A.--Vaidiki.
1. Murikinadu.
2. Telaganyam.
3. Velnadu.
4. Kasalnadu.
5. Karnakammalu.
6. Veginadu.
7. Konesime.
8. Arama Dravida.
9. Aradhya.
10. Prathamasaki.
B.--Niyogi.
1. Aruvela.
2. Nandavarikulu.
3. Kammalu.
4. Pesalavayalu.
5. Pranganadu.
C.--Tambala.
D.--Immigrants.
1. Pudur Dravida.
2. Thummagunta Dravida.
All these sections are endogamous, and will eat together, except
the Tambalas, who correspond to the Gurukkals among the Tamil
Brahmans. Vaidikis are supposed to be superior to Niyogis. The former
do not generally grow moustaches, while the latter do. For sradh
ceremonies, Niyogis do not generally sit as Brahmans representing the
ancestors, Vaidikis being engaged for this purpose. In some places,
e.g., the Nandigama taluk of the Kistna district, the Niyogis are
not referred to by the name Brahman, Vaidikis being so called. Even
Niyogis themselves point to Vaidikis when asked about Brahmans.
Velnadu, Murikinadu, and Veginadu seem to be territorial names, and
they occur also among some of the non-Brahman castes. The Aradhyas are
dealt with in a special article (see Aradhya). Among the Karnakammas
are certain sub-sections, such as Ogoti and Koljedu. They all belong
to Rig Saka. Of the Telaganyams, some follow the Rig Veda, and others
the Yejur Veda (both black and white Yajus). The Nandavarikulu are
all Rig Vedis, and regard Chaudeswari, the goddess of the Devangas,
as their tutelary deity. When a Nandavariki Brahman goes to a Devanga
temple, he is treated with much respect, and the Devanga priest gives
up his place to the Nandavariki for the time being. The Nandavariki
Brahmans are, in fact, gurus or priests to the Devengas.
A special feature of the Telugu Brahmans is that, like the Telugu
non-Brahman classes, they have house names or intiperulu, of which
the following are examples:--Kota (fort), Lanka (island), Puchcha
(Citrullus Colocynthis), Chintha (tamarind), Kaki (crow). Niyogi
house-names sometimes terminate with the word razu.
IV. Carnataka.--The sub-divisions of the Carnatakas or
Canarese-speaking Brahmans are as follows:--
A.--Smartha.
1. Aruvaththuvokkalu.
2. Badaganadu.
3. Hosalnadu.
4. Hoisanige or Vaishanige.
5. Kamme (Bobburu, Karna, and Ulcha).
6. Sirnadu.
7. Maraka.
B.--Madhva.
1. Aruvela.
2. Aruvaththuvokkalu.
3. Badaganadu.
4. Pennaththurar.
5. Prathamasaki.
6. Hyderabadi.
The Carnatakas very closely resemble the Andhras in their ceremonial
observances, and, like them, attach much importance to vratams. The
Madhva Carnatakas are recent converts from Carnataka or Andhra
Smarthas. The Pennaththurars are supposed to be Tamil Brahmans
converted into Madhvas. They retain some of the customs peculiar to
the Tamil Brahmans. The marriage badge, for example, is the Tamil
tali and not the bottu. Intermarriages between Smarthas and Madhvas
of the same section are common. Madhvas, excepting the very orthodox,
will take food with both Carnataka and Andhra Smarthas.
The Marakas are thus described by Mr. Lewis Rice. [175] "A caste
claiming to be Brahmans, but not recognised as such. They worship the
Hindu triad, but are chiefly Vishnuvites, and wear the trident mark on
their foreheads. They call themselves Hale Kannadiga or Hale Karnataka,
the name Marka [176] being considered as one of reproach, on which
account also many have doubtless returned themselves as Brahmans of
one or other sect. They are said to be descendants of some disciples
of Sankaracharya, the original guru of Sringeri, and the following
legend is related of the cause of their expulsion from the Brahman
caste to which their ancestors belonged. One day Sankaracharya,
wishing to test his disciples, drank some toddy in their presence,
and the latter, thinking it could be no sin to follow their master's
example, indulged freely in the same beverage. Soon after, when passing
a butcher's shop, Sankaracharya asked for alms; the butcher had nothing
but meat to give, which the guru and his disciples ate. According to
the Hindu shastras, red-hot iron alone can purify a person who has
eaten flesh and drunk toddy. Sankaracharya went to a blacksmith's
furnace, and begged from him some red-hot iron, which he swallowed
and was purified. The disciples were unable to imitate their master
in the matter of the red-hot iron, and besought him to forgive their
presumption in having dared to imitate him in partaking of forbidden
food. Sankaracharya refused to give absolution, and cursed them
as unfit to associate with the six sects of Brahmans. The caste is
making a strong effort to be readmitted among Brahmans, and some have
recently become disciples of Parakalaswami. Their chief occupations
are agriculture, and Government service as shanbogs or village
accountants." It is recorded, in the Mysore Census Report, 1891,
that "some of the more intelligent and leading men in the clan give
another explanation (of the legend). It is said that either in Dewan
Purnaiya's time, or some time before, a member of this micro-caste
rose to power, and persecuted the people so mercilessly that, with
characteristic inaptitude, they gave him the nickname Maraka or the
slaughterer or destroyer, likening him to the planet Mars, which,
in certain constellations, is astrologically dreaded as wielding
a fatal influence on the fortunes of mortals. There is, however,
no doubt that, in their habits, customs, religion and ceremonials,
these people are wholly Brahmanical, but still they remain entirely
detached from the main body of the Brahmans. Since the census of 1871,
the Hale Kannadigas have been strenuously struggling to get themselves
classified among the Brahmans. About 25 years ago, the Sringeri Math
issued on behalf of the Smarta portion of the people a Srimukh (papal
bull) acknowledging them to be Brahmans. A similar pronouncement was
also obtained from the Parakal Math at Mysore about three years later
on behalf of the Srivaishnavas among them. And the Local Government
directed, a little after the census of 1881, that they should be
entered as Brahmans in the Government accounts."
