silurian_, which embraces all strata of the

era between the _palæozoic_ and _tertiary_ formations.

The tract of country separating the southern shores of Lake Michigan

from the Illinois River, is a plat of table-land composed of compact

limestone, based on floetz or horizontal sandstone. This formation

embraces the contiguous parts of Illinois, and spreads through Indiana,

Ohio, and the Peninsula of Michigan. It is overspread with a deposit of

the drift era, covered with a stratum of alluvial soil, presenting a

pleasing surface of prairies, forests, and streams. These features may

be considered as peculiarly characteristic of the junction of the Rivers

Kankakee and Des Plaines, which constitute the Illinois River. This

junction is effected about forty miles south of Chicago.

The fossil in question occurs about forty rods above the junction of the

Kankakee. The sandstone embracing it is deposited in perfectly

horizontal layers, of a gray color and close grain. It lies in the bed

of the Des Plaines. The action of this stream has laid bare the trunk of

the tree to the extent of fifty-one feet six inches. The part at the

point where it is overlaid in the western bank is two feet six inches in

diameter. Its mineralization is complete. The trunk is simple, straight,

scabrous, without branches, and has the usual taper observed in the

living specimen. It lies nearly at right angles to the course of the

river, pointing towards the southeast, and extends about half the width

of the stream. Notwithstanding the continual abrasion to which it is

exposed by the volume of passing water, it has suffered little apparent

diminution, and is still firmly imbedded in the rock, with the exception

of two or three places where portions of it have been disengaged and

carried away; but no portion of what remains is elevated more than a few

inches above the surface of the rock. It is owing, however, to those

partial disturbances that we are enabled to perceive the columnar form

of the trunk, its cortical layers, the bark by which it is enveloped,

and the peculiar cross fracture, which unite to render the evidence of

its ligneous origin so striking and complete. From these characters and

appearances, little doubt can remain that it is referable to the species

juglans nigra, a tree very common to the forest of the Illinois, as

well as to most other parts of the immense region drained by the waters

of the Mississippi. The woody structure is most obvious in the outer

rind of the trunk, extending to a depth of two or three inches, and

these appearances become less evident as we approximate the heart.

Indeed, the traces of organic structure in its interior, particularly

when viewed in the hand specimen, are almost totally obliterated and

exchanged, the vegetable matter being replaced by a mixed substance,

analogous, in its external character, to some of the silicated and

impure calcareous carbonates of the region. Like those carbonates, it is

of a brownish-gray color and compact texture, effervesces slightly in

the nitric and muriatic acids, yields a white streak under the knife,

and presents solitary points, or facets, of crystals resembling calc

spar. All parts of the tree are penetrated by pyrites of iron of a brass

yellow color, disseminated through the most solid and stony parts of the

interior, filling interstices in the outer rind, or investing its

capillary pores. There are also the appearances of rents or seams

between the fibres of the wood, caused by its own shrinkage, which are

now filled with a carbonate of lime, of a white color and crystallized.

From an effect analogous to carbonization, the exterior rind and bark of

the tree have acquired a blackish-hue, while the inclosing rock is of a

light-gray color, characters which are calculated to arrest attention.

There is reason to conclude that the subject under consideration is the

joint result, partly of the infiltration of mineral matter into its

pores and crevices, prior to inclosure in the rock, and partly to the

chemical action educed by the great catastrophe by which it was

translated from its parent forest, and suddenly enveloped in a bed of

solidifying sand.

At the time of my visit (August 13, 1821), the depth of water upon the

floetz rocks forming the bed of the River Des Plaines, would vary from

one to two feet; but it was at a season when these higher tributaries,

and the Illinois itself, are generally at their lowest stage. Like most

of the confluent rivers of the Mississippi and their tributaries, the

Des Plaines is subject to great fluctuations, and during its periodical

floods may be estimated to carry a depth of eight or ten feet of water

to the junction of the Kankakee. At those periods, the water is also

rendered turbid by the quantity of alluvial matter it carries down, and

a search for this organic fossil must prove unsuccessful. But during the

prevalence of the summer droughts, in an atmosphere of little humidity,

when the waters are drained to the lowest point of depression, and

acquire the greatest degree of transparency, it forms a very conspicuous

trait in the geology of the stream, and no person, seeking the spot, can

fail to be directed to it.

The sand-rock containing this petrifaction is found in a horizontal

position, differing only with respect to hardness and color. The remains

of fossil organized bodies in this stratum are not abundant, or have not

been successfully sought. It is probable that future observations will

prove that its organic conservata are chiefly referable to the vegetable

kingdom. It is certain, that this inference is justified by the facts

which are before me, and particularly by the characteristic appearances

of the strata in the bed of the River Des Plaines, where the imbedded

walnut is the representative of the ancient flora. At a short distance

above, where the bed of the Des Plaines approaches nearer the summit

level, limestone ensues, and continues from that point northward to the

shores of Lake Michigan. In the vicinity of Chicago, where this

limestone is quarried for economical purposes, it is characterized by

the fossil remains of molluscous species.

Lake Erie lies at an elevation of five hundred and sixty-five feet above

the Atlantic.[251]

[251] Public Documents relating to the New York Canals, with an

Introduction, &c., by Colonel Haines.

