8. Whether the same (the divine mercy) means the overlooking (dhosha
darsanam) or enjoyment (dhosha bogyatvam) of the soul's delinquencies;
9. Whether works (karma) and knowledge (jnana) are in themselves
salvation giving, or only lead to faith (bhakthi) by which final
emancipation is attained;
10. Whether the good of other (unregenerate) castes should be tolerated
according to their graduated social statuses, or should be venerated
without reference to caste inequalities;
11. Whether karma (works, rituals, etc.) should or not be bodily and
wholly abandoned by those who have adopted prapatti."
The points of difference between Vadagalais and Thengalais are
thus described by Mr. V. N. Narasimmiyengar [173]:--"The Tengale
schismatists deny to Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu, any participation
in creation, and reduce her to the position of a creature; omit to
ring the bell when worshipping their idols; salute each other and
their gods only once; make use of highly abstruse Tamil verses in
room of Sanskrit mantras and prayers; modify the sraddha ceremony
materially, and do not shave their widows. The principal texts cited
by the Tengale Sri Vaishnavas in support of the immunity of their
widows from the rite of tonsure are the following:--
Widows should avoid, even when in affliction and danger, shaving,
eating of sweets, betel nut, flowers, sexual intercourse, conversation
with men, and jewels (Sandilyah).
A woman, whether unmarried or widowed, who shaves her hair, will go
to the hell called Rauravam. When the husband dies, the widow should
perform his due obsequies without shaving. She should never shave on
any occasion, or for any purpose whatever (Sambhuh).
If any woman, whether unmarried or widowed, shave (her head), she
will dwell in the hell called Rauravam for one thousand karors of
kalpas. If a widow shave (her head) by ignorance, she will cause hair
to grow in the mouths of her ancestors' ghosts on both sides. If she
perform any ceremonies inculcated by the Srutis and Smritis with her
head shaved, she will be born a Chandali (Manuh).
There is no sin in a devout widow, whose object is eternal salvation,
wearing her hair. If she should shave, she will assuredly go to
hell. A Vaishnava widow should never shave her head. If she do so
through ignorance, her face should not be looked at (Vridd'ha Manuh
in Khagesvara Samhita).
If any one observe a Brahmachari beggar with his kachche (cloth passed
between the legs, and tucked in behind), a householder without it,
and a widow without hair on her head, he should at once plunge into
water with his clothes (Ananta Samhita).
It is considered highly meritorious for Vaishnava widows to wear
their hair, as long as they remain in this world (Hayagriva Samhita)."
In a note on the two sects of the Vaishnavas in the Madras Presidency,
the Rev. C. E. Kennet writes as follows [174]:--"While both the sects
acknowledge the Sanskrit books to be authoritative, the Vadagalai uses
them to a greater extent than the Thengalai. The former also recognises
and acknowledges the female energy as well as the male, though not in
the gross and sensual form in which it is worshipped among the Saivas,
but as being the feminine aspect of deity, and representing the grace
and merciful care of Providence; while the Tenkalai excludes its
agency in general, and, inconsistently enough, allows it co-operation
in the final salvation of a human soul. But the most curious difference
between the two schools is that relating to human salvation itself, and
is a reproduction in Indian minds of the European controversy between
Calvinists and Arminians. For the adherents of the Vadakalais strongly
insist on the concomitancy of the human will for securing salvation,
whereas those of the Tenkalai maintain the irresistability of divine
grace in human salvation. The arguments from analogy used by the two
parties respectively are, however, peculiarly Indian in character. The
former adopt what is called the monkey argument, the Markata Nyaya,
for the young monkey holds on to or grasps its mother to be conveyed
to safety, and represents the hold of the soul on God. The latter use
the cat argument, the Marjala Nyaya, which is expressive of the hold
of God on the soul; for the kitten is helpless until the mother-cat
seizes it nolens volens, and secures it from danger. The late Major
M. W. Carr inserts in his large collection of Telugu and Sanskrit
proverbs the following:--
"The monkey and its cub. As the cub clings to its mother, so man seeks
divine aid, and clings to his God. The doctrine of the Vadakalais.
"Like the cat and her kitten. The stronger carrying and protecting
the weaker; used to illustrate the free grace of God. The doctrine
of the Tenkalais.
