Aswini, Strychnos Nux-vomica.
Bharani, Phyllanthus Emblica.
Krithikai, Ficus glomerata.
Puram, Butea frondosa.
Hastham, Sesbania grandiflora.
Thiruvonam, Calotropis gigantea.
Uththirattadhi, Melia Azadirachta.
Some of the trees are classed as milky, and others as dry. The young
man's tree should be dry, and that of the girl milky, or both milky.
10. Pakshi (birds).--Certain asterisms also belong to birds, and the
birds of the pair should be on friendly terms, e.g., peacock and fowl.
11. Jadi (caste).--The zodiacal signs are grouped into castes as
follows:--
Brahman, Karkatakam, Minam, and Dhanus.
Kshatriya, Mesham, Vrischikam.
Vaisya, Kumbam, Thulam.
Sudra, Rishabam, Makaram.
Lower castes, Midhunam, Singam, and Kanni.
The young man should be of a higher caste, according to the zodiacal
signs, than the girl.
After ascertaining the agreement of the pair, some close relations
of the young man proceed to some distance northward, and wait
for omens. If the omens are auspicious, they are satisfied. Some,
instead of so going, go to a temple, and seek the omens either by
placing flowers on the idol, and watching the direction in which
they fall, or by picking up a flower from a large number strewn in
front of the idol. If the flower picked up, and the one thought of,
are of the same colour, it is regarded as a good omen. The betrothal
ceremony is an important event. As soon as the people have assembled,
the bridegroom's party place in their midst the pariyam cloth and
jewels. Some responsible person inspects them, and, on his pronouncing
that they are correct, permission is given to draw up the lagna
patrika (letter of invitation, containing the date of marriage,
etc.). Vigneswara (the elephant god Ganesa) is then worshipped,
with the lagna patrika in front of him. This is followed by the
announcement of the forthcoming marriage by the purohit (priest),
and the settlement of the amount of the pariyam (bride's money). For
the marriage celebration, a pandal (booth) is erected, and a dais,
constructed of clay and laterite earth, is set up inside it. From
the day on which the pandal is erected until the wedding day, the
contracting couple have to go through the nalagu ceremony separately or
together. This consists in having their bodies smeared with turmeric
paste (Phaseolus Mungo paste), and gingelly (Sesamum) oil. On the
wedding day, the bridegroom, after a clean shave, proceeds to the house
of the bride. The finger and toe-nails of the bride are cut. The pair
offer pongal (boiled rice) to the family deity and their ancestors. A
square space is cleared in the centre of the dais for the sacred fire
(homam). A many-branched lamp, representing the thousand-eyed Indra,
is placed to the east of the square. The purohit, who is regarded
as equivalent to Yama (the god of death), and a pot with a lamp on
it representing Agni devata, occupy the south-east corner. Women
representing Niruti (a devata) are posted in the south-west corner.
The direction of Varuna (the god of water) being west, the bridegroom
occupies this position. The best man, who represents Vayu (the god of
wind) is placed in the north-west corner. As the position of Kubera
(the god of wealth) is the north, a person, with a bag full of money,
is seated on that side. A grinding-stone and roller, representing
Siva and Sakthi, are placed in the north-east corner, and, at their
side, pans containing nine kinds of seedlings, are set. Seven pots
are arranged in a row between the grinding-stone and the branched
lamp. Some married women bring water from seven streams or seven
different places, and pour it into a pot in front of the lamp. The
milk-post (pal kambam) is set up between the lamp and the row of
pots. This post is usually made of twigs of Ficus religiosa, Ficus
bengalensis, and Erythrina indica, tied together and representing
Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. Sometimes, however, twigs of Odina Wodier,
and green bamboo sticks, are substituted. At the close of the marriage
ceremonies, the Erythrina or Odina twig is planted, and it is regarded
as a good sign if it takes root and grows. The sacred fire is kindled,
and the bridegroom goes through the upanayana (thread investiture)
and other ceremonies. He then goes away from the house in procession
(paradesa pravesam), and is met by the bride's father, who brings him
back to the pandal. The bride's father and mother then wash his feet,
and rings are put on his toes (kalkattu, or tying the leg). The purohit
gives the bridegroom a thread (kankanam), and, after washing the feet
of the bride's father and mother, ties it on his wrist. A thread is
also tied on the left wrist of the bride. The pair being seated in
front of the sacred fire, a ceremony called Nandisradham (memorial
service to ancestors) is performed, and new clothes are given to the
pair. The next item is the tying of the tali (marriage badge). The
tali is usually tied on a turmeric-dyed thread, placed on a cocoanut,
and taken round to be blessed by all present. Then the purohit gives
the tali to the bridegroom, and he ties it on the bride's neck amidst
silence, except for the music played by the barber or Melakkaran
musicians. While the tali is being tied, the bridegroom's sister
stands behind the bride, holding a lamp in her hand. The bridegroom
ties one knot, and his sister ties two knots. After the tali-tying,
small plates of gold or silver, called pattam, are tied on the
foreheads of the pair, and presents of money and cloths are made to
them by their relations and friends. They then go seven times round
the pandal, and, at the end of the seventh round, they stand close to
the grinding-stone, on which the bridegroom places the bride's left
foot. They take their seats on the dais, and the bridegroom, taking
some parched rice (pori) from the bride's brother, puts it in the
sacred fire. Garlands of flowers are given to the bride and bridegroom,
who put them on, and exchange them three or five times. They then
roll flowers made into a ball. This is followed by the waving of
arathi (coloured water), and circumambulation of the pandal by the
pair, along with the ashtamangalam or eight auspicious things, viz.,
the bridesmaid, best man, lamp, vessel filled with water, mirror,
ankusam (elephant goad), white chamara (yak's tail fly-flapper), flag
and drum. Generally the pair go three times round the pandal, and,
during the first turn, a cocoanut is broken near the grinding-stone,
and the bride is told that it is Siva, and the roller Sakthi, the two
combined being emblematical of Ardanarisvara, a bisexual representation
of Siva and Parvathi. During the second round, the story of Arundati
is repeated to the bride. Arundati was the wife of the Rishi Vasishta,
and is looked up to as a model of conjugal fidelity. The morning star
is supposed to be Arundati, and the purohit generally points it out
to the bridal pair at the close of the ceremonial, which terminates
with three homams. The wedding may be concluded in a single day,
or last for two or three days.