The Madhva Brahmans commence the marriage ceremony by asking the
ancestors of the bridal couple to bless them, and be present throughout
the performance of the rites. To represent the ancestors, a ravike
(bodice) and dhotra (man's cloth) are tied to a stick, which is placed
near the box containing the salagrama stone and household gods. In
consequence of these ancestors being represented, orthodox Vaidiki
Brahmans refuse to take food in the marriage house. When the bridegroom
is conducted to the marriage booth by his future father-in-law, all
those who have taken part in the Kasiyatra ceremony, throw rice over
him. A quaint ceremony, called rangavriksha (drawing), is performed
on the morning of the second day. After the usual playing with balls
of flowers (nalagu or nalangu), the bridegroom takes hold of the
right hand of the bride, and, after dipping her right forefinger
in turmeric and chunam (lime) paste, traces on a white wall the
outline of a plantain tree, of which a sketch has previously been
made by a married woman. The tracing goes on for three days. First
the base of the plant is drawn, and, on the evening of the third day,
it is completed by putting in the flower spikes. On the third night
the bridegroom is served with sweets and other refreshments by his
mother-in-law, from whose hands he snatches the vessels containing
them. He picks out what he likes best, and scatters the remainder
about the room. The pollution caused thereby is removed by sprinkling
water and cow-dung, which is done by the cook engaged for the marriage
by the bridegroom's family. After washing his hands, the bridegroom
goes home, taking with him a silver vessel, which he surreptitiously
removes from near the gods. Along with this vessel he is supposed
to steal a rope for drawing water, and a rice-pounding stone. But
in practice he only steals the vessel, and the other articles are
claimed by his people on their return home.
Branding for religious purposes is confined to Sri Vaishnavas and
Madhvas. Sri Vaishnava Brahmans are expected to undergo this ordeal
at least once during their life-time, whereas Madhva Brahmans have to
submit to it as often as they visit their guru (head of a mutt). Of
men of other castes, those who become followers of a Vaishnava or
Madhva Acharya (guru) or mutt, are expected to present themselves
before the guru for the purpose of being branded. But the ceremony
is optional, and not compulsory as in the case of the Brahmans. Among
Sri Vaishnavites, the privilege of branding is confined to the elder
members of a family, Sanyasis (ascetics), and the heads of the various
mutts. All individuals, male and female, must be branded, after the
Upanayanam ceremony in the case of males, and after marriage in the
case of females. The disciples, after a purificatory bath and worship
of their gods, proceed to the residence of the Acharya or to the mutt,
where they are initiated into their religion, and branded with the
chakra on the right shoulder and chank on the left. The initiation
consists in imparting to the disciple, in a very low tone, the Mula
Mantram, the word Namonarayanaya, the sacred syllable Om, and a few
mantrams from the Brahma Rahasyam (secrets about god). A person who
has not been initiated thus is regarded as unfit to take part in
the ceremonies which have to be performed by Brahmans. Even close
relations, if orthodox, will refuse to take food prepared or touched
by the uninitiated. Concerning Madhvas, Monier Williams writes as
follows [177]: "They firmly believe that it is a duty of Vaishnavas
to carry throughout life a memorial of their god on their persons,
and that such a lasting outward and visible sign of his presence helps
them to obtain salvation through him. 'On his right armlet the Brahman
wears the discus, on his left the conch shell.' When I was at Tanjore,
I found that one of the successors of Madhva had recently arrived on
his branding visitation. He was engaged throughout the entire day in
stamping his disciples, and receiving fees from all according to their
means." Madhvas have four mutts to which they repair for the branding
ceremony, viz., Vayasaraya, Sumathendra and Mulabagal in Mysore,
and Uttaraja in South Canara. The followers of the Uttaraja mutt are
branded in five places in the case of adult males, and boys after the
thread investiture. The situations and emblems selected are the chakra
on the right upper arm, right side of the chest, and above the navel;
the chank on the left shoulder and left side of the chest. Women,
and girls after marriage, are branded with the chakra on the right
forearm, and the chank on the left. In the case of widows, the marks
are impressed on the shoulders as in the case of males. The disciples
of the three other mutts are generally branded with the chakra on the
right upper arm, and chank on the left. As the branding is supposed
to remove sins committed during the interval, they get it done every
time they see their guru. There is with Madhvas no restriction as to
the age at which the ceremony should be performed. Even a new-born
babe, after the pollution period of ten days, must receive the mark
of the chakra, if the guru should turn up. Boys before the upanayanam,
and girls before marriage, are branded with the chakra on the abdomen
just above the navel. The copper or brass branding instruments (mudras)
are not heated to a very high temperature, but sufficient to singe the
skin, and leave a deep black mark in the case of adults, and a light
mark in that of young people and babies. In some cases, disciples, who
are afraid of being hurt, bribe the person who heats the instruments;
but, as a rule, the guru regulates the temperature so as to suit the
individual. If, for example, the disciple is a strong, well-built
man, the instruments are well heated, and, if he is a weakling,
they are allowed to cool somewhat before their application. If the
operator has to deal with babies, he presses the instrument against
a wet rag before applying it to the infant's skin. Some Matathipathis
(head priests of the mutt) are, it is said, inclined to be vindictive,
and to make a very hot application of the instruments, if the disciple
has not paid the fee (gurukanika) to his satisfaction. The fee is not
fixed in the case of Sri Vaishnavas, whereas Madhvas are expected to
pay from one to three months' income for being branded. Failure to
pay is punished with excommunication on some pretext or other. The
area of skin branded generally peels off within a week, leaving a
pale mark of the mudra, which either disappears in a few months, or
persists throughout life. Madhvas should stamp mudras with gopi paste
(white kaolin) daily on various parts of the body. The names of these
mudras are chakra, chank or sankha, gatha (the weapon of war used by
Bhima, one of the Pandavas), padma (lotus), and Narayana. The chakra
is stamped thrice on the abdomen above the navel, twice on the right
flank, twice on the right side of the chest above the nipple, twice
on the right arm, once on the right temple, once on the left side
of the chest, and once on the left arm. The chank is stamped twice
on the right side of the chest, in two places on the left arm, and
once on the left temple. The gatha is stamped in two places on the
right arm, twice on the chest, and in one spot on the forehead. The
padma is stamped twice on the left arm, and twice on the left side of
the chest. Narayana is stamped on all places where other mudra marks
have been made. Sometimes it is difficult to put on all the marks
after the daily morning bath. In such cases, a single mudra mark,
containing all the five mudras, is made to suffice. Some regard the
chakra mudra as sufficient on occasions of emergency.
