Acharapakam Chetti.--One of the sub-divisions of the Chettis, generally
grouped among the Beri Chettis (q.v.).
Achari.--See Asari.
Adapadava (man of the wallet).--A name, referring to the dressing-bag
which barbers carry, applied to Lingayat barbers in South Canara.
Adapapa.--Returned in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a sub-caste
of Balija. The name is applied to female attendants on the ladies of
the families of Zamindars, who, as they are not allowed to marry, lead
a life of prostitution. Their sons call themselves Balijas (see Khasa).
Adavi (forest or jungle).--The name of a sub-division of Yanadis,
and also of a section of Gollas in Mysore. [44]
Adaviyar.--Adaviyar or Ataviyar is the name of a class of
Tamil-speaking weavers found in the Tanjore and Tinnevelly districts.
Addaku (Bauhinia racemosa).--A sept of Jatapu. The leaves of this
tree are largely used as food platters, in Madras, and generally on
the east coast.
Addapu Singa.--Mendicants who beg only from Mangalas in the Telugu
country.
Adhigari.--Defined by Mr. Wigram [45] as the head of the amsam or
parish in Malabar, corresponding to the Manigar (village munsiff)
in east coast districts and Patel in South Canara. The title Adhigari
(one in power) is assumed by some Agamudaiyans, and Adhikari occurs
as an exogamous sept of the Badagas, and the title of village headman
among some Oriya castes. In South Canara, it is a sept of Stanika.
Adi (primitive or original).--The name of a division of Linga Balijas,
and of Velamas who have abandoned the practice of keeping their
females gosha (in seclusion). It is also applied by the Chenchus to
the original members of their tribe, from whom the man-lion Narasimha
obtained his bride Chenchita.
Adichchan.--A sub-division of Nayar.
Adikal (slaves or servants).--Included among the Ambalavasis. It
is recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, that "tradition
states that Sankaracharya, to test the fidelity of certain Brahmins
to the established ordinances of caste, went to a liquor-shop, and
drank some stimulants. Not recognising that the obligations, from
which adepts like Sankara were free, were none the less binding
on the proletariat, the Brahmins that accompanied the sage made
this an excuse for their drinking too. Sankara is said to have then
entered a foundry, and swallowed a cup of molten metal, and handed
another to the Brahmins, who had apparently made up their minds to
do all that may be done by the Acharya. But they begged to differ,
apologised to him as Atiyals or humble servants, and accepted social
degradation in expiation of their sinful presumption. They are now
the priests in temples dedicated to Bhadrakali, and other goddesses
who receive offerings of liquor. They practise sorcery, and aid in
the exorcising of spirits. They have the upanayana-samskara, and
wear the sacred thread. The simantam ceremony is not performed. They
are to repeat the Gayatri (hymn) ten times, and observe eleven days'
death pollution. Their own caste-men act as priests. The Atiyammamar
wear the same jewellery as the Nambutiri women, but they do not screen
themselves by a cadjan (palm leaf) umbrella when they go out in public,
nor are they accompanied by a Nayar maid."
Adimittam.--An occupational sub-division of Marans, who clean the
court-yards of temples in Travancore.
Adisaivar.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a
sub-caste of Vellala. They are singers of Devara hymns in Saiva
temples." The name indicates those who have been Saivites from the
beginning, as opposed to recent Saivites. Adisaivas are Saivites, who
have survived the absorbing influence of the Lingayat sect. Saivites
who profess the Lingayat doctrines are known as Virasaivas. Some
Pandarams, who belong to the Sozhia sub-division of the Vellalas,
regularly recite Tamil verses from Thevaram and Tiruvachagam in
Saivite temples. This being their profession, they are also called
Oduvar (readers or reciters).
Aditya Varada.--Kurubas, who worship their God on Sunday.
Adiyan.--Adiyan (adi, foot) has been defined [46] as meaning literally
"a slave, but usually applied to the vassals of Tamburans and other
powerful patrons. Each Adiyan had to acknowledge his vassalage
by paying annually a nuzur (gift of money) to his patron, and was
supposed also to be ready to render service whenever needed. This
yearly nuzur, which did not generally exceed one or two fanams, was
called adima-panam" (slave money), adima meaning feudal dependency
on a patron.
Adiyodi.--Adiyodi or Atiyoti, meaning slave or vassal, has been
returned at times of census as a sub-division of Samantan. It is,
Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [47] "the caste of the Kadattanad Rajah in
North Malabar. The tradition is that, when he was driven out of his
territories in and around Calicut by the Zamorin, he took shelter
under the Rajah of Chirakkal, who gave him the Kadattanad country to
hold as his vassal. Some Atiyotis advance no pretension to be above
Nayars in rank."
Adutton (a bystander).--A synonym for Kavutiyan, a caste of Malayalam
barbers. In like manner, the name Ambattan for Tamil barbers is said to
be derived from the Sanskrit amba (near), s'tha (to stand), indicating
that they stand near to shave their clients or treat their patients.