The dead are either buried or cremated. The corpse is carried to the
burning or burial-ground on a bier or palanquin. As the Agamudaiyans
are Saivites, Pandarams assist at the funeral ceremonies. On the second
or third day after death, the son and others go to the spot where the
corpse was buried or burnt, and offer food, etc., to the deceased. A
pot of water is left at the spot. Those who are particular about
performing the death ceremonies on an elaborate scale offer cooked food
to the soul of dead person until the fifteenth day, and carry out the
final death ceremonies (karmandhiram) on the sixteenth day. Presents
are then given to Brahmans, and, after the death pollution has been
removed by sprinkling with holy water (punyaham), a feast is given
to the relatives.
The Agamudaiyans worship various minor deities, such as Aiyanar,
Pidari, and Karupannaswami.
Agaru.--Agaru, or Avaru, is recorded, in the Madras Census Report,
1901, as a small caste of Telugu cultivators in Vizagapatam and
Ganjam, who are also sellers of vegetables and betel leaves. Agaru
is said to mean betel in their language, which they call Bhasha,
and contains a good deal of Oriya. An extensive colony of Agarus is
settled at Nellimerla near Vizianagram. Both males and females engage
in the cultivation of the betel vine, and different kinds of greens,
which find a ready sale in the Vizianagram market. Marriage is usually
after puberty, and an Oriya Brahman officiates. The dead are burnt.
Agarwal.--A few members of this Upper India trading caste, who deal
in grain and jewellery, and are also bankers and usurers, have been
returned at times of census.
Agasa.--In the South Canara district, there are three distinct classes
of washermen, viz., (1) Konkani Christians; (2) Canarese-speaking
washermen, who seem to be allied to the Agasas of Mysore; (3)
Tulu-speaking washermen. The Tulu-speaking Agasas follow the aliya
santana law of inheritance (in the female line). Madivala (madi, a
clean cloth) is a synonym for Agasa. The word Agasa is derived from
agasi, a turban.
The Agasas of Mysore have been described as follows. [53] "The Agasa
is a member of the village hierarchy, his office being hereditary,
and his remuneration being grain fees from the ryots. Besides washing,
he occasionally ekes out his substance by carrying on his donkeys
grain from place to place. He is also employed in bearing the torch
in marriage and other public ceremonies. The principal object of
worship is the pot of boiling water (ubbe), in which dirty clothes
are steeped. Animals are sacrificed to the god with the view of
preventing the clothes being burnt in the ubbe pot. Under the name
of Bhuma Deva, there are temples dedicated to this god in some large
towns, the service being conducted by pujaris (priests) of the Agasa
caste. The Agasas are Vishnuvaits, and pray to Vishnu, Pattalamma,
and the Saktis. Their gurus (religious preceptors) are Satanis. A
unique custom is attached to the washerman's office. When a girl-wife
attains puberty, it is the duty and privilege of the washerman to carry
the news, accompanied by certain presents, to her husband's parents,
for which the messenger is duly rewarded."
The Tulu Madivalas of the South Canara district, like other Tulu
castes, have exogamous septs or balis. They will wash clothes for
all castes above the Billavas. They also supply cloths for decorating
the marriage booth and funeral cars, and carry torches. They worship
bhuthas (devils), of whom the principal one seems to be Jumadi. At
the time of kolas (bhutha festivals), the Madivalas have the right
to cut off the heads of the fowls or goats, which are sacrificed. The
animals are held by Pombadas or Paravas, and the Madivala decapitates
them. On the seventh day after the birth of a child, the washerwoman
ties a thread round its waist. For purificatory ceremonies, the
Madivali should give washed clothes to those under pollution.
In their ceremonial observances, the Madivalas closely follow the
Bants. In some places, they have a headman called, as among the Bants,
Gurikara or Guttinaya. At marriages, the pouring of the dhare water
over the united hands of the bride and bridegroom is the duty of the
father or maternal uncle of the bride, not of the headman.
Some Maratha washermen call themselves Dandu (army) Agasa.
The insigne of the washermen at Conjeeveram is a pot, such as that
in which clothes are boiled.
Agastya (the name of a sage).--An exogamous sept of Kondaiyamkottai
Maravans.
Agni (fire).--An exogamous sept of the Kurubas and Gollas, and
sub-division of the Pallis or Vanniyans. The equivalent Aggi occurs as
an exogamous sept of Boya. The Pallis claim to be Agnikula Kshatriyas,
i.e., to belong to the fire race of Kshatriyas.
Agraharekala.--A sub-division of Bhatrazu, meaning those who belong
to the agraharam, or Brahman quarter of a village.
Ahir.--A few members of this Upper India caste of cowherds have been
returned at times of census.
Ahmedi.--Returned, at times of census, as a general name for
Muhammadans.
Aivattukuladavaru (people of fifty families).--A synonym for Bakuda.
Aiya.--Aiya or Ayya, meaning father, is the title of many classes,
which include Dasari, Devanga, Golla, Idiga, Jangam, Konda Dora,
Komati, Koppala Velama, Linga Balija, Mangala, Muka Dora, Paidi,
Satani, Servegara, and Tambala. It is further a title of the
Patnulkarans, who claim to be Brahmans, and a sub-division of the
Tamil Pallans.
Aiyar occurs very widely as a title among Tamil Brahmans, and is
replaced in the Telugu and Canarese countries by Bhatlu, Pantulu, and
Sastrulu. It is noted by the Rev. A. Margöschis that "the honorific
title Aiyar was formerly used exclusively by Brahmans, but has now
come to be used by every native clergyman. The name which precedes
the title will enable us to discover whether the man is Christian
or Hindu. Thus Yesudian Aiyar means the Aiyar who is the servant of
Jesus." The Rev. G. U. Pope, the well-known Tamil scholar, was known
as Pope Aiyar.
Aiyanar.--A sub-division of Kallan, named after Aiyanar, the only
male deity among the Grama Devata or village deities.