"Leaving the speculative differences between these two sects, I
have now to mention the practical one which divides them, and which
has been, and continues to be, the principal cause of the fierce
contentions and long-drawn law suits between them. And this relates
to the exact mode of making the sectarian mark on the forehead. While
both sects wear a representation of Vishnu's trident, composed of
red or yellow for the middle line or prong of the trident, and of
white earth for those on each side, the followers of the Vadakalai
draw the middle line only down to the bridge of the nose, but those
of the Tenkalai draw it over the bridge a little way down the nose
itself. Each party maintain that their mode of making the mark is the
right one, and the only means of effecting a settlement of the dispute
is to ascertain how the idol itself is marked, whether as favouring the
Vadakalai or Tenkalai. But this has been found hitherto impossible,
I am told, for instance at Conjeveram itself, the head-quarters of
these disputes, owing to the unreliable and contradictory character
of the evidence produced in the Courts."
The Hebbar and Mandya sections belong to the Mysore Province, in
which the former are very numerous. The latter are few in number,
and confined to Mandya and Melkote. Some families have settled in the
city of Madras, where they are employed as merchants, bank clerks,
attorneys, etc.
The Mandyas say that they migrated to Mysore from some place near
Tirupati. Though both the Hebbar and Mandya Brahmans speak Tamil, some
details peculiar to Carnatakas are included in the marriage ceremonial.
The Vaishnava Sholiars are considered somewhat low in the social
scale. Intermarriage takes place between Smartha and Vaishnavite
Sholiars. The Vaikhanasas and Pancharatras are temple priests
(archakas). Both use as their title Dikshitar. Sometimes they are
called Nambi, but this term is more used to denote Satani temple
servants.
Reference may here be made to the Pattar Brahmans, who are Tamil
Brahmans, who have settled in Malabar. The name is said to be derived
from the Sanskrit bhatta. It is noted, in the Gazetteer of Malabar,
that "the Pattars present no peculiarities distinguishing them from
the ordinary East Coast Brahmans. Like the latter, they engage in
trade and business, and form a large proportion of the official,
legal, and scholastic classes. With the exception of one class known
as Chozhiya or Arya Pattars, they wear their kudumi (top-knot) on
the back of the head in the east coast fashion, and not on the top
and hanging over the forehead, as is done by the genuine Malayali
castes. They also live as a general rule in regular streets or
gramams on the east coast plan. Few Pattars, except in the Palghat
taluk, are large land-owners. As a class, they have embraced modern
educational facilities eagerly, so far as they subserve their material
prospects. Both Pattars and Embrandiris, but especially the latter,
have adopted the custom of contracting sambandham (alliance) with Nayar
women, but sambandham with the foreign Brahmans is not considered to
be so respectable as with Nambudiris, and, except in the Palghat taluk
(where the Nambudiri is rare), they are not allowed to consort with
the women of aristocratic families."
In connection with the Arya Pattars, it is recorded, in the
Travancore Census Report, 1901, that "the term Aryapattar means
superior Brahmins. But the actual position in society is not quite
that. At Ramesvaram, which may be considered the seat of Aryapattars,
their present status seems to be actually inferior, due probably, it
is believed, to their unhesitating acceptance of gifts from Sudras,
and to their open assumption of their priestly charge. Though at
present a small body in Malabar, they seem to have once flourished in
considerable numbers. In the case of large exogamous but high-caste
communities like the Kshatriyas of Malabar, Brahmin husbands were
naturally in great requisition, and when, owing to their high
spiritual ideals, the Brahmins of Malabar were either Grihasthas
or Snatakas (bachelor Sanyasins dedicating their life to study,
and to the performance of orthodox rites), the supply was probably
unequal to the demand. The scarcity was presumably added to when the
differences between the Kolattunat Royal Family and the Brahmins of
the Perinchellur gramam became so pronounced as to necessitate the
importing of Canarese and Tulu Brahmins for priestly services at their
homes and temples. The first immigration of Brahmins from the east
coast, called Aryapattars, into Malabar appears to have been under
the circumstances above detailed, and at the instance of the Rajas
of Cranganore. With the gradual lowering of the Brahminical ideal
throughout the Indian Peninsula, and with the increasing struggle for
physical existence, the Nambutiris entered or re-entered the field, and
ousted the Aryapattars first from consortship, and latterly even from
the ceremony of tali-tying in families that could pay a Nambutiri. The
Aryapattar has, in his turn, trespassed into the ranks of the Nayars,
and has begun to undertake the religious rite of marriage, i.e.,
tali-tying, in aristocratic families among them. There are only two
families now in all Travancore, and they live in the Karunagapalli
taluk. Malayalam is their household tongue; in dress and personal
habits, they are indistinguishable from Malayala Brahmins. The males
marry into as high a class of Brahmins as they could get in Malabar,
which is not generally higher than that of the Potti. The Potti woman
thus married gets rather low in rank on account of this alliance. The
daughter of an Aryapattar cannot be disposed of to a Brahminical
caste in Malabar. She is taken to the Tinnevelly or Madura district,
and married into the regular Aryapattar family according to the rites
of the latter. The girl's dress is changed into the Tamil form on
the eve of her marriage."