Agamudaiyan.--The Agamudaiyans, Mr. W. Francis writes, [48] are "a
cultivating caste found in all the Tamil districts. In Chingleput,
North Arcot, Salem, Coimbatore and Trichinopoly, they are much less
numerous than they were thirty years ago. The reason probably is that
they have risen in the social scale, and have returned themselves as
Vellalas. Within the same period, their strength has nearly doubled
in Tanjore, perhaps owing to the assumption of the name by other
castes like the Maravans and Kallans. In their manners and customs
they closely follow the Vellalas. Many of these in the Madura district
are the domestic servants of the Marava Zamindars." The Agamudaiyans
who have settled in the North Arcot district are described [49] by
Mr. H. A. Stuart as "a class of cultivators differing widely from
the Agamudaiyans of the Madura district. The former are closely
allied to the Vellalas, while the latter are usually regarded as a
more civilised section of the southern Maravans. It may be possible
that the Agamudaiyans of North Arcot are the descendants of the first
immigrants from the Madura district, who, after long settlement in
the north, severed all connexions with their southern brethren." In
some districts, Agamudaiyan occurs as a synonym of Vellalas, Pallis
and Melakkarans, who consider that Agamudaiyan is a better caste name
than their own.
The Agamudaiyans proper are found in the Tanjore, Madura, and
Tinnevelly districts.
It is noted in the Tanjore Manual that Ahamudaiyar (the equivalent of
Agamudaiyan) is "derived from the root aham, which, in Tamil, has many
significations. In one of these, it means a house, in another earth,
and hence it has two meanings, householder and landholder; the suffix
Udeiyar indicating ownership. The word is also used in another form,
ahambadiyan, derived from another meaning of the same root, i.e.,
inside. And, in this derivation, it signifies a particular caste, whose
office it was to attend to the business in the interior of the king's
palace, or in the pagoda." "The name," Mr. J. H. Nelson writes, [50]
"is said by the Rev. G. U. Pope, in his edition of the Abbé Dubois'
work, [51] to be derived from aham, a temple, and padi, a step, and to
have been given to them in consequence of their serving about the steps
of temples. But, independently of the fact that Madura pagodas are not
approached by flights of steps, this seems to be a very far-fetched and
improbable derivation of the word. I am inclined to doubt whether it
be not merely a vulgar corruption of the well-known word Ahamudeiyan,
possessor of a house, the title which Tamil Brahmans often use in
speaking of a man to his wife, in order to avoid the unpolite term
husband. Or, perhaps, the name comes from aham in the sense of earth,
and pati, master or possessor."
Concerning the connection which exists between the Maravans, Kallans,
and Agamudaiyans (see Kallan), the following is one version of a
legend, which is narrated. The father of Ahalya decided to give her
in marriage to one who remained submerged under water for a thousand
years. Indra only managed to remain thus for five hundred years, but
Gautama succeeded in remaining for the whole of the stipulated period,
and became the husband of Ahalya. Indra determined to have intercourse
with her, and, assuming the guise of a cock, went at midnight to the
abode of Gautama, and crowed. Gautama, thinking that daybreak was
arriving, got up, and went to a river to bathe. While he was away,
Indra assumed his form, and accomplished his desire. Ahalya is said
to have recognised the deception after two children, who became the
ancestors of the Maravans and Kallans, were born to her. A third child
was born later on, from whom the Agamudaiyans are descended. According
to another version of the legend, the first-born child is said to have
faced Gautama without fear, and Agamudaiyan is accordingly derived
from aham or agam, pride, and udaiyan, possessor. There is a Tamil
proverb to the effect that a Kallan may come to be a Maravan. By
respectability he may develope into an Agamudaiyan, and, by slow
degrees, become a Vellala, from which he may rise to be a Mudaliar.
Of the three castes, Kallan, Maravan and Agamudaiyan, the last are said
to have "alone been greatly influenced by contact with Brahmanism. They
engage Brahman priests, and perform their birth, marriage, and death
ceremonies like the Vellalas." [52] I am told that the more prosperous
Agamudaiyans in the south imitate the Vellalas in their ceremonial
observances, and the poorer classes the Maravans.
Agamudaiyan has been returned, at times of census, as a sub-division of
Maravan and Kallan. In some places, the Agamudaiyans style themselves
sons of Sembunattu Maravans. At Ramnad, in the Madura district, they
carry the fire-pot to the burning ground at the funeral of a Maravan,
and also bring the water for washing the corpse. In the Tanjore
district the Agamudaiyans are called Terkittiyar, or southerners,
a name which is also applied to Kallans, Maravans, and Valaiyans. The
ordinary title of the Agamudaiyans is Servaikkaran, but many of them
call themselves, like the Vellalas, Pillai. Other titles, returned
at times of census, are Adhigari and Mudaliar.