Aiyarakulu.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Aiyarakam is summed
up as being a caste of Telugu cultivators, who, in their social
and religious observances, closely follow the Kapus and Balijas, may
intermarry with Telagas, and will accept drinking water from the hands
of Gollas. According to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao, to whom I am indebted
for the following note, the Aiyarakulu are a section of Kapus, who
rose in the social scale by Royal favour. The name is derived from
aiya and rikam, denoting the act of being an aiya or distinguished
person. The Aiyarakulu state that their forefathers were soldiers in
the Vizianagram army, and rendered great services to the Rajas. They
have a story to the effect that, on one occasion, they proceeded on an
expedition against a Golconda force, and gave so much trouble to the
Muhammadan commander thereof that, after putting them to the sword,
he proceeded to their own country, to destroy their homes. On hearing
of this, the women, dressing themselves in male attire, advanced with
bayonets and battle-axes against the Muhammadans, and drove them off
in great disorder. The Raja, in return for their gallant conduct,
adorned their legs with silver bangles, such as the women still wear
at the present day.
The Aiyarakulu are divided into gotras, such as naga (cobra), tabelu
(tortoise), etc., which are strictly totemistic, and are further
divided into exogamous septs or intiperulu. The custom of menarikam,
according to which a man should marry his maternal uncle's daughter,
is in force. Girls are married before puberty, and a Brahman officiates
at the wedding rites, during which the bride and bridegroom wear silver
sacred threads, which are subsequently converted into rings. Some
Aiyarakulu call themselves Razus, and wear the sacred thread, but
interdine and intermarry with other members of the community. The
remarriage of widows, and divorce are forbidden.
The principal occupation of the Aiyarakulus is cultivating, but, in
some parts, many of them are cart-drivers plying between the plains
of Vizagapatam and the Agency tracts. The usual title of members of
the caste is Patrudu.
Akasam (sky).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.
Akattu Charna.--A sub-division of Nayar.
Akattulavar.--A name, indicating those inside (in seclusion or gosha),
by which Nambutiri and Elayad and other females are called.
Akshantala (rice grain).--A gotra of Odde. Akshathayya is the name
of a gotra of Gollas, who avoid rice coloured with turmeric and
other materials.
Akula (betel leaf: Piper Betle).--An exogamous sept of Kamma and
Bonthuk Savara, and a sub-division of Kapu. The presentation of betel
leaves and areca nuts, called pan-supari, as a complimentary offering
is a wide-spread Indian custom.
Ala.--A sub-division of Golla.
Alagi (pot).--An exogamous sept of Vakkaliga.
Alavan.--The Alavans are summed up, in the Madras Census Report,
1901, as "workers in salt-pans, who are found only in Madura and
Tinnevelly. Their titles are Pannaiyan and Muppan. They are not allowed
to enter Hindu temples." In the Travancore Census Report, 1901, it is
recorded that "the Alavans or Uppalavans (salt Alavans) are so called
because they work in alams or salt-pans. Three or four centuries ago,
seven families of them are said to have been brought over from the
Pandyan territory to Travancore, to work in the salt-pans. It is said
that there are at Tamarakkulam, Puttalam, and other places in South
Travancore, inscriptions recording their immigration, but these have
not been deciphered. They speak Tamil. They are flesh-eaters. Drinking
is rare among them. Burial was the rule in ancient days, but now the
dead are sometimes burned. Tattooing is a general custom. The tutelary
deities are Sasta and Bhadrakali. As a class the Alavans are very
industrious. There are no better salt labourers in all Southern India."
Albino.--The picture drawn by the Abbé Dubois [54] of albino Natives is
not a pleasant one. "This extreme fairness," he says, "is unnatural,
and makes them very repulsive to look at. In fact, these unfortunate
beings are objects of horror to every one, and even their parents
desert them. They are looked upon as lepers. They are called Kakrelaks
as a term of reproach. Kakrelaks are horrible insects, disgustingly
dirty, which give forth a loathsome odour, and shun the day and its
light. The question has been raised as to whether these degenerate
individuals can produce children like themselves, and afflicted with
nyctalopia. Such a child has never come under my observation; but I
once baptised the child of a female Kakrelak, who owed its birth to
a rash European soldier. These unfortunate wretches are denied decent
burial after death, and are cast into ditches."
This reference to albinos by the observant Abbé may be amplified
by the notes taken on several albino Natives in Madras and Mysore,
which show, inter alia, that the lot of the present day albino is
not an unhappy one.
Chinna Abboye, æt. 35. Shepherd caste. Rope (insigne of office) round
waist for driving cattle, and tying the legs of cows when milking
them. Yellowish-white hair where long, as in the kudumi. Bristles
on top of shaved head pure white. Greenish-brown iris. Father dark;
mother, like himself, has white hair and pink skin. One brother an
albino, married. One child of the usual Native type. Cannot see well
in glare of sunlight, but sees better towards sunset. Screws his
eyelids into transverse slits. Mother kind to him.
Vembu Achari, æt. 20. Artist. Kudumi (top-knot) yellowish-white. White
eyebrows and moustache. Bright pink lips, and pink complexion. Iris
light blue with pink radiating striæ and pink peripheral zone. Sees
best in the evening when the sun is low on the horizon. Screws up his
eyelids to act as a diaphragm. Mother, father, brothers and sisters,
all of the ordinary Native type. No relations albino, as far as he
knows. Engaged to be married. People like himself are called chevapu
(red-coloured), or, in derision, vellakaran (European or white
man). Children sometimes make game of him, but people generally are
kind to him.
Moonoosawmy, æt. 45. Belongs to the weaver class, and is a well-to-do
man. Albino. Had an albino sister, and a brother of the ordinary
type. Is the father of ten children, of whom five are albinos. They
are on terms of equality with the other members of their community, and
one daughter is likely to be married to the son of a prosperous man.
----, æt. 22. Fisherman caste. Albino. His maternal uncle had an
albino daughter. Has four brothers, of whom two are albinos. Cannot
stand the glare of the sun, and is consequently unable to do outdoor
work. Moves freely among the members of his community, and could
easily secure a wife, if he was in a position to support one.
----, æt. 36. Rajput. Hardware merchant. His father, of ordinary Native
type, had twelve children, five of whom were albino, by an albino wife,
whose brother was also albino. Married to a woman of Native type,
and had one non-albino child. His sister, of ordinary Native type,
has two albino children. Iris light blue. Hair yellowish. Complexion
pink. Keeps left eye closed, and looks through a slit between eyelids
of right eye. People call him in Canarese kempuava (red man). They
are kind to him.
Alia.--The Alias are an Oriya cultivating caste, found mainly in
the Gumsur taluk of Ganjam. In the Madras Census Report, 1891, it is
suggested that the name is derived from the Sanskrit holo, meaning a
plough. The further suggestions have been made that it is derived from
alo, meaning crop, or from Ali, a killa or taluk of Orissa, whence
the Aliyas have migrated. In social position the Alias rank below
the Bhondaris and Odiyas, who will not accept water touched by them.