III. Andhra.--The Telugu-speaking Brahmans are all Andhras, who differ
from Tamil Brahmans in some of their marriage and death ceremonies,
female attire, and sectarian marks. Telugu Brahman women wear their
cloth without passing it between the legs, and the free end of the
skirt is brought over the left shoulder. The sect mark consists of
three horizontal streaks of sacred ashes on the forehead, or a single
streak of sandal paste (gandham). In the middle of the streak is a
circular black spot (akshintalu or akshintalu bottu). The marriage
badge is a circular plate of gold, called bottu, attached to a thread,
on which black glass beads are frequently strung. A second bottu,
called nagavali bottu, is tied on the bride's neck on the nagavali
day. During the time when the bridegroom is performing the vrata
ceremony, the bride is engaged in the worship of Gauri. She sits in a
new basket filled with paddy (unhusked rice) or cholam (Andropogon
Sorghum). On the return from the mock pilgrimage (kasiyatra),
the bride and bridegroom sit facing each other on the dais, with
a screen interposed between them. Just before the bottu is tied on
the bride's neck by the bridegroom, the screen is lowered. During
the marriage ceremony, both the bride and bridegroom wear clothes
dyed with turmeric, until the nagavali day. Among Tamil Brahmans,
the bridegroom wears a turmeric-dyed cloth, and the bride may wear a
silk cloth. Immediately after the tying of the bottu, the contracting
couple throw rice over each other, and those assembled pour rice over
their heads. This is called Talambralu.
Taken as a class, the Telugu Brahmans are very superstitious, and
the females perform a very large number of vratams. Of the vratams
performed by Telugu and Canarese females, both Brahman and non-Brahman,
the following account is given in the Manual of the Nellore district. A
very favourite deity is Gauri, in honour of whom many of the rites
hereafter noticed are performed. These ceremonies give a vivid idea of
the hopes and fears, the aspirations, and the forebodings of Hindu
womanhood. The following ceremonies are practised by girls after
betrothal, and before union with their husbands:--
Atlataddi.--On the third day after the full moon, an early meal before
sunrise, the worship of Gauri in the afternoon, and the presentation of
ten cakes to ten matrons upon the dismissal of the deity invoked. The
object is to secure a young agreeable husband.
Uppu (salt).--This consists in making a present to any matron of a
pot of salt, full to the brim, at the end of the year, with the view
to secure a long enjoyment of the married state.
Akshayabandar.--This consists in making a present of a pot full of
turmeric to any matron at the end of the year, with a view to avert
the calamity of widowhood.
Udayakunkuma.--Putting the red kunkuma mark on the foreheads of five
matrons before sunrise, with the object of being always able to wear
the same mark on her own forehead, i.e., never to become a widow.
Padiharukudumulu.--The presentation of sixteen cakes once a year for
sixteen years to a matron. This is for the attaining of wealth.
Kartika Gauri Devi.--Exhibiting to a matron the antimony box, with
a preparation of which the eyes are trimmed to give the brilliancy,
and wearing on the head turmeric rice (akshatalu). The object of this
is said to be to give sight to blind relatives.
Kandanomi.--Abstaining for a year from the use of arum (Amorphophallus
Campanulatus), of which the corms are an article of food), and
presenting a matron with a silver and gold representation of a kanda
to be worn on the neck. The object to be attained is that she who
performs the rite may never have to shed tears.