At the census, 1891, the following were returned as the more
important sub-divisions of the Agamudaiyans:--Aivali Nattan,
Kottaipattu, Malainadu, Nattumangalam, Rajaboja, Rajakulam,
Rajavasal, Kallan, Maravan, Tuluvan (cf. Tuluva Vellala) and
Servaikkaran. The name Rajavasal denotes those who are servants of
Rajas, and has been transformed into Rajavamsa, meaning those of kingly
parentage. Kottaipattu means those of the fort, and the Agamudaiyans
believe that the so-called Kottai Vellalas of the Tinnevelly
district are really Kottaipattu Agamudaiyans. One sub-division of
the Agamudaiyans is called Sani (cow-dung). Unlike the Maravans and
Kallans, the Agamudaiyans have no exogamous septs, or kilais.
It is recorded, in the Mackenzie Manuscripts, that "among the Maravas,
the kings or the rulers of districts, or principal men, are accustomed
to perform the ceremony of tying on the tali, or in performing the
marriage at once in full, with reference to females of the Agambadiyar
tribe. The female children of such marriages can intermarry with the
Maravas, but not among the Agambadiyar tribe. On the other hand, the
male offspring of such marriages is considered to be of the mother's
tribe, and can intermarry with the Agambadiyas, but not in the tribe
of the Maravas." I am told that, under ordinary circumstances, the
offspring of a marriage between a Maravan and Agamudaiyan becomes an
Agamudaiyan, but that, if the husband is a man of position, the male
issues are regarded as Maravans. Adult marriage appears to be the
rule among the Agamudaiyans, but sometimes, as among the Maravans,
Kallans and other castes, young boys are, in the southern districts,
sometimes married to grown-up girls.
The marriage ceremonial, as carried out among the poorer Agamudaiyans,
is very simple. The sister of the bridegroom proceeds to the home of
the bride on an auspicious day, followed by a few females carrying a
woman's cloth, a few jewels, flowers, etc. The bride is seated close
to a wall, facing east. She is dressed up in the cloth which has been
brought, and seated on a plank. Betel leaves, areca nuts, and flowers
are presented to her by the bridegroom's sister, and she puts them
in her lap. A turmeric-dyed string or garland is then placed round
the bride's neck by the bridegroom's sister, while the conch shell
(musical instrument), is blown. On the same day the bride is conducted
to the home of the bridegroom, and a feast is held.
The more prosperous Agamudaiyans celebrate their marriages according
to the Puranic type, which is the form in vogue amongst most of the
Tamil castes, with variations. The astrologer is consulted in order
to ascertain whether the pair agree in some at least of the points
enumerated below. For this purpose, the day of birth, zodiacal signs,
planets and asterisms under which the pair were born, are taken into
consideration:--
1. Varam (day of birth).--Days are calculated, commencing with the
first day after the new moon. Counting from the day on which the
girl was born, if the young man's birthday happens to be the fourth,
seventh, thirteenth, sixteenth, or seventeenth, it is considered good.
2. Ganam (class or tribe).--There are three ganams, called Manusha,
Deva, and Rakshasa. Of the twenty-seven asterisms, Aswini, Bharani,
etc., some are Manusha, some Deva, and some Rakshasa ganam. Ashtham
and Swathi are considered to be of Deva ganam, so individuals born
under these asterisms are regarded as belonging to Deva ganam. Those
born under the asterisms Bharani, Rogini, Puram, Puradam, Uththaradam,
etc., belong to the Manusha ganam. Under Rakshasa ganam are included
Krithika, Ayilyam, Makam, Visakam, and other asterisms. The bridal
pair should belong to the same ganam, as far as possible. Manusha
and Deva is a tolerable combination, whereas Rakshasa and Deva,
or Rakshasa and Manusha, are bad combinations.
3. Sthridirgam (woman's longevity).--The young man's birthday should
be beyond the thirteenth day, counting from the birthday of the girl.
4. Yoni (female generative organs).--The asterisms are supposed to
belong to several animals. An individual belongs to the animal to
which the asterism under which he was born belongs. For example, a
man is a horse if his asterism is Aswini, a cow if his asterism is
Uththirattadhi, and so on. The animals of husband and wife must be
on friendly terms, and not enemies. The elephant and man, horse and
cow, dog and monkey, cat and mouse, are enemies. The animals of man
and wife should not both be males. Nor should the man be a female,
or the wife a male animal.
5. Rasi (zodiacal sign).--Beginning from the girl's zodiacal sign,
the young man's should be beyond the sixth.
6. Rasyathipathi (planet in the zodiacal sign).--The ruling planets
of the zodiacal signs of the pair should not be enemies.
7. Vasyam.--The zodiacal signs of the pair should be compatible, e.g.,
Midunam and Kanni, Singam and Makaram, Dhanus and Minam, Thulam and
Makaram, etc.
8. Rajju (string).--The twenty-seven asterisms are arranged at various
points on four parallel lines drawn across three triangles. These lines
are called the leg, thigh, abdomen, and neck rajjus. The vertices of
the triangles are the head rajjus. The asterisms of the pair should
not be on the same rajju, and it is considered to be specially bad
if they are both on the neck.