The god Hanuman (the monkey god) is specially reverenced by Madhvas,
who call him Mukyapranadevaru (the chief god).
V. Tulu.--The Tulu-speaking Brahmans are, in their manners and customs,
closely allied to the Carnatakas. Their sub-divisions are--
1. Shivalli.
2. Kota.
3. Kandavara.
4. Havik or Haiga.
5. Panchagrami.
6. Koteswar.
The following interesting account of the Tulu Brahmans is given by
Mr. H. A. Stuart [178]:--
"All Tulu Brahmin chronicles agree in ascribing the creation of
Malabar and Canara, or Kerala, Tuluva, and Haiga, to Parasu Rama,
who reclaimed from the sea as much land as he could cover by hurling
his battle-axe from the top of the Western Ghauts. According to Tulu
traditions, after a quarrel with Brahmins who used to come to him
periodically from Ahi-Kshetra, Parasu Rama procured new Brahmins for
the reclaimed tract by taking the nets of some fishermen, and making a
number of Brahminical threads, with which he invested the fishermen,
and thus turned them into Brahmins, and retired to the mountains to
meditate, after informing them that, if they were in distress and
called on him, he would come to their aid. After the lapse of some
time, during which they suffered no distress, they were curious to
know if Parasu Rama would remember them, and called upon him in order
to find out. He promptly appeared, but punished their thus mocking
him by cursing them, and causing them to revert to their old status
of Sudras. After this, there were no Brahmins in the land till Tulu
Brahmins were brought from Ahi-Kshetra by Mayur Varma of the Kadamba
dynasty. A modified form of the tradition states that Parasu Rama
gave the newly reclaimed land to Naga and Machi Brahmins, who were
not true Brahmins, and were turned out or destroyed by fishermen and
Holeyas (Pariahs), who held the country till the Tulu Brahmins were
introduced by Mayur Varma. All traditions unite in attributing the
introduction of the Tulu Brahmins of the present day to Mayur Varma,
but they vary in details connected with the manner in which they
obtained a firm footing in the land. One account says that Habashika,
chief of the Koragas (Pariahs), drove out Mayur Varma, but was in turn
expelled by Mayur Varma's son, or son-in-law, Lokaditya of Gokarnam,
who brought Brahmins from Ahi-Kshetra and settled them in thirty-two
villages. Another makes Mayur Varma himself the invader of the country,
which till then had remained in the possession of the Holeyas (Pariahs)
and fishermen who had turned out Parasu Rama's Brahmins. Mayur Varma
and the Brahmins whom he had brought from Ahi-Kshetra were again
driven out by Nanda, a Holeya chief, whose son Chandra Sayana had,
however, learned respect for Brahmins from his mother, who had been
a dancing-girl in a temple. His admiration for them became so great
that he not only brought back the Brahmins, but actually made over
all his authority to them, and reduced his people to the position
of slaves. A third account makes Chandra Sayana, not a son of a
Holeya king, but a descendant of Mayur Varma and a conqueror of
the Holeya king. Nothing is known from other sources of Lokaditya,
Habashika, or Chandra Sayana, but inscriptions speak to Mayur Varma
being the founder of the dynasty of the Kadambas of Banavasi in North
Canara. His date is usually put down at about 750 A.D. The correctness
of the traditions, which prevail in Malabar as well as in Canara,
assigning the introduction of Brahmins to the West Coast to Mayur
Varma who was in power about 750 A.D., is to some extent corroborated
by the fact that Brahmins attested the Malabar Perumal's grant to the
Christians in 774 A.D., but not that to the Jews about 700 A.D. The
Brahmins are said to have been brought from Ahi-Kshetra, on the banks
of the Godavari, but it is not clear what connection a Kadamba of
Banavasi could have with the banks of the Godavari, and there may be
something in the suggestion made in the North Kanara Gazetteer that
Ahi-Kshetra is merely a sanskritised form of Haiga or the land of
snakes. The tradition speaks of the Brahmins having been brought by
Lokaditya from Gokarnam, which is in the extreme north of Haiga, and
in the local history of the Honalli Matha in Sunda in North Canara,
Gokarnam is spoken of as being Ahi-Kshetra. Gokarnam is believed to
have been a Brahmin settlement in very early times, and there was
probably a further influx of Brahmins there as Muhammadan conquest
advanced in the north.