Various titles occur within the caste, e.g., Biswalo, Bonjo, Bariko,
Jenna, Kampo, Kondwalo, Lenka, Mahanti, Molla Nahako, Patro, Podhano,
Podiyali, Ravuto, Siyo, and Swayi. Like other Oriya castes, the Alias
have gotras, and the marriage rules based on titles and gotras are
peculiar. A Podhano man may, for example, marry a Podhano girl,
if their gotras are different. Further, two people, whose gotras
are the same, may marry if they have a different title. Thus, a man,
whose gotra is Goru and title Podhano, may marry a girl of a family
of which the gotra is Goru, but title other than Podhano.
Infant marriage is the rule, and, if a girl does not secure a
husband before she reaches maturity, she goes through a mock marriage
ceremony, in which the bridegroom is represented by a brass vessel
or an arrow. Like many other Oriya castes, the Aliyas follow the
Chaitanya form of Vaishnavism, and also worship various Takuranis
(village deities).
Alige (drum).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba.
Aliya Santanam.--Inheritance in the female line. The equivalent,
in the Canara country, of the Malayali marumakkathayam.
Allam (ginger).--An exogamous sept of Mala.
Allikulam (lily clan).--Returned, at times of census, as a sub-division
of Anappan.
Alvar.--An exogamous sept of Toreya. Alvar is a synonym of Garuda,
the winged vehicle of Vishnu. Alvar Dasari occurs as a sub-division
of Valluvans, which claims descent from Tiruppan Alvar, one of the
Vaishnava saints.
Amaravatiyavaru.--A name, denoting people of Amaravati on the Kistna
river, recorded [55] as a sub-division of Desabhaga Madigas. Amaravati
also occurs as a sub-division, or nadu, of Vallamban.
Ambalakkaran.--In the Madras Census Report, 1891, Mr. H. A. Stuart
writes that "Ambalakkaran (ambalam, an open place [56]) is the usual
designation of a head of a village in the Maravan and Kallan districts,
and it is, or was the common agnomen of Kallans. I am not able to
state what is the precise connection between the Ambalakkaran and
Kallan castes, but, from some accounts which I have obtained, the
Ambalakkarans seem to be very closely connected, if not identical
with Muttiriyans (Telugu Mutracha), who have been classed as village
watchmen; and this is borne out by the sub-divisions returned, for,
though no less than 109,263 individuals have given Ambalakkaran as the
sub-division also, yet, of the sub-divisions returned, Muttiriyan and
Mutracha are the strongest. Marriage is usually deferred until after
puberty, and widow re-marriage is permitted, but there does not seem
to be the same freedom of divorce at will as is found among Kallans,
Maravans, etc. The dead are either burnt or buried. The consumption
of flesh and liquor is allowed. Their usual agnomen is said to be
Servaikkaran, but the titles Muttiriyan, Ambalakkaran, Malavarayan,
Mutarasan, and Vannian are also used. The usual agnomen of Muttiriyans,
on the other hand, is said to be Nayakkan (Naik)."
In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Ambalakkarans are summed up
as follows. "A Tamil caste of cultivators and village watchmen. Till
recently the term Ambalakkaran was considered to be a title of the
Kallans, but further enquiries have shown that it is the name of
a distinct caste, found chiefly in the Trichinopoly district. The
Ambalakkarans and Muttiriyans of a village in Musiri taluk wrote a
joint petition, protesting against their being classified as Kallans,
but nevertheless it is said that the Kallans of Madura will not eat in
Ambalakkaran's houses. There is some connection between Ambalakkarans,
Muttiriyans, Mutrachas, Uralis, Vedans, Valaiyans, and Vettuvans. It
seems likely that all of them are descended from one common parent
stock. Ambalakkarans claim to be descended from Kannappa Nayanar,
one of the sixty-three Saivite saints, who was a Vedan or hunter by
caste. In Tanjore the Valaiyans declare themselves to have a similar
origin, and in that district Ambalakkaran and Muttiriyan seem to
be synonymous with Valaiyan. [Some Valaiyans have Ambalakkaran as a
title.] Moreover, the statistics of the distribution of the Valaiyans
show that they are numerous in the districts where Ambalakkarans are
few, and vice versâ, which looks as though certain sections of them
had taken to calling themselves Ambalakkarans. The upper section
of the Ambalakkarans style themselves Pillai, which is a title
properly belonging to Vellalas, but the others are usually called
Muppan in Tanjore, and Ambalakkaran, Muttiriyan, and Servaigaran
in Trichinopoly. The headman of the caste panchayat (council) is
called the Kariyakkaran, and his office is hereditary in particular
families. Each headman has a peon called the Kudi-pillai, whose duty it
is to summon the panchayat when necessary, and to carry messages. For
this he gets an annual fee of four annas from each family of the caste
in his village. The caste has certain endogamous sections. Four of
them are said to be Muttiriyan or Mutracha, Kavalgar, Vanniyan, and
Valaiyan. A member of any one of these is usually prohibited by the
panchayats from marrying outside it on pain of excommunication. Their
customs are a mixture of those peculiar to the higher castes and those
followed by the lower ones. Some of them employ Brahmans as purohits
(priests), and wear the sacred thread at funerals and sraddhas
(memorial services for the dead). Yet they eat mutton, pork, and
fowls, drink alcohol, and allow the marriage of widows and divorced
women." Muttiriyan and Kavalgar both mean watchman. Vanniyan is
certainly a separate caste, some members of which take Ambalakkaran as
a title. The Ambalakkarans are apparently Valaiyans, who have separated
themselves from the main stock on account of their prosperity.