There exists a water communication between the head of Lake Michigan, at

Chicago, and the River Des Plaines, during the periodical rises of the

latter, but its summer level is about seven feet lower, at the

termination of the Chicago portage, than the surface of the lake. From

this point to its junction with the Kankakee, a computed distance of

fifty miles, the bed of the Des Plaines may be considered as having a

mean southern depression of ten inches per mile, so that the floetz

rocks at its mouth, lying on a level of forty-eight feet eight inches

below the surface of Lake Michigan, have an altitude which cannot vary

far from five hundred and fifty feet above the Atlantic. There are no

mountains for a vast distance either east or west of this stream. It is

a country of plains, in which are occasionally to be seen alluvial

hills of moderate elevation; but the most striking inequalities of

surface proceed from the streams which have worn their deep-seated

channels through it; and an oceanic overflow capable of covering the

country, and producing these strata by deposition, would also submerge

all the immense tracts of secondary and alluvial country between the

Alleghany and the Rocky Mountains, converting into an arm of the sea the

great valley of the Mississippi, from the Gulf of Mexico north to the

Canadian Lakes. We find in the alluvial soil along the Illinois and Des

Plaines blocks of granite, hornblende, and gneiss, of the drift stratum,

exhibiting the same appearances of attrition, and of having been

transported from their parent beds, which characterize the secondary

tablelands along the margin of the great American lakes, the prairies of

Illinois, and the western parts of New York.

There is nothing, perhaps, in the progress of modern science, which has

tended to facilitate geological research so much as the study and

investigation of fossil organic remains. They teach, with unerring

lights, how extensively the ancient flora and fauna of this continent

have been prostrated, leaving their exact impressions, in all their

minuteness, in the newly-formed stratifications. That these impressions,

fresh and vivid as we find them, should mark the eras of depositions and

crystallization of rocks from the suspension of their elements in water,

is the observation of Werner, and it is to him we owe the elements of

the Neptunian hypothesis. His general recognition of the epochs of the

primitive, transition, and secondary rocks, appears too probable not to

commend itself to adoption with regard to all strata which can be

conceived to be the products of watery menstrua.

But it remained for Werner, who was the first to perceive an order in

strata, also to point out the important application of fossil organic

bodies in elucidating their eras, and the natural order of their

superposition.

To adopt the words of Dr. Thomas Cooper:--

"There appears to be a series of strata, or, as Werner calls them,

formations, that may be considered as surrounding the nucleus of the

earth. The first formed, or lowest series, always preserve the same

situation to each other, except where occasional eruptions, or

circumstances not of a general nature, make a variety in their

situations. These strata are not only the deepest, but they are also the

highest that are observable in the crust of the earth; forming the tops

of the highest mountains. They are characterized by an appearance of

crystallization, and by containing no remains of organic matter, animal

or vegetable. The strata or formations that in general constitute this

first, deepest, highest, and crystallized series, are granite, gneiss,

mica-slate, clay-slate, primitive greenstone, granular limestone,

serpentine, porphyry, and sienite. These formations are so generally

found, and in the same situations as incumbent upon or subtending each

other relatively, that they may be considered as universal. Their

crystallized appearance shows that their particles have either been

dissolved or very finely suspended in water, so that the attraction of

crystallization has been free to operate; that this water has been deep,

so that the lowermost parts of it have not been much agitated during the

crystallization, which would otherwise have been more confused than it

is; and, indeed, the oldest formations are the best crystallized. A part

of the water covering the nucleus must have been taken up, as water of

crystallization, in the primitive formations. When these were deposited,

there were no vegetables formed; of course, no animals; nay, even the

sea was unpeopled, for there is no trace of any organic remains in these

strata. Even the belemnites, the asteriæ, the echini, the entrochi, the

most simple forms of oceanic animal life, do not occur until the

transition strata appear. Hence the propriety of denominating these

formations _primitive_.

"By processes of nature, besides the consumption of water by the new

crystallized masses, to us unknown, the waters appear to have

diminished. The highest parts of the primitive formations became the

shores to the water superincumbent on their bases and middle regions;