"The class usually styled Tulu Brahmins at the present day are the
Shivalli Brahmins, whose head-quarters are at Udipi, and who are
most numerous in the southern part of the district, but the Kota,
Koteshwar, and Haiga or Havika Brahmins are all branches of the same,
the differences between them having arisen since their settlement in
Canara; and, though they now talk Canarese in common with the people
of other parts to the north of the Sitanadi river, their religious
works are still written in the old Tulu-Malayalam character. Tulu
Brahmins, who have settled in Malabar in comparatively late years, are
known as Embrantris, and treated as closely allied to the Nambutiris,
whose traditions go back to Mayur Varma. Some families of Shivalli and
Havika Brahmins in the southern or Malayalam portion of the district
talk Malayalam, and follow many of the customs of the Malabar or
Nambutiri Brahmins. Many of the thirty-two villages in which the
Brahmins are said to have been settled by Mayur Varma are still
the most important centres of Brahminism. Notably may be mentioned
Shivalli or Udipi, Kota and Koteshwar, which have given names to the
divisions of Tulu Brahmins of which these villages are respectively the
head-quarters. When the Brahmins were introduced by Mayur Varma they
are said to have been followers of Bhattacharya, but they soon adopted
the tenets of the great Malayalam Vedantic teacher Sankaracharya,
who is ordinarily believed to have been born at Cranganore in Malabar
in the last quarter of the eighth century, that is, soon after the
arrival of the Brahmins on the west coast. Sankaracharya is known
as the preacher of the Advaita (non-dual) philosophy, which, stated
briefly, is that all living beings are one with the supreme spirit,
and absorption may finally be obtained by the constant renunciation
of material in favour of spiritual pleasure. This philosophy, however,
was not sufficient for the common multitude, and his system included,
for weaker minds, the contemplation of the first cause through a
multitude of inferior deities, and, as various manifestations of Siva
and his consort Parvati, he found a place for all the most important
of the demons worshipped by the early Dravidians whom the Brahmins
found on the West Coast, thus facilitating the spread of Hinduism
throughout all classes. That the conversion of the Bants and Billavas,
and other classes, took place at a very early date may be inferred
from the fact that, though the great bulk of the Tulu Brahmins of South
Canara adopted the teaching of the Vaishnavite reformer Madhavacharya,
who lived in the thirteenth century, most of the non-Brahmin Hindus in
the district class themselves as Shaivites to this day. Sankaracharya
founded the Sringeri Matha in Mysore near the borders of the Udipi
taluk, the guru of which is the spiritual head of such of the Tulu
Brahmins of South Canara as have remained Smarthas or adherents of the
teaching of Sankaracharya. Madhavacharya is believed to have been born
about 1199 A.D. at Kalianpur, a few miles from Udipi. He propounded
the Dvaita or dual philosophy, repudiating the doctrine of oneness
and final absorption held by ordinary Vaishnavites as well as by the
followers of Sankaracharya. The attainment of a place in the highest
heaven is to be secured, according to Madhavacharya's teaching, not
only by the renunciation of material pleasure, but by the practice of
virtue in thought, word and deed. The moral code of Madhavacharya is
a high one, and his teaching is held by some--not ordinary Hindus of
course--to have been affected by the existence of the community of
Christians at Kalianpur mentioned by Cosmos Indico Pleustes in the
seventh century. Madhavacharya placed the worship of Vishnu above
that of Siva, but there is little bitterness between Vaishnavites
and Shaivites in South Canara, and there are temples in which both
are worshipped under the name of Shankara Narayana. He denied that
the spirits worshipped by the early Dravidians were manifestations
of Siva's consort, but he accorded sanction to their worship as
supernatural beings of a lower order.