For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. F. R. Hemingway. The
Ambalakkarans or Muttiriyans are more numerous in the
Trichinopoly district and Pudukkottai than in any other part of the
Presidency. Though they have been treated as separate castes, they
appear to be one and the same in this district, generally calling
themselves Muttiriyan in the Trichinopoly taluk, and Ambalakkaran
elsewhere, and having no objection to either name. They admit they are
called Valaiyans, but repudiate any connection with the caste of that
name, and explain the appellation by a story that, when Siva's ring
was swallowed by a fish in the Ganges, one of their ancestors invented
the first net (valai) made in the world. As relics of their former
greatness they point to the thousand-pillared mantapam at Srirangam,
which is called muttarasan koradu, and a big matam at Palni, both
of which, they say, were built by their kings. To the latter every
household of the caste subscribes four annas annually. They say that
they were born of the sweat (muttu, a pearl or bead of perspiration)
of Parama-siva. The caste is divided into a number of nadus, the
names and number of which are variously given. Some of these are
Ettarai, Koppu, Adavattur, Tirampalaiyam, Vimanayakkanpalaiyam in
the Trichinopoly taluk, and Amur, Savindippatti, and Karungali in
Musiri taluk. Widow remarriage is allowed in some of these nadus,
and not in others. They use the titles Muttiriyan, Ambalakkaran,
Servaikaran, and Kavalkaran. They admit their social inferiority to
the Vellalans, Kallans, Nattamans, and Reddis, from all of whom they
will accept meals, but consider themselves superior to Pallis, Uralis,
Uppiliyans, and Valaiyans. Their usual occupation is cultivation,
but they have also taken to petty trade, and some earn a living as
masons and kavalgars (watchmen). They wear the sacred thread during
their marriages and funerals. They have panchayats for each village
and for the nadu, and have also a number of the Patnattu Chettis,
who are recognized as elders of the caste, and sit with the head of
the nadu to decide cases of adultery, etc.
Ambalavasi.--This is summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901,
as "a generic name applied to all classes of temple servants in
Malabar. There are many sub-divisions of the caste, such as Poduval,
Chakkiyar, Nambiyassan, Pidaran, Pisharodi, Variyan, Nambi, Teyyambadi,
etc., which are assigned different services in the Hindu temples,
such as the preparation of garlands, the sweeping of the floor,
the fetching of fire-wood, the carrying of the idols in procession,
singing, dancing, and so on. Like most of the temple servant classes,
they are inferior to the lower Brahmans, such as the Mussads, and
food will not be taken from the hands of most of them even by Nayars."
In the Travancore Census Report, 1901, it is noted that "the
term Ambalavasi (one who lives in a temple) is a group-name,
and is applied to castes, whose occupation is temple service. The
Keralamahatmya speaks of them as Kshetravasinah, which means those
who live in temples. They are also known as Antaralas, from their
occupying an intermediate position between the Brahmans and the
Brahmanical Kshatriyas of Malabar on the one hand, and the Sudras
on the other. While according to one view they are fallen Brahmans,
others, such as the writer of the Keralolpatti, would put them down
as an advance from the Sudras. The castes recognised as included in
the generic name of Ambalavasi are:--
Nambiyassan. Nambiyar.
Pushpakan. Pisharati.
Puppalli. Variyar.
Chakkiyar. Nattupattan.
Brahmani or Daivampati. Tiyattunni.
Adikal. Kurukkal.
Nambidi. Poduval.
Pilappalli.
"All these castes are not connected with pagodas, nor do the Muttatus,
who are mainly engaged in temple service, come under this group,
strictly speaking. The rationale of their occupation seems to be that,
in accepting duty in temples and consecrating their lives to the
service of God, they hope to be absolved from the sins inherited from
their fathers. In the case of ascent from lower castes, the object
presumably is the acquisition of additional religious merit.... The
delinquent Brahman cannot be retained in the Brahmanic function
without lowering the standard of his caste. He had, therefore, to be
allotted other functions. Temple service of various kinds, such as
garland-making for the Pushpakan, Variyar and others, and popular
recitation of God's works for the Chakkiyar, were found to hold an
intermediate place between the internal functions of the Brahmans and
the external functions of the other castes, in the same sense in which
the temples themselves are the exoteric counterparts of an esoteric
faith, and represent a position between the inner and the outer
economy of nature. Hence arose probably an intermediate status with
intermediate functions for the Antaralas, the intermediates of Hindu
Society. The Kshatriyas, having commensal privileges with the Brahmans,
come next to them in the order of social precedence. In the matter of
pollution periods, which seem to be in inverse ratio to the position
of the caste, the Brahmans observe 10 days, the Kshatriyas 11 days,
and the Sudras of Malabar (Nayars) 16 days. The Ambalavasis generally
observe pollution for 12 days. In some cases, however, it is as short
as 10, and in others as long as 13 and even 14, but never 16 days."
It is further recorded, in the Cochin Census Report, 1901, that
"Ambalavasis (literally temple residents) are persons who have the
privilege of doing service in temples. Most of the castes have
grown out of sexual relations between members of the higher and
lower classes, and are therefore Anulomajas and Pratilomajas. [57]
They may be broadly divided into two classes, (1) those that wear
the sacred thread, and (2) those that do not wear the same. Adikal,
Chakkiyar, Nambiyar or Pushpakan, and Tiyyattu Nambiyar belong to
the threaded class, while Chakkiyar, Nambiyar, Pisharoti, Variyar,
Puthuval, and Marar are non-threaded. Though all Ambalavasis have to
do service in temples, they have many of them sufficiently distinct
functions to perform. They are all governed by the marumakkathayam
law of inheritance (through the female line); some castes among
them, however, follow the makkathayam system (from father to son). A
Nambiyar, Pisharoti, or Variyar marries under special circumstances
a woman of his own caste, and brings home his wife into the family,
and their issue thus become members of the father's family, with the
right of inheriting the family property, and form themselves into a
fresh marumakkathayam stock. In the matter of tali-kettu (tali-tying)
marriage, and marriage by union in sambandham (alliance), they follow
customs similar to those of Nayars. So far as the employment of Brahman
as priests, and the period of birth and death pollution are concerned,
there are slight differences. The threaded classes have Gayatri
(hymn). The purificatory ceremony after birth or death pollution
is performed by Nambudris, but at all funeral ceremonies, such as
pinda, sradha, etc., their own caste men officiate as priests. The
Nambudris can take meals cooked by a Brahman in the house of any of the
Ambalavasis except Marars. In fact, if the Nambudris have the right
of purification, they do not then impose any restrictions in regard
to this. All Ambalavasis are strict vegetarians at public feasts. The
Ambalavasis sit together at short distances from one another, and take
their meals. Their females unite themselves in sambandham with their
own caste males, or with Brahmans or Kshatriyas. Brahmans, Kshatriyas,
or Nambidis cannot take water from them. Though a great majority of the
Ambalavasis still follow their traditional occupations, many of them
have entered the public service, and taken to more lucrative pursuits."
The more important sections of the Ambalavasis are dealt with in
special articles.