the simplest forms of oceanic animals came into existence; the mosses

and lichens of high latitude would generally occupy the surface of the

primitive strata, gradually decomposed by the alternate action of air

and water after many ages. During this period, while the strata were in

a state of _transition_ from the chaotic to the habitable state, other

deposits would gradually be made from the waters, now decreased in

quantity, and take their place below the summits of the primitive

range. Those summits being exposed to the action of the atmosphere, of

rains, of frost probably, and to the action also of the waters with

their contents still incumbent on the earliest strata, would furnish

masses and particles washed away, which would mingle with the deposits

of the transition series. This series, therefore, will exhibit

appearances of mechanical and chemical intermixture of earths and

stones, such as are found in the silicious porphyries, the graywackes,

the silicious and argillaceous hornblende rocks, the elder red

sandstone, &c. During the period when these transition formations were

deposited, there would be no land animals, for there would be no

vegetables for them to feed upon. There would be no vegetables unless

some few lichens, mosses, or ericas, that would find foothold upon the

slight decomposition that, after the lapse of some ages, would take

place on the surface of the primitive rocks. The sea only would be

peopled, and that but sparingly; for, in that mass of muddy water, none

but the lowest and most inferior grades of animal life, and such as do

not inhabit deep water, could exist. Hence, we find the transition

formations contain in their substances some belemnites, asteriæ,

entrochi, echini, &c., but no organized vegetable substance except, very

rarely, in the latest rocks of this series, and no remains whatever of

terrestrial animals. Indeed, in the high latitudes of the outgoings or

summits of the primitive strata, very few vegetables, even at the

present day, can live. No vegetation fit for animal life could take

place until the transition, and most of the next series of _secondary_

or _floetz_ formations had subsided. These would occupy lower and lower

situations, till a rich soil, from every kind of intermixture of earth

mechanically deposited, would afford a proper temperature of region, and

an easily decomposed soil, wherein vegetables could grow.

"Next to the transition series, come the _secondary_, or, as the German

mineralogists call them, the _floetz_ rocks; so called, because they

appear to be more floated or horizontal, though I confess the

appellation does not appear to me peculiarly appropriate. These strata

consist principally of sandstone, limestone--sometimes fetid from

bituminous impregnations, sometimes shelly--secondary greenstone,

graphite, coal, gypsum, rock salt. I have observed that the Alpine

heights of the primitive mountains could at no time furnish much food.

The same remark, but in a less degree, will apply to the transition

range; the low and kindly climates occupied by the secondary series.

The soft and decomposable nature of these depositions would furnish the

true theatre of vegetable life, and, until these regions were filled

with vegetables, the race of animals could not have been produced; for

on what could they subsist? Graminivorous animals, therefore, must have

succeeded the various forms of vegetable existence; and carnivorous, the

graminivorous. The vegetable matter imbedded in the substance of the

secondary strata will consist of the remains of vegetables that grow in

the transition strata; and the animal remains will consist chiefly of

such animals as were produced in the early stages of animal existence,

particularly the smaller aquatic animals; and, of these, chiefly

shell-fish, as shells are not so soon decomposed as mere animal

substance."

It is to the latter class of depositions--to the secondary series--that

we must refer the sandstone of the River Des Plaines, in which we find a

walnut, of mature growth, enveloped by, and imbedded in the rock, in the

most complete state of mineralization; and, since all geological writers

who subscribe to the Neptunian theory are constrained to employ the

agency of oceanic depositions of different eras, in explaining the

structure of the earth's surface, it is one of the most obvious and

important conclusions, to be drawn from the fact that such submersions

and depositions of rock matter have taken place subsequent to the

existence of forests of mature growth, and that the rock strata and beds

composing the exterior of the earth are the result of different

geological epochs, and of successive subsidences of chaotic

matter--positions which have been so severely attacked and so often

denied, particularly by the disciples of the Huttonian school, that it

is not without a feeling of lively interest, I communicate a discovery

which appears so conclusive on the subject.

Considerations arising from the frontier position of the country, and

the infrequency of the communication, have also induced me to draw from

incidental sources, a corroboration of the facts advanced.

In a letter to Governor Cass, of Michigan, dated September 17, 1821, I

made the following observations on the subject under review:--

"I consider the petrified tree discovered during our recent journey up

the Illinois, so extraordinary an object in the natural history of the

country, and calculated to lead to conclusions so important to the

science of geology, that I am anxious to avail myself of your concurrent

testimony as to the fact of the existence of the tree in a mineralized

state, and the natural appearances of the spot where it lies imbedded. I

feel the more solicitude on this subject, as I am aware that any

description of this phenomenon which I may be induced to communicate to

the public, will be received with a degree of caution and scrutiny which

it is the province of the naturalist to exercise whenever any discovery

is announced affecting the existing theories of the natural sciences, or

tending to increase the volume of facts upon which their advancement and

perfection depend. I am aware, also, that whatever degree of caution and

vigilance it may be proper to exercise to prevent errors from mingling

with the sound doctrines of the physical and other sciences, still more

care and circumspection is requisite in examining facts which affect the

progress of geology."

I quote an extract from Governor Cass's reply on the subject:--

"The appearance of the wood and bark indicates that it was a black

walnut, the juglans nigra of our forests. We computed its original

diameter, at the place where it is concealed in the earth, to have been

three feet, and at the other end eighteen inches. The texture of the

wood, and the bark and knots, are nearly as distinct as in the living

subject, and the process of decay had not commenced previous to the

commencement of this wonderful conversion. Every part of the mass which

we could examine is solid stone, and readily yields fire by the

collision with steel.

"When we visited the spot, the water of the river was at the lowest

stage; but there was no part of the tree within some inches of the

surface. The rocky bed of the stream was formed round and upon it. We

raised from it pieces of the rock, which were evidently _in situ_, and

which had been formed upon the tree posterior to the period of its

deposit in its present situation. This rock is a species of sandstone,

whose characteristic features must be well known to you.

"There are no mineralized substances of vegetable origin in the vicinity

of this specimen, nor are there any appearances which indicate that its

present condition has been caused by any peculiar property in the waters

of the Des Plaines."

ADDENDA.