"Shivalli Brahmins. The Tulu-speaking Brahmins of the present day are
almost all followers of Madhavacharya, though a few remain Smarthas,
and a certain number follow what is known as the Bhagavat Sampradayam,
and hold that equal honour is due to both Vishnu and Siva. They are
now generally called Shivalli Brahmins, their head-quarters being at
Udipi or Shivalli, a few miles from Madhavacharya's birth-place. Here
Madhavacharya is said to have resided for some time, and composed
thirty-seven controversial works, after which he set out on a
tour. The temple of Krishna at Udipi is said to have been founded by
Madhavacharya himself, who set up in it the image of Krishna originally
made by Arjuna, and miraculously obtained by him from a vessel wrecked
on the coast of Tuluva. In it he also placed one of the three salagrams
presented to him by the sage Veda Vyasa. Besides the temple at Udipi,
he established eight Mathas or sacred houses, each presided over by
a sanyasi or swami. [Their names are Sodhe, Krishnapur, Sirur, Kanur,
Pejavar, Adamar, Palamar, and Puththige.] These exist to this day, and
each swami in turn presides over the temple of Krishna for a period of
two years, and spends the intervening fourteen years touring through
Canara and the adjacent parts of Mysore, levying contributions from the
faithful for his next two years of office, which are very heavy, as he
has to defray not only the expenses of public worship and of the temple
and Matha establishments, but must also feed every Brahmin who comes to
the place. The following description of a Matha visited by Mr. Walhouse
[179] gives a very good idea of what one of these buildings is like:
'The building was two-storeyed, enclosing a spacious quadrangle round
which ran a covered verandah or cloister; the wide porched entrance
opened into a fine hall supported by massive pillars with expanding
capitals handsomely carved; the ceiling was also wooden, panelled
and ornamented with rosettes and pendants as in baronial halls,
and so were the solid doors. Within these was an infinity of rooms,
long corridors lined with windowless cells, apartments for meditation
and study, store-rooms overflowing with all manner of necessaries,
granaries, upper rooms with wide projecting windows latticed instead
of glass with pierced wood-work in countless tasteful patterns,
and in the quadrangle there was a draw-well and small temple, while
a large yard behind contained cattle of all kinds from a goat to an
elephant. All things needful were here gathered together. Outside
sat pilgrims, poor devotees, and beggars waiting for the daily dole,
and villagers were continually arriving with grain, vegetables,
etc.' The periodical change of the swami presiding over the temple
of Krishna is the occasion of a great festival known as the Pariyaya,
when Udipi is filled to overflowing by a large concourse of Madhvas,
not only from the district but from more distant parts, especially
from the Mysore territory. [A very imposing object in the temple
grounds, at the time of my visit in 1907, was an enormous stack of
fire-wood for temple purposes.] The following is a description [180]
of a festival at the Udipi Krishna temple witnessed by Mr. Walhouse:
'Near midnight, when the moon rode high in a cloudless heaven, his
(Krishna's) image--not the very sacred one, which may not be handled,
but a smaller duplicate--was brought forth by four Brahmins and
placed under a splendid canopy on a platform laid across two large
canoes. The whole square of the tank (pond) was lit up by a triple
line of lights. Small oil cressets at close intervals, rockets and
fireworks ascended incessantly, and the barge, also brilliantly lit
up, and carrying a band of discordant music, and Brahmins fanning
the image with silver fans, was punted round and round the tank amid
loud acclamations. After this, the image was placed in a gorgeous
silver-plated beaked palanquin, and borne solemnly outside the temple
to the great idol car that stood dressed up and adorned with an
infinity of tinsel, flags, streamers and flower wreaths. On this it
was lifted, and placed in a jewel shrine amidst a storm of applause
and clapping of hands--these seem the only occasions when Hindus do
clap hands--and then, with all the company of Brahmins headed by the
swamis marching in front, followed by flambeaus and wild music, the
car was slowly hauled by thousands of votaries round the square which
was illuminated by three lines of lights, ascending at intervals into
pyramids. A pause was made half-way, when there was a grand display
of rockets, fire fountains and wheels, and two lines of camphor
and oiled cotton laid along the middle of the road were kindled
and flamed up brilliantly. Then the car moved on to the entrance of
the temple, and the god's outing was accomplished.' Another famous
temple of the Shivallis is Subramanya at the foot of the ghauts on
the Coorg border, and here also Madhavacharya deposited one of Veda
Vyasa's salagrams. It existed before his time, however, and, as the
name indicates, it is dedicated to the worship of Siva. In addition
to this, it is the principal centre of serpent worship in the district.
"Many of the Shivalli Brahmins are fair complexioned with well-cut
intelligent features. A number of them own land which they cultivate by
tenants or by hired labourers, and there are several wealthy families
with large landed properties, but the great bulk of them are either
astronomers, astrologers, tantris, purohitas, worshippers in temples,
or professional beggars. They have been backward in availing themselves
of English education, and consequently not many of them are to be
found holding important posts under Government or in the professions,
but a few have come to the front in late years. A good many of them
are village accountants and teachers in village schools. The women, as
is usually the case among all classes, are fairer than the men. Their
education is even more limited, but they are said to be well trained
for the discharge of household and religious duties. They wear the
cloth falling as low as the feet in front, but not usually so low
behind, especially on festive occasions, the end being passed between
the legs and tucked into the fold of the cloth round the waist. Like
all Brahmin women in Canara, they are fond of wearing sweet-scented
flowers in their hair. The language of the Shivalli Brahmins is Tulu,
except to the north of the Sitanadi river, where close intercourse with
the ruling Canarese classes above the ghauts for several centuries has
led to the adoption of that language by all classes. Their religious
books are in Sanskrit, and, even north of the Sitanadi river, they
are written in the old Tulu-Malayalam character. Their houses are
all neat, clean, and provided with verandahs, and a yard in front,
in which stands, in a raised pot, a plant of the tulasi or sacred
basil. Some of the houses of the old families are really large and
substantial buildings, with an open courtyard in the centre. Men and
widows bathe the whole body every day before breakfast, but married
women bathe only up to the neck, it being considered inauspicious for
them to bathe the head also. In temples and religious houses, males
bathe in the evening also. An oil bath is taken once a week. They
are, of course, abstainers from animal food and spirituous liquors,
and a prohibition extends to some other articles, such as onions,
garlic, mushrooms, etc. At times of marriages, deaths or initiations,
it is usual to give feasts, which may be attended by all Dravida
Brahmins. The Shivallis have 252 gotras, and the names of the following
seem to be of totemistic origin:--
Kudrettaya, from kudre, a horse, taya, belonging to.
Talitaya, palmyra palm.
Manolitaya, name of a vegetable.
Shunnataya, chunam, lime.
Kalambitaya, a kind of box.
Nellitaya, the Indian gooseberry.
Goli, banyan tree.
Ane, elephant.