Ambattan.--For the following note I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana
Rao. The Ambattans are the Tamil barbers, or barber-surgeons. The
word is usually derived from the Sanskrit amba (near) and s'tha (to
stand), i.e., he who stands near to shave his clients, or treat his
patients. In like manner, the Kavutiyan caste of Malayalam barbers
is called Adutton, signifying bystander. The Ambattan corresponds to
the Mangala of the Telugu country, the Vilakkatalavan of Malabar, the
Kshauraka of the Canarese Brahmans, and the Hajam of Muhammadans. Not
improbably the name refers to the original occupation of medicine-man,
to which were added later the professions of village barber and
musician. This view seems to receive some support from the current
tradition that the Ambattans are the descendants of the offspring
of a Vaisya woman by a Brahman, to whom the medical profession was
allotted as a means of livelihood. In this connection, it may be
noted that the Ambattan women are the recognised midwives of the Hindu
community in the Tamil country. It is impossible to say how far the
above tradition is based on the verse of Manu, the ancient law-giver,
who says that "from a Brahmana with the daughter of a Vaisya is born
a son called an Ambashtha." In a succeeding verse, he states that as
children of a Brahmana by a woman of one of the three lower castes,
the Ambashthas are one of the six base-born castes or apasada. He
says further that Brahmans may eat of a barber's food--a permission
which, it is hardly necessary to say, they do not avail themselves
of. A single exception is, however, noteworthy. At the temple of
Jugganath, within the temple precincts, neither the barber, nor the
food which he prepares, and is partaken of by the higher classes,
including Brahmans, conveys pollution. The pujari, or officiating
priest, at this famous temple is a barber, and Brahmans, except
those of the extreme orthodox section, partake of his preparations
of rice, after they have been offered to the presiding deity. This
is, apparently, the only case in which the rule laid down by Manu
is followed in practice. It is not known how far the text of Manu is
answerable for the popular Sanskrit saying, which calls the barber a
"good Sudra." There is an opinion entertained in certain quarters that
originally the barber's touch did not pollute, but that his shaving
did. It is an interesting fact that, though the Ambattans are one of
Manu's base-born castes, whose touch causes pollution which requires
the pouring of water over the head to remove it, they are one of
the most Brahmanised of the lower castes. Nothing, perhaps, shows
this so well as their marriage ceremonies, throughout which a Brahman
officiates. On the first two days, homam or sacred fire, fed with ghi
(clarified butter) is kindled. On the third day, the tali (marriage
badge) is placed in a circular silver or brass thattu (dish), and
touched with the forefinger of the right hand first by the presiding
Brahman, followed by other Brahmans, men of superior castes, and the
caste-men headed by the Perithanakkaran or head-man. It is then, amid
weird music, tied to the bride's neck before the sacred fire. During
this ceremony no widows may be present. The relations of the bride and
bridegroom scatter rice on the floor in front of the bridal pair, after
the Brahman priest and head-man. This rice, which is called sesham
(remainder), is strictly the perquisite of the local washerman. But
it is generally purchased by the headman of the family, in which the
marriage is taking place, and handed over, not to the washerman, but
to the Perithanakkaran. The Brahman receives as his fee money and a
pair of silk-bordered cloths; and, till the latter are given to him,
he usually refuses to pronounce the necessary mantras (prayers). He
also receives the first pan-supari (betel leaves and areca nuts),
plantains, and cocoanuts. Each day he has to get rid of the pollution
caused by entering a barber's house by bathing. During the fourth and
fifth days, homam is burnt, and shadangu, or merry-making between the
bride and bridegroom before the assembled spectators, takes place,
during which the bride sings songs, in which she has been coached from
infancy. On the fifth day the removal of the kankanam, or threads
which have been tied round the wrists of the bride and bridegroom,
is performed, after the priest's account has been settled.
Among the Konga Vellalas of the Salem district, it is the Ambattan who
officiates at the marriage rites, and ties the tali, after formally
proclaiming to those present that he is about to do so. Brahmans are
invited to the wedding, and are treated with due respect, and presented
with money, rice, and betel. It would appear that, in this case, the
Brahman has been ousted, in recent times, from his priestly functions
by the Ambattan. The barber, when he ties the tali, mutters something
about Brahman and Vedas in a respectful manner. The story goes that,
during the days of the Chera, Chola, and Pandya Kings, a Brahman and
an Ambattan were both invited to a marriage feast. But the Brahman,
on his arrival, died, and the folk, believing his death to be an
evil omen, ruled that, as the Brahman was missing, they would have
an Ambattan; and it has ever since been the custom for the Ambattan
to officiate at weddings.
A girl, when she reaches puberty, has to observe pollution for eleven
days, during which she bathes daily, and is presented with a new cloth,
and adorned by a girl who is said to have "touched" her. This girl has
to bathe before she can take her meals, or touch others. Every morning,
a dose of pure gingelly (Sesamum indicum) oil, mixed with white of
egg, is administered. The dietary must be strictly vegetarian. On the
twelfth day, the girl who has been through the ceremonial has a final
bath, and enters the house after it has been purified (punyavachanam).
The rule, once a widow always a widow, is as true of Ambattans as of
high-class Brahmans. And, if asked whether the remarriage of widows
is permitted, they promptly reply that they are not washermen.
The dead are cremated, with the exception of young children, who
are buried. The death ceremonies are conducted by a Brahman priest,
who is remunerated for his services with money and a cloth. Gifts of
money and cloths are also made to other Brahmans, when the days of
pollution are over. Annual memorial ceremonies (sradh) are performed,
as by Brahmans. It is a privilege (they consider it as such) of
the Ambattans to cremate the bodies of village paupers other than
Brahmans. And, on ordinary occasions of death, they lead the son or
person who is entitled to light the funeral pyre, with a brass pot
in their hands, round the corpse, and indicate with a burning cinder
the place to which the light must be applied.