Gummadi Gauri Devi.--The presentation at the end of the year to a
matron of a pumpkin in the morning, and another in the afternoon,
with a silver one at food time, and a gold one to be worn round the
neck. This is for the prolongation of married life.
Gandala Gauri Devi.--The distribution of twenty-five different sorts of
things, twenty-five to be distributed to matrons at the rate of five
of each sort to each. The object of this is to avert evil accidents
of all kinds, which may threaten the husband.
Chittibottu.--Making the kunkuma marks on the foreheads of five
matrons in the morning, for the attainment of wealth.
Isalla Chukka.--Rubbing butter-milk, turmeric, kunkuma, and sandalwood
paste on the threshold of the door. The object is the same as in
the last.
Tavita Navomi.--To avoid touching bran for any purpose, for the
prolongation of married life.
Nitya Srungaram.--Offering betel nut, and putting the kunkuma mark
on the face of a matron, for the purpose of securing perpetual beauty.
Nallapusala Gauri Devi.--The presentation to a matron of a hundred
black beads with one gold one, the object being again to avert
widowhood.
Mocheti Padmam.--The worship of some deity, and the making of the
forehead mark (bottlu) for four matrons in the first year, eight
in the second, and so on, increasing the number by four each year
for twenty-seven years, being the number of certain stars. This
presentation has to be made in silence. The object is the attainment
of enduring wealth.
Mogamudo sellu.--The performer washes her face thirteen times daily
in a brass vessel, and offers to some matron some rice, a pearl,
and a coral.
Undrallatadde.--On the thirteenth day after the full moon, taking food
before sunrise, the girl worships the goddess Gauri in the afternoon,
and, at the time of dismissing the deity invoked (udyapana), she
presents five round cakes to as many matrons. The object of this is
to secure her future husband's affections.
Vara Lakshmi.--The worship of the goddess Lakshmi for the attainment
of wealth and salvation, or to make the best of both worlds.
Vavila Gauri Devi.--In order to avert the risk of all accidents
for her future lord, the devotee, on each of the four Tuesdays of
the month Sravana, worships the goddess Gauri Devi, and distributes
Bengal gram to married women.
Savitri Gauri Devi.--The offering of nine different articles on nine
different days after the sun has entered the solstice, the sign of
Capricorn. This is also practised to secure a husband's affection.
Tsaddikutimangalavaram.--This is a piece of self-mortification, and
consists in eating on every Tuesday for one year nothing but cold
rice boiled the previous day, and feeding a matron with the same.
The following are some of the ceremonies practised by young women
after attaining a marriageable age:--
Prabatcha Adivaram.--Offering worship to a married couple, and limiting
the taking of food to a single meal on Sunday. This is done with the
object of having children.
Apadaleni Adivaram.--Taking but one meal every Sunday, and making a
presentation to five matrons of five cakes with a flat basket of rice,
body jackets, and other things. This is for the procuring of wealth.
Adivaram (Sunday).--Total abstinence from some one article of food for
one year, another article the next year, and so on for five years;
also limitation to a single meal every Sunday, and the presentation
of cloths to Brahmans upon the dismissal of the deity invoked for
worship. The object of this seems to be to secure re-union with the
husband after death.
Chappitti Adivaram.--Abstinence from salt on every Sunday for a year,
with a view to secure the longevity of children.
Udayapadmam.--To take for one year a daily bath, and to draw the
representation of a lotus with rice-flour every morning near the sacred
tulasi plant (Ocimum sanctum), which is kept in many Hindu households,
growing on an altar of masonry. The object of this is to restore a
dead husband to life again, i.e., to secure re-union in another life.
Krishna Tulasi.--To avert widowhood, those who perform this rite
present thirteen pairs of cakes in a gold cup to a Brahman.
Kartika Chalimidi.--The distribution of chalimidi, which is flour
mixed with sugar water, for three years; in the first year one and
a half seer of rice, in the second year two and a half seers, and in
the third year twenty-six seers, the object sought being to restore
life to children that may die, i.e., restoration in another world.
Kailasa Gauri Devi.--To grind one and a half viss (a measure) of
turmeric without assistance in perfect silence, and then distribute
it among 101 matrons, the object being to avert widowhood.
Dhairya Lakshmi.--As a charm against tears, matrons light a magic
light, which must have a cotton wick of the weight of one pagoda (a
gold coin), and, instead of a quarter of a viss of ghee, clarified
butter.