"These names were obtained from one of the eight swamis or gurus of the
Udipi math, and according to him they have no totemistic force at the
present day. Girls must be married before maturity, and the ordinary
age now-a-days is between five and eleven. The age of the bridegroom
is usually between fifteen and five and twenty. A maternal uncle's
daughter can be married without consulting any horoscope, and during
the marriage ceremonies it is customary for a bridegroom's sister to
obtain from him a formal promise that, if he has a daughter, he will
give her in marriage to her son. Widows take off all their ornaments,
and wear a red or white cloth. They ought not to attend any auspicious
ceremonies or festivals, but of late years there has been a tendency
to relax the severity of the restrictions on a widow's freedom, and
a young widow is allowed to keep her head unshaven, and to wear a
few ornaments. A few Shivallis in the Malayalam-speaking portion of
the Kasaragod taluk follow the customs and manners of the Malayalam
Brahmins, and amongst these a girl does not lose caste by remaining
unmarried until she comes of age.
"Koteshwar Brahmins are a small body, who take their name from
Koteshwar in the Coondapoor taluk. They are practically the same as
the Shivalli Brahmins, except that, like all classes in that taluk,
they talk Canarese.
"Havika, Haviga, or Haiga Brahmins are the descendants of the section
of the Brahmins brought in by Mayur Varma, who settled within the
tract known as Haiga, which comprised the southern part of North Canara
and the extreme northern part of South Canara. They did not, like the
Shivallis, adopt the teaching of Madhavacharya, but remained followers
of Sankaracharya, and they now speak Canarese, though their religious
and family records are written in old Tulu-Malayalam character. Though
originally of the same stock, a distinction has arisen between them
and the Shivalli Brahmins, and they do not intermarry, though they may
eat together. A number of Havika Brahmins are to be found scattered
throughout South Canara, engaged for the most part in the cultivation
of areca palm gardens, in which they are very expert. A very well-to-do
colony of them is to be found in the neighbourhood of Vittal in the
Kasaragod taluk, where they grow areca nuts which are valued only
second to those grown in the magane of the Coondapoor taluk above the
ghauts. The Havika Brahmins, perhaps owing to their residing for many
generations in the comparatively cool shade of the areca nut gardens,
are specially fair even for west coast Brahmins. This fairness of
complexion is particularly noticeable in the women, who do not differ
much in their manners and customs from the Shivalli Brahmin women,
except that they take a prominent part in the work of the gardens, and
never on any occasion wear the end of their cloth passed through the
legs and tucked up behind. The Havik widows are allowed more freedom
than in most other classes. Some Havik Brahmins in the Malayalam
portion of the Kasaragod taluk have, like the Shivallis in the same
locality, adopted the language and customs of the Malayali Brahmins.
"Kota Brahmins, so called from a village in the northern part of
the Udipi taluk, are, like the Haviks, Smarthas or followers of
Sankaracharya, and now speak Canarese, but the breach between them
and the Shivallis is not so wide, as intermarriages occasionally take
place. In the Coondapoor taluk and the northern part of the Udipi
taluk, the Kotas occupy a place in the community corresponding to
that taken by the Shivallis throughout the rest of the district.
"Saklapuris, of whom there are a few in the district, are what may be
called a dissenting sect of Havikas who, a few years ago, renounced
their allegiance to the Ramchandrapura matha in favour of one at
Saklapuri near the boundary between North and South Canara. Like the
Havikas, they speak Canarese.
"Kandavaras obtain their name from the village of Kandavar in the
Coondapoor taluk. They are commonly known as Udapas, and they all
belong to one gotram, that of Visvamitra. They are, therefore,
precluded from marrying within the caste, and take their wives and
husbands from the ranks of the Shivalli Brahmins. They are, indeed,
said to be the descendants of a Shivalli Brahmin who settled in
Kandavar about seven or eight centuries ago. The head of the Annu Udapa
family, which is called after this ancestor, is the hereditary head
of the caste, and presides over all panchayats or caste councils. They
speak Canarese. Their title is Udapa or Udpa."
In a note on the Brahmans of South Canara, Mr. T. Raghaviah writes as
follows [181]:--"The sentimental objection to manual labour, which is
so predominant in the East Coast Brahmin, and the odium attached to
it in this country, which has crystallised into the religious belief
that, if a Brahmin cultivates with his own hand, the fire of his
hand would burn down all that he touches, have entirely disappeared
in South Canara. In the rural parts of the district, and especially
at the foot of the Western Ghauts, it is an exceedingly common
sight to see Brahmins engaging themselves in digging, ploughing
or levelling their lands, trimming their water-courses or ledges,
raising anicuts across streams, and doing a hundred other items of
manual work connected with agriculture. Brahmin women busy themselves
with cutting green leaves for manure, making and storing manure and
carrying it to their lands or trees, and Brahmin boys are employed in
tending and grazing their own cattle. This is so much the case with
a class of Brahmins called Haviks that there is a proverb that none
but a Havik can raise an areca garden. You find, as a matter of fact,
that nearly all the extensive areca plantations in the district are in
the hands of either the Havik Brahmins or the Chitpavans allied much
to the Mahratta Brahmins of Bombay. These plantations are managed by
these Brahmins, and new ones are raised with the aid of a handful of
Holeyas, or often without even such aid."