As a community the Ambattans are divided into Saivites and
Vaishnavites. Members of the latter section, who have been branded
by their Brahman guru with the chank and chakram, abstain from animal
food, and intoxicating drinks. Intermarriage between the two sections
is allowed, and commonly practised. They belong to the right-hand
faction, and will not eat with Komatis, who belong to the left. They
have, however, no objection to shaving Komatis. The Ambattans of
the Chingleput district are divided into four sections, each of
which is controlled by a Perithanakkaran. One of these resides
in Madras, and the other three live respectively at Poonamallee,
Chingleput, and Karunguzhi in the Madurantakam taluk of the Chingleput
district. Ambattans are now-a-days found over the whole Tamil area of
the Madras Presidency. Originally, free movement into the various parts
of the Presidency was far from easy, and every Ambattan, wherever he
might migrate to, retained his subjection to the chief or headman of
his native village. Thus, perhaps, what was at first a tribal division
gradually developed into a territorial one. Each Perithanakkaran
has under him six hundred, or even a thousand Kudithalakkarans,
or heads of families. His office being hereditary, he is, if only
a minor, treated with respect and dignity. All the preliminaries of
marriage are arranged by him. On important occasions, such as settling
disputes, he is assisted by a panchayat, or council of elders. In
this way are settled quarrels, questions arising out of adultery,
or non-payment of fines, which it is his duty to collect. He is
further responsible for the marriage rice-money, which is added to a
communal tax of 2 1/2 annas per family, which is imposed annually for
charitable purposes. The charities take the form of the maintenance
of chattrams, or places where pilgrims are fed free of charge at
holy places. Two such institutions are maintained in the Chingleput
district, the centre of the Ambattan community, one at Tirupporur,
the other at Tirukalikundram. At these places Brahmans are given
free meals, and to other caste Hindus sadabath, or things necessary
for meals, are presented. Sometimes the money is spent in building
adjuncts to holy shrines. At Srirangam, for example, the Ambattans,
in days gone by, built a fine stone mantapam for the local temple. If
the Perithanakkaran cannot satisfactorily dispose of a case with the
assistance of the usual panchayat (council), it is referred to the
higher authority of the Kavarai or Desai Setti, or even to British
Courts as a last resource.
The barber has been summed up by a district official [58] as "one
of the most useful of the village servants. He leads an industrious
life, his services being in demand on all occasions of marriages,
feasts, and funerals. He often combines in himself the three useful
vocations of hair-dresser, surgeon, and musician. In the early hours
of the morning, he may be seen going his rounds to his employers'
houses in his capacity of shaver and hair-cutter. Later on, he will
be leading the village band of musicians before a wedding procession,
or playing at a temple ceremony. Yet again he may be observed paying
his professional visits as Vythian or physician, with his knapsack
of surgical instruments and cutaneous drugs tucked under his arm. By
long practice the barber becomes a fairly skilful operator with the
knife, which he uses in a rough and ready manner. He lances ulcers
and carbuncles, and even essays his hand in affections of the eye,
often with the most disastrous results. It is the barber who takes
away cricks and sprains, procures leeches for those wishing to be
bled, and otherwise relieves the physical ills of his patients. The
barber woman, on the other hand, is the accoucheuse and midwife of
the village matrons. It may be said without exaggeration that many
of the uterine ailments which furnish patients to the maternity wards
of the various hospitals in this country are attributable to the rude
treatment of the village midwife."
The Ambattan will cut the nails, and shave not only the head and
face, but other parts of the body, whereas the Telugu barber will
shave only down to the waist. The depilatory operations on women
are performed by female hair-dressers. Barbers' sons are taught to
shave by taking the bottom of an old well-burnt clay cooking-pot,
and, with a blunt knife, scraping off the collected carbon. They
then commence to operate on pubescent youths. The barber who shaves
Europeans must not be a caste barber, but is either a Muhammadan
or a non-caste man. Quite recently, a youthful Ambattan had to
undergo ceremonial purification for having unconsciously shaved a
Paraiyan. Paraiyans, Malas, and other classes of the lower orders,
have their own barbers and washermen. Razors are, however, sometime
lent to them by the Ambattans for a small consideration, and cleansed
in water when they are returned. Parasitic skin diseases are said to
originate from the application of a razor, which has been used on a
number of miscellaneous individuals. And well-to-do Hindus now keep
their own razor, which the barber uses when he comes to shave them. In
the southern districts, it is not usual for the Ambattans to go to
the houses of their customers, but they have sheds at the backs of
their own houses, where they attend to them from daybreak till about
mid-day. Occasionally, when sent for, they will wait on Brahmans and
high-class non-Brahmans at their houses. Numbers of them, besides,
wait for customers near the riverside. Like the English hair-cutter,
the Ambattan is a chatter-box, retails the petty gossip of the station,
and is always posted in the latest local news and scandal. The barbers
attached to British regiments are migratory, and, it is said, have
friends and connections in all military cantonments, with whom they
exchange news, and hold social intercourse. The Ambattan fills the rôle
of negotiator and go-between in the arrangement of marriages, feasts,
and funeral. He is, moreover, the village physician and surgeon, and,
in the days when blood-letting was still in vogue, the operation
of phlebotomy was part of his business. In modern times, his nose
has, like that of the village potter, been put out of joint by civil
hospitals and dispensaries. His medicines consist of pills made from
indigenous drugs, the nature of which he does not reveal. His surgical
instrument is the razor which he uses for shaving, and he does not
resort to it until local applications, e.g., in a case of carbuncle,
have failed.
In return for his multifarious services to the villagers, the Ambattan
was given a free grant of land, for which he has even now to pay only
a nominal tax. But, in the days when there was no survey or settlement,
if the barber neglected his duties, he was threatened with confiscation
of his lands. At the present day, however, he can sell, mortgage,
or make a gift thereof. As the Ambattans became divided up into a
number of families, their duties in the village were parcelled out
among them, so that each barber family became attached to certain
families of other castes, and was entitled to certain rights from
them. Among other claims, each barber family became entitled to three
or four marakkals of paddy (unhusked rice), which is the perquisite
of the married members thereof. It may be noted that, in village
communities, lands were granted not only to the barber, but also
to village officials such as the blacksmith, carpenter, washerman,
astrologer, priest, dancing-girl, etc.