Dhanapalalu.--Giving four different sorts of grain for five years to
a Brahman, to atone for the sin of the catamenial discharge.
Nadikesudu.--The distribution of five seers each of nine different
sorts of grain, which must be dressed and eaten in the house. This
is done for the procuring of wealth.
Nityadhanyamu.--Daily giving a handful of grain to any Brahmin with
the object of averting widowhood.
Phalala Gauri Devi.--This is performed by the presentation of sixteen
fruits of sixteen different species to any married woman, with the
view of securing healthy offspring.
Pamidipuvulu.--With the view to avert widowhood and secure influence
with their husbands, young wives practise the daily worship of
thirteen flowers for a time, and afterwards present to a Brahmin the
representations of thirteen flowers in gold, together with a lingam
and panavattam (the seat of the lingam).
Muppadimudupurnamulu.--To avert widowhood, cakes are offered on the
occasion of thirty-three full-moons; on the first one cake is eaten,
on the second two, and so on up to thirty-three.
Mudukartelu.--For the attainment of wealth, women light seven
hundred cotton wicks steeped in oil at the three festivals of full
moon, Sankuratri (the time when the sun enters the zodiacal sign of
Capricorn), and Sivaratri.
Magha Gauri Devi.--The worship of the goddess Gauri in the month of
Magham, with a view to avert widowhood.
Vishnukanta.--For the same purpose, thirteen pairs of cakes are
offered in a new pot to some married woman.
Vishnuvidia.--To atone for the sin of the catamenial discharge,
food is eaten without salt on the second day after every new moon.
Sokamuleni Somavaram.--The taking of food without salt every Monday,
for the restoration of children removed by death.
Chitraguptulu.--Burning twelve wicks daily in oil, for the attainment
of happiness in a future state.
Sukravaram.--For the acquisition of wealth, women sometimes limit
themselves to one meal on Fridays, and feed five married women on
each occasion of dismissing the deity invoked for worship.
Saubhagyatadde.--To avert widowhood, another practice is on the third
day after every new moon to distribute, unassisted and in silence,
one and a quarter viss of turmeric among thirteen matrons.
Kshirabdhi Dvadasi.--Keeping a fast day specially devoted to the
worship of Vishnu, with a view to secure happiness in a future state.
Chinuku.--A woman takes a stalk of Indian corn fresh pulled up,
and with it pounds rice-flour mixed with milk in a mortar. This is
to avert widowhood in this world, and to secure happiness in the next.
Women who have lost children frequently perform the following two
ceremonies for restoration to life or restoration in a future state:--
Kundella Amavasya (hare's new moon).--To give thirteen different
things to some married woman every new moon for thirteen months.
Kadupukadalani Gauri Devi.--The presentation of thirteen pairs of
cakes to thirteen matrons.
The following ceremonies are often performed after the cessation of
the catamenial discharge, to atone for the sin contracted by their
occurrence:--
Annamumuttani Adivaram.--The eating of yams and other roots every
Sunday for three years, or, under certain conditions, a longer period.
Rushipanchami.--On the fifth day of Bhadrapada month to eat five balusu
(Canthium parviflorum) leaves, and to drink a handful of ghee.
Gomayani.--To eat three balls of cow-dung every morning for a year.
Lakshvattulu.--To burn one lac (100,000) of wick lights.
Lakshmivarapu Ekadasi.--From the time when the eleventh day after
new moon falls on a Thursday, to observe a fast, and to worship the
tulasi plant for eleven days.
Margasira Lakshmivaram.--The mistress of a family will often devote
herself to the worship of Lakshmi on every Thursday of the month of
Margasira, in order to propitiate the goddess of wealth.
Somisomavaram.--A special worship performed on every new moon that
falls on Monday, with the giving away of 360 articles, two or three on
each occasion. This is performed with the view of attaining atonement
for sins, and happiness in a future state.
There are many ceremonies performed by women to whom nature has denied
the much-coveted joys of maternity. Among these may be noted:--
Asvadhapradakshinam.--In villages is often to be seen a margosa
(Melia Azadirachta)tree, round which a pipul tree (Ficus religiosa)
has twined itself. The ceremony consists in a woman walking round
and round this tree several times daily for a long period.