VI. Oriya.--The Oriya Brahmans of the Ganjam district belong to the
Utkala section of the Pancha Gaudas. Between them and the Pancha
Dravidas there is very considerable difference. None of the sections
of the Pancha Dravidas adopt the gosha system as regards their females,
whereas Oriya Brahman women are kept gosha (in seclusion). Occasionally
they go out to bring water, and, if on their way they come across any
males, they go to the side of the road, and turn their backs to the
passers-by. It is noted, in the Manual of the Vizagapatam district,
that Oriya Brahmans "eat many kinds of meat, as pea fowl, sambur
(deer), barking deer, pigeons, wild pig, and fish." Fish must be one
of the dishes prepared on festive occasions. As a rule, Oriya Brahmans
will accept water from a Gaudo (especially a Sullokondia Gaudo), and
sometimes from Gudiyas and Odiyas. Water touched by Dravida Brahmans
is considered by them to be polluted. They call the Dravidas Komma (a
corruption of Karma) Brahmans. The Oriya Brahmans are more particular
than the Dravidas as regards the madi cloth, which has already been
referred to. A cloth intended for use as a madi cloth is never given
to a washerman to be washed, and it is not worn by the Oriya Brahmans
when they answer the calls of nature, but removed, and replaced after
bathing. Marriage with a maternal uncle's daughter, which is common
among the Dravida Brahmans, would be considered an act of sacrilege
by Oriyas. When an Oriya Brahman is charged with being a meat eater,
he retorts that it is not nearly so bad as marrying a mathulakanya
(maternal uncle's daughter). The marriage tali or bottu is dispensed
with by Oriya Brahmans, who, at marriages, attach great importance
to the panigrahanam (grasping the bride's hand) and saptapadi (seven
steps). The Oriya Brahmans are both Smarthas and Vaishnavas who are
generally Paramarthos or followers of Chaitanya. The god Jagannatha
of Puri is reverenced by them, and they usually carry about with them
some of the prasadham (food offered to the god) from Puri. They are
divided into the following twelve sections:--
(1) Santo (samanta, a chief).
(2) Danua (gift-taking).
(3) Padhiya (one who learns the Vedas).
(4) Sarua (saru, tubers of the arum Colocasia antiqitorum).
(5) Holua (holo, yoke of a plough).
(6) Bhodri (Bhadriya, an agraharam on the Ganges).
(7) Barua (a small sea-port town).
(8) Deuliya (one who serves in temples).
(9) Kotokiya (kotaka, palace. Those who live in palaces as
servants to zamindars).
(10) Sahu (creditor).
(11) Jhadua (jungle).
(12) Sodeibalya (those who follow an ungodly life).
It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that "the Santos
regard themselves as superior to the others, and will not do purohit's
work for them, though they will for zamindars. They are also very
scrupulous about the behaviour of their womenkind. The Danuas live
much by begging, especially at the funerals of wealthy persons, but
both they and the Padhiyas know the Vedas, and are priests to the
zamindars and the higher classes of Sudras. The Saruas cultivate the
'yam' (Colocasia), and the Holuas go a step further, and engage in
ordinary cultivation--actual participation in which is forbidden
to Brahmans by Manu, as it involves taking the lives of worms and
insects. A few of the Saruas are qualified to act as purohits, but
the Holuas hardly ever are, and they were shown in the 1891 census to
be the most illiterate of all the Brahmans of the Presidency. Few of
them even perform the Sandhya and Tarpana, which every Brahman should
scrupulously observe. Yet they are regarded as ceremonially pure,
and are often cooks to the zamindars. Regarding the sixth class,
the Bhodris, a curious legend is related. Bhodri means a barber,
and the ancestor of the sub-division is said to have been the son
of a barber who was brought up at Puri with some Santo boys, and so
learned much of the Vedas and Shastras. He left Puri and went into
Jeypore, wearing the thread and passing himself off as a Brahman, and
eventually married a Brahman girl, by whom he got children who also
married Brahmans. At last, however, he was found out, and taken back to
Puri, where he committed suicide. The Brahmans said they would treat
his children as Brahmans if a plant of the sacred tulsi grew on his
grave, but, instead of tulsi, a plant of tobacco appeared there, and
so his descendants are Bhodris or barber Brahmans, and even Karnams,
Gaudos, and Mahantis decline to accept water at their hands. They
cultivate tobacco and 'yams,' but nevertheless officiate in temples,
and are purohits to the lower non-polluting castes. Of the remaining
six divisions, the Baruas are the only ones who do purohit's work
for other castes, and they only officiate for the lower classes of
Sudras. Except the Sodeibalyas, the others all perform the Sandhya
and Tarpana. Their occupations, however, differ considerably. The
Baruas are pujaris in the temples, and physicians. The Deuliyas are
pujaris and menials in zamindars' houses, growers of 'yams,' and even
day labourers. The Kotokiyas are household servants to zamindars. The
Sahus trade in silk cloths, grain, etc., and are money-lenders. The
Jhaduas are hill cultivators, and traders with pack-bullocks. The
last of the divisions, the Sodeibalyas, are menial servants to the
zamindars, and work for daily hire."