In his capacity of barber, the Ambattan is called Nasivan (unholy man),
or, according to the Census Reports, Nasuvan (sprung from the nose),
or Navidan. He is also known as Panditan or Pariyari (doctor), and
Kudimaghan (son of the ryot). The last of these names is applied to him
especially on occasions of marriage, when to call him Nasivan would
be inauspicious. The recognised insigne of his calling is the small
looking-glass, which he carries with him, together with the razor,
and sometimes tweezers and ear-pick. He must salute his superiors by
prostrating himself on his stomach, folding his arms, and standing at
a respectful distance. He may not attend at Brahman houses on new or
full-moon days, Tuesday, Saturday, and special days such as Ekadasi
and Dwadasi. The most proper days are Sunday and Monday. The quality
of the shave varies with the skill of the individual, and there is
a Tamil proverb "Go to an old barber and a new washerman." Stories
are extant of barbers shaving kings while they were asleep without
waking them, and it is said that the last Raja of Tanjore used to be
thus entertained with exhibitions of their skill. The old legend of
the barber who, in return for shaving a Raja without awakening him,
requested that he might be made a Brahman, and how the Court jester
Tennali Raman got the Raja to cancel his agreement, has recently been
re-told in rhyme. [59] It is there described how the barber lathered
the head "with water alone, for soap he had none." The modern barber,
however, uses soap, either a cheap quality purchased in the bazar,
or a more expensive brand supplied by his client.
By a curious corruption, Hamilton's bridge, which connects the
Triplicane and Mylapore divisions of the city of Madras, has become
converted into Ambattan, or barber's bridge. And the barber, as
he shaves you, will tell how, in days before the bridge was built,
the channel became unfordable during a north-east monsoon flood. A
barber, who lived on the Triplicane side, had to shave an engineer,
whose house was on the Mylapore side. With difficulty he swam across,
and shaved the sahib while he was asleep without waking him, and,
in return, asked that, in the public interests, a bridge should be
built over the channel.
Ambattans of Travancore.--For the following note I am indebted to
Mr. N. Subramani Aiyer. The barbers of Travancore are called by various
designations, those in Central and South Travancore preferring to
be known by the name of Kshaurakan or Kshaurakkaran, a corruption
of the Sanskrit kshuraka, while Ambattan seems to find general
favour in the south. A curious name given to the caste throughout
Travancore is Pranopakari, or one who helps the souls, indicating
their priestly functions in the ceremonials of various castes. A
contraction of this name found in the early settlement records is
Pranu. The members of those families from which kings and noblemen
have at any time selected their barbers are called Vilakkittalavan,
or more properly Vilakkuttalayan, meaning literally those who shave
heads. In North Travancore many families are in possession of royal
edicts conferring upon them the title of Panikkar, and along with
it the headmanship of the barber families of the village in which
they reside. Others have the title of Vaidyan or doctor, from the
secondary occupation of the caste.
Endless endogamous septs occur among the barbers, and, at Trivandrum,
there are said to be four varieties called Chala Vazhi, Pandi
Vazhi, Attungal Vazhi, and Peruntanni Vazhi. But it is possible
to divide all the Kshaurakans of Travancore into three classes,
viz., Malayalam-speaking Ambattans, who follow the makkathayam law
of inheritance; (2) Malayalam-speaking Ambattans who follow the
marumakkathayam law of inheritance; (3) Tamil-speaking barbers, who
have in many localities adopted Malayalam as their mother-tongue,
and indicate their recent conversion in this direction by preserving
unchanged the dress and ornaments of their womenkind. In Pattanapuram,
for example, there is a class of Malayalam-speaking barbers known as
Pulans who immigrated into that taluk from the Tamil country about two
hundred years ago, and reveal their kinship with the Tamil-speaking
barbers in various ways. In Kottayam and some other North Travancore
taluks, a large number of barbers may be described as recent
converts of this character. In theory at least, the makkathayam and
marumakkathayam Ambattans may be said to form two distinct endogamous
groups, of which the former regard themselves as far superior to the
latter in social position. Sometimes the makkathayam Ambattans give
their girls in marriage to the marumakkathayam Ambattans, though
the converse can never hold good. But, in these cases, the girl is
not permitted to re-enter the paternal home, and associate with the
people therein.
A local tradition describes the Travancore Kshaurakans as pursuing
their present occupation owing to the curse of Surabhi, the divine
calf. Whatever their origin, they have faithfully followed their
traditional occupation, and, in addition, many study medicine in their
youth, and attend to the ailments of the villagers, while the women
act as midwives. When a high-caste Hindu dies, the duty of supplying
the fuel for the funeral pyre, and watching the burning ground,
devolves on the barber.
In their dress and ornaments the Travancore barbers closely resemble
the Nayars, but some wear round gold beads and a conch-shaped marriage
jewel round the neck, to distinguish their women from those of the
Nayars. This, however, does not hold good in South Travancore, where
the women have entirely adopted the Nayar type of jewelry. Tattooing
prevails to a greater extent among the barbers than among other
classes, but has begun to lose its popularity.
The barbers not only worship the ordinary Hindu deities, but also
adore such divinities as Murti, Maden, and Yakshi. The corpses of those
who die as the result of accident or contagious disease, are buried,
not burnt. A sorcerer is called on to raise the dead from the grave,
and, at his instance, a kuryala or small thatched shed is erected,
to provide a sanctum for the resurrected spirit. Every year, in the
month of Makaram (January-February), the day on which the Utradam star
falls is taken as the occasion for making offerings to these spirits.
In every village certain families had bestowed on them by the
chieftains of Kerala the right of deciding all questions affecting
the caste. All social offences are tried by them, and the decision
takes the form of an order to celebrate iananguttu or feast of the
equals, at which the first article served on the leaf placed before
the assembled guests is not food, but a sum of money.
The tali-kettu and sambandham ceremonies are celebrated, the former
before, and the latter after the girl has reached puberty. The
preliminary rites of betrothal and kapu-kettu (tying the string
round the wrist) over, the bridegroom enters the marriage hall in
procession. There are no Vedic rites; nor is there any definite priest
for the marriage ceremony. The conch-shell is blown at odd intervals,
this being considered indispensable. The festivities last for four
days. A niece and nephew are regarded as the most legitimate spouses
of a son and daughter respectively.
After the cremation or burial of a corpse, a rope is held by two of
the relations between the dead person's remains and the karta (chief
mourner), and cut in two, as if to indicate that all connection between
the karta and the deceased has ceased. This is called bandham aruppu,
or severing of connection. Pollution lasts for sixteen days among all
sections of the barbers, except the Tamils, who regain their purity
after a death in the family on the eleventh day.
Ambiga.--A synonym of Kabbera.
Ambojala (lotus: Nelumbium).--A house-name of Korava.
Amma (mother).--A sub-division of Pallan and Paraiyan. It is also the
title of the various goddesses, or mothers, such as Ellamma, Mariamma,
etc., which are worshipped as Grama Devatas (village deities) at the
temples known as Amman-koil.