The publication of the foregoing memoir led to several letters being

addressed to the author on topics connected with it. Some of these were

from gentlemen eminent in science or politics, whose opinions are

entitled to the highest respect. Extracts are given from such only as

introduce new data, either of fact or opinion.

GEOLOGICAL THEORIES.--Professor Dewey, of Williams College, observes: "A

friend has just lent me your 'Memoir on a Fossil-Tree.' Though the

account is very interesting, I do not perceive its exact bearing on the

Neptunian and Plutonian hypotheses. The fault is doubtless in me, and

you will excuse my remarks and set me right. I had supposed the

Huttonians and Wernerians did not dispute about the manner in which the

_secondary_ rocks were formed. Macculloch, and others before him, led me

into this opinion, though it may be erroneous. But Bakewell, who is

referred to as authority in _Rees's Cyclopædia_, says, p. 131:

'Geologists are agreed that secondary rocks have been formed by the

agency of water.' If this be so, they would agree generally with the

account of Dr. Cooper respecting the formation of petrifactions, and

especially those of vegetables, and the fossil-tree would be treated of

in a similar manner by both."

Hutton's original hypothesis, and not the modifications of it introduced

by the Neptu-Vulcanists, were adverted to in reply. Subsequently,

Professor Dewey writes:--

"I was greatly obliged by your letter in various respects, and I write

you now to make my acknowledgments for it, as well as to maintain the

correctness of your notions on the Huttonian hypothesis. As you had seen

a Scotch mineralogist directly from the mint of Playfair, I had every

reason to suppose you had received correct views of Playfair's notions

on the subject. I have been led, therefore, to examine the matter, and,

as I may have set you on the search, I wish to prevent your continuing

it on my account, or from what I wrote.

"Playfair's Illustrations I have never seen. Occasional extracts, or

allusions to its points, have fallen in my way. But I have before me a

very full abstract of Hutton's paper on the subject, from the

_Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_. It is from the very

paper in which he announces his hypothesis. In that paper he mentions

that the consolidation of all the hard crust of the globe has been

effected by _heat_ and _fusion_, extending it to secondary as well as

primitive rocks, and mentioning particularly Spanish marble, shell

limestone, oolite, and chalk.

"This operation of heat, he says, is exemplified by _chalk, which is to

be found in all gradations, from marble to loose chalk_. This is his

precise notion, but not his words. I had once looked at this paper

before, and thought much of this theory; but this thought had been

obliterated from my mind by thoughts advanced by others, as I thought in

consistency with the sentence I quoted from Bakewell. At least, one

objection to Hutton's views would be removed by modifying his theory in

the manner it seems to be by Bakewell. Though Hutton does not think this

to be necessary; for he appears to feel no difficulty in accounting for

petrifactions of wood on his hypothesis, for he mentions that _we have

many proofs of the penetration of flinty matter, in a state of fusion,

in other bodies, such as insulated pieces of flint in chalk or sand, and

fossil wood penetrated with silicious matter_.

"Still, the grand reasons of Hutton for employing heat as the agent of

consolidation are opposed to the above modification of his theory. These

reasons, as you know, are the insolubility of most mineral substances in

water, and the disappearance of the water from the cavities of minerals

which have been consolidated. The first is, indeed, the great one for

Hutton; for the crystallization of salts in water, and the existence of

liquids, in some cases, in the cavities of the most solid minerals, show

well enough that the water might or might not disappear, as the

circumstances were different.

"If the Huttonians maintain, as he did, the formation of petrifactions

by heat, which consistency requires, I concede, indeed, to you that that

fossil-tree stands as a grand monument of some different process; and

yet, we can hardly suppose that they do not see great difficulty in the

common notion on the subject. The rapidity with which the petrifactions

must have taken place--a point well illustrated in Hayden's _Geological

Essays_--seems to require some new notions on the subject. What these

may be, I cannot tell; but I believe that neither of these two

hypotheses will be adopted exclusively, half a century hence, on this

point, or on geology generally. I think, with you, that our countrymen

need illumination on the subject of Hutton's hypothesis, and I wish some

one would attempt it."

TRAP-ROCKS OF EUROPE AND AMERICA.--"I suspect the greenstone of our

country, when examined as it ought to be, will be found, in its

geological relations, much to resemble the basalt of Europe; and that

the same difficulties will attend it, on Werner's hypothesis, as now

attend the basalt. Indeed, I know not how we can account for what

Bakewell and Macculloch state on this hypothesis."

SANDSTONE OF VIRGINIA.--"I have seen a piece of a petrified tree, about

eight inches through, found in the sandstone of Virginia, but could get

none of it. The petrifaction was far finer than the stone in which it

lay, and was, like it, silex."

SANDSTONE OF OHIO.--C. Atwater, Esq., in a letter to the author,

observes:--

"I can assure you that the finding of whole trees in sandstone is

nothing strange in this State. Some of these trees are imbedded in

sandstone one hundred feet below the surface. Zanesville and Gallipolis

are the best spots to find these fossils.

"There is no part of the tree but what I have in my cabinet, not

excepting their leaves, fruit, and even fungi attached to them."