VII. Sarasvat and Konkani.--Both these classes belong to the Gauda
branch, and speak the Konkani language. The original habitation of
the Konkanis is said to have been the bank of the Sarasvati, a river
well known in early Sanskrit works, but said to have subsequently
lost itself in the sands of the desert, north of Rajputana. As they
do not abstain from fish, the other Brahmans among whom they have
settled regard them as low. The full name as given by the Konkanis
is Gauda Sarasvata Konkanastha. All the Konkani Brahmans found
in South Canara are Rig Vedis. Like the Shivalli Brahmans, they
have numerous exogamous septs, which are used as titles after their
names. For example, Prabhu is a sept, and Krishna Prabhu the name of
an individual. A large majority of the Konkani Brahmans are Madhvas,
and their god is Venkataramana of Tirupati, to whom their temples in
South Canara are dedicated. Other Brahmans do not go to the Konkani
temples, though non-Brahmans do so. A very striking feature of the
Konkani temples is that the god Venkataramana is not represented by
an idol, but by a silver plate with the image of the god embossed
on it. There are three important temples, at Manjeshwar, Mulki,
and Karkal. To these are attached Konkani Brahmans called Darsanas,
or men who get inspired. The Darsana attached to the Mulki temple
comes there daily about 11 A.M. After worship, he is given thirtham
(holy water), which he drinks. Taking in his hands the prasadam
(offering made to the god), he comes out, and commences to shiver
all over his body for about ten minutes. The shivering then abates,
and a cane and long strip of deer skin are placed in his hands,
with which he lashes himself on the back, sides, and head. Holy
water is given to him, and the shivering ceases. Those who have
come to the temple put questions to the Darsana, which are answered
in Konkani, and translated. He understands his business thoroughly,
and usually recommends the people to make presents of money or jewels
to Venkataramana, according to their means. In 1907, a rich Guzerati
merchant, who was doing business at Mangalore, visited the temple,
and consulted the Darsana concerning the condition of his wife,
who was pregnant. The Darsana assured him that she would be safely
delivered of a male child, and made him promise to present to the
temple silver equal in weight to that of his wife, should the prophecy
be realised. The prediction proving true, the merchant gave silver,
sugar-candy, and date fruits, to the required weight at a cost,
it is said, of five thousand rupees. At the Manjeshwar temple, the
Darsana is called the dumb Darsana, as he gives signs instead of
speaking. At a marriage among the Konkanis, for the Nagavali ceremony
eight snakes are made out of rice or wheat flour by women and the
bridal couple. By the side of the pot representing Siva and Parvati,
a mirror is placed. Close to the Nagavali square, it is customary to
draw on the ground the figures of eight elephants and eight Bairavas
in flour.
The following account of the Konkanis is given in the Cochin Census
Report, 1901:--"The Konkanis are a branch of the Sarasvat sub-division
of the Pancha Gaudas. Judged from their well-built physique, handsome
features and fair complexion, they appear to belong ethnically
to the Aryan stock. The community take their name from their Guru
Sarasvata. Trihotrapura, the modern Tirhut in Behar, is claimed as the
original home of the community. According to their tradition, Parasu
Rama brought ten families, and settled them in villages in and around
Gomantaka, the modern Goa, Panchrakosi, and Kusasthali. When Goa was
conquered by Vijayanagar, they placed themselves under the protection
of the kings of that country. For nearly a quarter of a century after
the conquest of Goa by the Portuguese, they continued unmolested under
the Portuguese Governors. During this period, they took to a lucrative
trade in European goods. With the establishment of the Inquisition
at Goa, and the religious persecution set on foot by the Portuguese,
the community left Goa in voluntary exile. While some submitted to
conversion, others fled to the north and south. Those that fled to the
south settled themselves in Canara and at Calicut. Receiving a cold
reception at the hands of the Zamorin, they proceeded further south,
and placed themselves under the protection of the Rulers of Cochin
and Travancore, where they flourish at the present day. The Christian
converts, who followed in the wake of the first batch of exiles,
have now settled themselves at the important centres of trade in the
State as copper-smiths, and they are driving a very profitable trade
in copper-wares. The Brahman emigrants are called Konkanis from the
fact of their having emigrated from Konkan. In the earliest times,
they are supposed to have been Saivites, but at present they are
staunch Vaishnavites, being followers of Madhavacharya. They are never
regarded as on a par with the other Brahmans of Southern India. There
is no intermarriage or interdining between them and other Brahmans. In
Cochin they are mostly traders. Their occupation seems to have been
at the bottom of their being regarded as degraded. They have their
own temples, called Tirumala Devaswams. They are not allowed access to
the inner structure surrounding the chief shrine of the Malayali Hindu
temples; nor do they in turn allow the Hindus of this coast to enter
corresponding portions of their religious edifices. The Nambudris are,
however, allowed access even to the interior of the sacred shrine. All
caste disputes are referred to their high priest, the Swamiyar of Kasi
Mutt, who resides at Mancheswaram or Basroor. He is held in great
veneration by the community, and his decisions in matters religious
and social are final. Some of their temples possess extensive landed
estates. Their temple at Cochin is one of the richest in the whole
State. The affairs of the temple are managed by Konkani Yogakkars,
or an elected committee. Nayars and castes above them do not touch
them. Though their women use coloured cloths for their dress like the
women of the East Coast, their mode of dress and ornaments at once
distinguish them from other Brahman women. Amongst them there are
rich merchants and landholders. Prabhu, Pai, Shenai, Kini, Mallan,
and Vadhyar, are some of the more common titles borne by them."
In conclusion, brief mention may be made of several other immigrant
classes. Of these, the Desasthas are Marathi-speaking Brahmans, who
have adopted some of the customs of the Smartha and Madhva Carnatakas,
with whom intermarriage is permitted. A special feature of the
marriage ceremonies of the Desasthas is the worship of Ambabhavani
or Tuljabhavani, with the assistance of Gondala musicians, who sing
songs in praise of the deity. The Chitpavan Brahmans speak Marathi
and Konkani. In South Canara they are, like the Haviks, owners of
areca palm plantations. Karadi Brahmans, who are also found in South
Canara, are said to have come southward from Karhad in the Bombay
Presidency. There is a tradition that Parasu Rama created them from
camel bones.