MOSAICAL HISTORY OF THE CREATION.--B. Irvine, Esq., in adverting to

remarks on the Illinois fossil, observes:--

"They may yet awaken some ideas in the minds of the people on the

wonders of physics--and I had almost said, the _slow miracles of

creation_; for, if ever there was a time when matter existed not, it is

pretty evident that _millions of years_, instead of six days, were

necessary to establish order in chaos, let Cuvier, &c. temporize as they

may. However, it is the humble allotment of the herd to believe or

stare; it is the glory of intelligent men to inquire and admire."

The doctrine of materialism, adverted to by Mr. Irvine, it is the

province of divines to controvert. One remark may be predicted on the

biblical era of the six days. It is now believed to be generally

conceded by eminent geologists and ecclesiastics, that the term "day,"

employed by the translators of the English version of the Scriptures, is

used in Gen. ch. i. in a sense synonymous with "era" or "time," as it is

emphatically used in Gen. ch. ii. ver. 4. For an able exposition of the

present views on this subject, see the _American Journal of Science_,

vol. XXV. No. 1.

4. BOTANY.

XI.

A descriptive list of the plants collected on the expedition, drawn up

by Dr. John Torrey, has been published in the fourth volume of the

_American Journal of Science_. References to this standard work may be

conveniently made by botanists.

5. ZOOLOGY.

No professed zoologist was attached to the expedition, the topic being

left to such casual attention as members of it might find it convenient

to bestow. Of the fauna of the region, it was not believed that there

were any of the prominent species which were improperly classed in the

_Systema Naturæ_ of Linnæus. It was doubtless desirable to know

something more particularly of the character and habitat of the American

species of the reindeer (_C. sylvestris_) and hyena, or glutton. Perhaps

something new was to be gleaned respecting the extent of the genera

arctomys and sciurus, among the smaller quadrupeds, and in the

departments of birds and reptilia. The mode of travel gave but little

opportunity of meeting the larger species in their native haunts, but it

afforded opportunities of examining the skins of the quadrupeds at the

several trading stations, and of listening to the narrations of persons

who had engaged in their capture.

In effect, the crustacea of the streams furnished the most constant and

affluent subject for enlarging the boundaries of species and varieties.

The collections in this department were referred to members of the

Lyceum of Natural History at New York, and of the Academy of Natural

Sciences at Philadelphia. The results of their examinations have been

published in two of the principal scientific journals of the country. It

had been originally proposed to republish these papers in this Appendix,

together with that on the botanical collections, and some other topics;

but the long time that has elapsed, renders it, on second thought,

inexpedient. Distinct references to the several papers are given.

XII.

_A Letter embracing Notices of the Zoology of the Northwest._

By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

VERNON, N.Y., October 27, 1820.

DEAR SIR: I reached this place, on my return from the sources of the

Mississippi River, on the 21st instant, having left the canal at Oneida

Creek at four o'clock in the morning, whence I footed it three miles

through the forest, by a very muddy road, to the ancient location of

Oneida Castle, while my baggage was carried by a man on horseback.

The plan of the expedition embraced the circumnavigation of the coasts

of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior. From the head of the latter, we

ascended the rapid River of St. Louis to a summit which descends west to

the Upper Mississippi, the waters of which we entered about five hundred

miles above the Falls of St. Anthony, and some three hundred miles above

the ulterior point reached with boats by Lieutenant Pike in December,

1805.

From this point we ascended the Mississippi, by its involutions, to its

upper falls at Pakagama, where it dashes over a rock formation. A vast

plateau of grass and aquatic plants succeeds, through which it winds as

in a labyrinth. On this plateau we encountered and passed across the

southern Lake Winnipek. Beyond this, the stream appears to be but little

diminished, unless it be in its depth. It is eventually traced to a very

large lake called Upper Lac Ceder Rouge, but to which we applied the

name of Cass Lake. This is the apparent navigable source of the river,

and was our terminal point. It lies in latitude 47° 25´ 23´´.

The whole of this summit of the continent is a vast formation of drift

and boulders, deposited in steps. In descending it, we found the river

crossed by the primitive rocks in latitude about 46°, and it enters the

great limestone formation by the cataract of St. Anthony's Falls, in

latitude 44° 58´ 40´´. We descended the river below this point, by its

windings among high and picturesque cliffs, to the influx of the

Wisconsin, estimated to be three hundred miles. Thence we came through

the Wisconsin and Fox valleys to Green Bay, on an arm of Lake Michigan,

and, having circumnavigated the latter, returned through Lakes Huron and

St. Clair to Detroit. The line of travel is about four thousand two

hundred miles. Such a country--for its scenery, its magnificence, and

resources, and the strong influence it is destined ultimately to have on

the commerce, civilization, and progress of the country--the sun does

not shine on! Its topography, latitudes and longitudes, heights and

distances, have been accurately obtained by Captain Douglass, of West

Point, who will prepare an elaborate map and description of the country.

Personally, I have not been idle. If I have sat sometimes, in mute

wonder, gazing on such scenes as the Pictured Rocks of Lake Superior, or

the sylvan beauty and mixed abruptness of the Falls of St. Anthony, it

has been but the idleness of admiration. I have kept my note book, my

sketch-book, and my pencil in my hands, early and late; nor have once,

during the whole journey, transferred myself, at an early hour, from the

camp-fire or pallet to the canoe, merely to recompose myself again to

sleep. If the mineralogy or geology of the country often presented

little to note, the scenery, or the atmosphere, or that lone human

boulder, the American Indian, did. The evidences of the existence of

copper in the basin of Lake Superior are ample. There is every

indication of its abundance that the geologist could wish. Nature here

has operated on a grand scale. By means of volcanic fires, she has

infused into the trap-rocks veins of melted metal, which not inaptly

represent the arteries of the human system; for wherever the broken-down

shores of this lake are examined, they disclose, not the sulphurets and

carbonates of this ore, but fragments and lumps of virgin veins. These,

the winds and waves have scattered far and wide.

But what, you will ask, can be reported of its quadrupeds, birds,

reptilia, and general zoology? Have you measured the height and length

of the mastodon--"the great bull"--who the Indians told Mr. Jefferson

resisted the thunderbolts, and leaped over the great lakes?[252] Truly,

I beg you to spare me on this head. You are aware that we had no

professed zoologist.

[252] Notes on Virginia.

I herewith inclose you a list of such animals as came particularly under

our notice. Imperfect as it is, it will give you the general facts. The

dried and stuffed skins of such species as were deemed to be

undescribed, or were otherwise worthy attention, will be transmitted for

description. Among these is a species of squirrel, of peculiar

character, from the vicinity of St. Peter's, together with a species of

mus, a burrowing animal, which is very destructive to vegetation. This

appears to be the hamster of Georgia. Of the larger class of quadrupeds,

we met, in the forest traversed, the black bear, deer, elk, and buffalo.

The latter we encountered in large numbers, about one hundred and fifty

miles above the Falls of St. Anthony, about latitude 45°, on the east

bank of the river. We landed for the chase, and had a full opportunity

of observing its size, color, gait, and general appearance.

Great interest was imparted to portions of the tour by the ornithology

of the country, and it only required the interest and skill in this line

of a Wilson or an Audubon, to have not only identified, but also added

to the list of species.[253]

[253] The only addition to ornithology which it fell to my lot to

make, was in the grosbeck family, and this occurred after I came to

return to St. Mary's. Mr. Wm. Cooper has called the new species

fringilia vespertina, from the supposition that it sings during the

evening. The Chippewas call this species paushkundame, from its

thick and penetrating bill.

The geological character of the country has been found highly

interesting. The primitive rocks rise up in high orbicular groups on the

banks of Lake Superior. The interstices between groups are filled up

with coarse red, gray, or mottled sandstone, which lies, generally, in a

horizontal position, but is sometimes waved or raised up vertically.

Volcanic fires have played an important part here. I have been impressed

with the fact that the granitical series are generally deficient in

mica, its place being supplied by hornblende. Indeed, the rock is more

truly sienite, very little true granite being found, and, in these

cases, it is in the form of veins or beds in the sienite.

There have also been great volcanic fires and upliftings under the

sources of the Mississippi. Greenstone and trap are piled up in huge

boulders. The most elevated rock, in place, on the sources of the

Mississippi, is found to be quartzite. This is at the Falls of Pakagama.

In coming down the Mississippi, soon after passing the latitude of 46°,

the river is found to have its bed on greenstones and sienites, till

reaching near to the Falls of St. Anthony, where the great western

horizontal limestone series begins. To facilitate the study of the

latter, opportunities were sought of detecting its imbedded forms of

organic life, but their infrequency, and the rapid mode of our

journeying, was averse to much success in this line without the

boundaries of the great lake basins.

In the department of mineralogy, I have not as brilliant a collection as

I brought from Potosi in 1819--but, nevertheless, one of value--the

country explored being a wilderness, and very little labor having been

applied in excavations. Among the objects secured, I have fine specimens

of the various forms of native copper and its ores, together with

crystallized sulphurets of lead, zinc, and iron; native muriate of soda,

graphite, sulphate of lime, and strontian, and the attractive forms

which the species of the quartz family assume, in the shore debris of

the lakes, under the names of agate, carnelian, &c. The whole will be

prepared and elaborately reported to the Department.

I found the freshwater shells of this region to be a very attractive

theme of observation in places

"Where the tiger steals along,

And the dread Indian chants his dismal song;"

where, indeed, there was scarcely anything else to attract attention;

and I have collected a body of bivalves, which will be forwarded to our

mutual friend, Dr. Mitchell, for description. Indeed, the present

communication is designed, after you have perused it, to pass under his

eye. No one in our scientific ranks is more alive to the progress of

discovery in all its physical branches. Governor Clinton, in one of his

casual letters, has very happily denominated him the Delphic oracle, for

all who have a question to ask come to him, and his scientific memory

and research, in books, old and new, are such, that it must be a hard

question indeed which he cannot solve.

Next to him, as an expounder of knowledge, you, my dear sir, as the

representative of the _corps editorial_, take your place. For, if it is

the writer of books who truly increases information, every decade's

experience more and more convinces me that it is the editor of a diurnal

journal who diffuses it, by his brief critical notices, or by giving a

favorable or unfavorable impetus to public opinion.

I am expected, I find, to publish my private narrative of the

expedition, to serve at least--if I may say so--as a stay to popular

expectation, until the more matured results can be duly elaborated. I am

taking breath here, among my friends, for a few days, and shall be

greatly governed by your judgment in the matter, after my arrival at

Albany.

I am, sir,

With sincere respect,

Your obedient servant,

HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.

To NATHANIEL H. CARTER, Esq., Albany.

_List of Quadrupeds, Birds, &c. observed._

The identification of species in this list, by giving the Indian name,

is herein fixed.

ENGLISH NAME. INDIAN (ALGONQUIN) SCIENTIFIC NAME.

NAME.

Buffalo, Pe-zhík-i,[254] Bos Americanus. _Gm._

Elk, Mush-kos, Cervus Canadensis. _L._

Deer (common), Wa-wash-ká-shi, Cervus Virginianus. _Gm._

Moose, Möz, Cervus alces. _L._

Black Bear, Muk-wah, Ursus Americanus. _Gm._

Wolf (gray), My-een-gan, Canis vulpes. _L._

Wolverine, Gwin-gwe-au-ga,[255] Ursus luscus. _L._

Fox (red), Waú-goosh Canis vulpes. _L._

Badger, Ak-kuk-o-jeesh, Meles labradoria. _C._

Fox (black), Muk-wau-goosh, Canis argenteus. _C._

Muskrat, Wau-zhusk, Fiber vulgaris. _C._

Martin, Wau-be-zha-si, Mustela mortes. _L. & B._

Fisher, O-jeeg, Mustela Pennanti. _C. Am._

ed., app. v.

Beaver, Am-ik, Castor fiber. _B._

Otter, Ne-gik, Lutra vulgaris. _L._

Porcupine, Kaug, Hystrix cristata. _C._

[254] This animal was found grazing the prairies on the east bank of

the Mississippi, about latitude 45° 30´.

[255] Means under-ground drummer.

ENGLISH NAME. INDIAN (ALGONQUIN) NAME. SCIENTIFIC NAME.

Raccoon, Ais-e-bun (from _ais_,

a shell, and _bun_,

past tense), Procyon lotor. _C._

Hare, Wau-bose, Lepus Americanus.

_Gm._

Polecat, She-kaug, Mephites putorius.

_Cu._

Squirrel (red), Ad-je-dah-mo, Sciurus vulgaris.

_C._

Squirrel (ground or

striped), Ah-gwing-woos, Sciurus striatus.

_C._

Squirrel (an apparently

new species).

Pouched Rat or Hamster, No-naw-pau-je-ne-ka-si, Mus busarius. _Shaw._

Weasel, Shin-gwoos, Mustela vulgaris. _L._

Mink, Shong-waish-ke, Mustela lutreola. _C._

Jerboa, called the

Jumping Mouse,[256] Dipus. _C._

Eagle (bald), Mik-a-zi,[257] F. lucocephulus.

_L._

Fork-tailed Hawk, Ca-niew, F. furcatus. _L._

Chicken Hawk, Cha-mees, F. communis. _C._

Pigeon Hawk, Pe-pe-ge-wa-zains, F. columbarius.

_Wilson._

Raven, Kaw-gaw-ge, Corvus corax. _L._

Crow, On-daig, C. corone. _L._

Magpie, Wau-bish-kau-gau-gi

(White Raven),[258] C. pica. _L._

Cormorant, Kau-kau-ge-sheeb

(Raven-duck), P. carbe. _Brin._

Pelican, Shay-ta, P. onocrotalus.

_Illig._

Goose, Wa-wa, An. anser. _L._

Brant, Ne-kuh, An. bernicla.

_Wilson._

Duck (d. and m.), Shee-sheeb (a generic

term), Anas.

Duck (saw-bill), On-zig, A. tadorna. _C._

Duck (Red-head or Misquon-dib, A. rufus. _Gm._

Fall),

Duck (alewives), Ah-ah-wa.

Swan, Wau-bis-si, A. cygnus. _C._

Heron, Moosh-kow-e-si, Ardea. _C._

Plover, Tchwi-tchwish-ke-wa, Charadriûs. _C._

Turkey, Mis-is-sa, Meleagris. _C._

Blackbird, Os-sig-in-ok, The red-winged

species.

Rail, Muk-ud-a-pe-nais,

Jay (blue), Dain-da-si,[259] Garrulus. _C._

Whippoorwill, Paish-kwa, Caprimulgas. _L._

Robin, O-pee-chi, T. migratorius. _L._

[256] Found at Lapointe, Lake Superior.

[257] This is a generic term for the eagle family. It is believed the

kanieu, or black eagle, is regarded by them as the head of the

family. The feathers of the falco furcatus are highly valued by

warriors.

[258] The meaning is white raven.

[259] The term is from dain-da, a bullfrog.

ENGLISH NAME. INDIAN (ALGONQUIN) NAME. SCIENTIFIC NAME.

Kingfisher, Me-je-ge-gwun-a, Alcedo. _C._

Pigeon, O-mee-mi, Columba emigratoria.

Partridge, Pe-na,[260] Tetrao. _C._

Crane, Ad-je-jawk, Crane family.

Gull, Ky-aushk, Gull family.

Woodpecker, Ma-ma, Picus. _C._

Snipe, Pah-dus-kau-unzh-i, Scolipax. _C._

Owl, Ko-ko-ko-o,[261] } Generic terms for the

Loon, Mong, } species.

Mocking-bird

(seen as far

north as

Michilimackinac), T. polyglotis. _Wilson._

Sturgeon, Na-ma, Acipenser. _L._

Sturgeon

(paddle-nose), Ab-we-on-na-ma, Acipenser spatularia. _C._

White-fish, Ad-ik-um-aig[262] (means

deer of the water).

Salmon trout, Na-ma-gwoos, } Salmo. _L._

Trout (speckled), Na-zhe-ma-gwoos, }

Carp, Nam-a-bin, Denotes the red fin.

Catfish, Miz-zi, Silurus. _C._

Bass, O-gau. The striped species.

Tulibee, O-dön-a-bee (wet-mouth).

Eel, Pe-miz-zi (a specific

term). A specific term.

Snake, Ke-ná-bik (a generic), }

Snake, A species supposed } Ophidia. _C._

peculiar,

Turtle (lake), Mik-e-nok, }

Turtle (small } Chelonia. _C._

land), Mis-qua-dais, }

[260] This is the prairie grouse of the West.

[261] The name is generic for the owl family.

[262] This term arises from _adik_, a reindeer, and _gumaig_, waters.

PHILOLOGICAL NOTE.--Three of these fifty-seven terms of Indian

nomenclature are monosyllables, and twenty-four dissyllables. The latter

are compounds, as in _muk-wah_ (black animal), and _wau-bose_ (white

little animal); and it is inferable that all the names over a single

syllable are compounds. Thus, aisebun (raccoon), is from _ais_, a shell,

and the term past tense of verbs in _bun_.

XIII.

_Species of Bivalves collected in the Northwest, by Mr. Schoolcraft and

Captain Douglass, on the Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi,

in 1820._ By D. H. BARNES.

This paper, by which a new impulse was given to the study of our

freshwater conchology, and many species were added to the list of

discoveries, was published in two papers, to be found in the pages of

_Silliman's American Journal of Science_, vol. vi. pp. 120, 259.

XIV.

_Freshwater Shells collected in the Valleys of the Fox and Wisconsin,

in 1820, by Mr. Schoolcraft._ By ISAAC LEA, Member American

Philosophical Society.

A description of these shells, in which several new species are

established, was published by the ingenious conchologist, Mr. I. Lea, of

Philadelphia, in the _Transactions of the American Philosophical

Society_, vol. v. p. 37, Plate III., &c.

XV.

_Summary Remarks respecting the Zoology of the Northwest noticed by

the Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi in 1820._ By Dr.

SAMUEL L. MITCHELL.

The squirrel [from the vicinity of the Falls of St. Anthony], is a

species not heretofore described, and has been named _sciurus tredecem

striatus_, or the federation squirrel. (A.)

The pouched rat, or _mus busarius_, has been seen but once in Europe.

This was a specimen sent to the British Museum from Canada, and

described by Dr. Shaw. But its existence is rather questioned by Chev.

Cuvier. Both animals have been described, and the descriptions published

in the 21st vol. of the _Medical Repository_, of New York, pp. 248, 249.

The specimens [from the West] are both preserved in my museum. Drawings

have been executed by the distinguished artist Milbert, and forwarded by

him, at my request, to the administrators of the King's Museum, at

Paris, of which he is a corresponding member. My descriptions accompany

them. The animals are retained as too valuable to be sent out of the

country. [B.]

The paddle-fish is the _spatularia_ of Shaw, and _polydon_ of Lacepede.

It lives in the Mississippi only, and the skeleton, though incomplete,

is better than any other person here possesses. It is carefully

preserved in my collection.

The serpent is a species of the ophalian genus anguis, the oveto of the

French, and the blind worm of the English. The loss of the tail of this

fragile creature renders an opinion a little dubious; but it is

supposed to be _opthiosaureus_ of Dandrige, corresponding to the _anguis

ventralis_ of Linnæus, figured by Catesby.

The shells afford a rich amount of an undescribed species. The whole of

the univalves and bivalves received from Messrs. Schoolcraft and

Douglass have been assembled and examined, with all I possessed before,

and with Mr. Stacy Collins's molluscas brought from the Ohio. Mr. Barnes

is charged with describing and delineating all the species not contained

in Mr. Say's _Memoir of the Productions of the Land and Fresh Waters of

North America_. The finished work will be laid before the Lyceum, and

finally be printed in Mr. Silliman's _New Haven Journal_. The species by

which geology will be enriched will amount, probably, to nine or ten.

(C.) We shall endeavor to be just to our friends and benefactors.

S. L. MITCHELL.

For GOV. CASS.

_Notes._

Summary Narrative of an Exploratory Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi River, in 1820 Resumed and Completed, by the Discovery of its Origin in Itasca Lake, in 1832 · 第 29 / 33 章

The right of soil to all that part of the Peninsula of Michigan not