The Formation of Natural Breakwaters--The Society of Civil
Engineers--The Education of a Civil Engineer--Some Hints on
Practice--Estimating.
In the introduction to my work on ‘British and Foreign Harbours,’ I have
suggested a method by which shoals formed by alluvial deposits in the
open sea might be converted into effective breakwaters, so as to become
harbours of refuge; or the means of removing them altogether. It is well
known that many existing shoals form, to some extent, safe roadsteads at
certain times of tide, e.g. the Goodwin Sands, the banks outside Yarmouth
Roads, the banks off the coast of Holland, and many other places. These
are generally formed off alluvial shores, where the meeting of opposing
currents causes an eddy or line of stagnation, and the alluvial matter
held in suspension is deposited, forming a bank, according to the extent,
width, and direction of the eddy. In some instances, as in the case of
deltas of rivers, and along coasts where the waters are densely charged
with alluvial matter, these shoals, by continual deposit, are raised
to the level of high water of neap tides, when a succession of marine
vegetation appears on the surface, finally becoming a rich grass marsh;
except under special circumstances, the land is seldom raised higher, and
where there is no flow of tide the same result takes place at the medium
level of the waters.
In other cases, as in the open sea, where the waters are exposed to
violent agitation by the wind, these deposits not only rarely reach the
level of high water, but, except under particular circumstances, seldom
exceed the level of half-tide, and often the banks remain many fathoms
below low water, though even in their lowest state they are far above the
bottom of the sea. As all these banks are composed of alluvial matter, we
can only ascribe the different levels, first, to the variable quantity of
alluvium with which the waters are charged; secondly, to the degree of
agitation to which the waters are exposed; and thirdly, to the velocity
and extent of the opposing currents which produce the banks. Having
thus stated generally the causes that produce these banks, I now come
to my proposition, namely, the best mode of utilizing them for making
harbours of refuge, or the method for clearing them away where they may
be injurious.
With regard to the first, it is only necessary to increase the power of
the depositing eddy by means of artificial works, to raise the banks
to any height required; by this means they may be rendered permanent
breakwaters at the least expense. Secondly, where these shoals are
injurious they may be removed by diverting the course of one or both
currents, so that the line of stagnation shall be destroyed; the action
of the sea will then gradually remove the shoal. Thus we have the means
in our power of converting these sandbanks into most valuable harbours
of refuge, or of removing them where they are found to be injurious.
This I do not pretend to call an invention, but simply an idea, and
I am not aware that it has been suggested before. Modern engineers
have not sufficiently directed their attention to the construction of
harbours. It is a very simple affair to build piers or breakwaters of
any extent, provided the requisite means are forthcoming, but it is a
totally different thing to ascertain whether, after these works have been
constructed, they will answer the purpose originally intended.
When President of the Institution of Civil Engineers, during the years
1845-6-7, I drew up detailed reports of the history of the profession
from its commencement in Great Britain up to that time, showing what had
been done in every department, by whom, and at what date. These reports
are published in their ‘Transactions.’ Subsequent presidents have to
some extent adopted a similar course; but with all due respect to them,
they have not taken that large and scientific view of the profession of
a civil engineer which it is imperatively necessary to adopt in order to
keep the profession up to that high tone which its importance requires,
not only for its own credit, but for the benefit of the world at large.
Perhaps there is no profession (with all proper respect to others) that
has conferred so much benefit upon mankind as that of the civil engineer.
Its objects are clearly defined in the two mottoes belonging to the
Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, which was the first of the kind
established in this country, having originated with Smeaton, Mylne,
and my father, namely, “_Omnia numero pondere et mensurâ_;” Ὦν φύσει
κρατοῦντες τέχνῃ νιχώμεθα. Up to that date the profession of a civil
engineer may be said to have been unknown in Great Britain; previous to
that time we were simply known as “_vulgar mechanics_”--men who toiled
with their hands, as masons, bricklayers, carpenters, blacksmiths, &c.
But those who so called us would have entertained a very different
idea of the “mechanics” if they had been forced to dispense with their
services. Let me ask how could the various and complicated operations
which alone render modern trade, and therefore modern civilization,
possible, be carried on without the aid of the mechanic, _alias_ the
civil engineer?
The object of the Smeatonian Society was merely a social gathering in
the form of a club, to assemble the members at dinner at certain times,
when they could discuss in a friendly manner the various subjects
connected with their profession, and to endeavour to obliterate all
those rivalries and jealousies which unfortunately are too common
amongst professional men of all classes. The society was to serve as a
rallying point for the profession, and it was believed that when their
members increased sufficiently (for there was little more than a dozen
engineers in the kingdom at the time who were counted as such) the
society might extend its usefulness by reading papers, discussing them,
and publishing them regularly to the world, in the same manner as the
already established scientific societies; this has since been done by
the Institution of Civil Engineers. But I think the time has now arrived
when that Institution should be enlarged, and take a wider sphere. It
has hitherto been confined too much to the class practising purely
engineering works; but the mechanical engineers now form a body which
must be treated with every deference. It is very true that the latter
are freely admitted into the institution, but there seems to be a tacit
understanding amongst the former that they should not attain the honour
of becoming presidents and vice-presidents. It is true that the late Mr.
Field, a most distinguished mechanical engineer, was elected president,
and served his time; but this, I believe, arose more from his having been
one of the earliest members of the institution than from any respect
due to the particular class of the profession to which he belonged.
Now there cannot be a greater mistake than this. Every member of that
institution, to whatever class he belongs, from the moment he is elected
should be in every respect upon precisely the same footing as those
who are now considered the governing class, and the ablest man should
be chosen from each grade as president or vice-president alternately,
so that each department should successively occupy the chair. Also,
instead of choosing the president and council by rotation, according to
seniority, the acknowledged best men in every department should be chosen
as officers. And further, the institution thus regulated should have
the power of giving certificates of competency after the candidates for
admission have been duly examined by independent examiners; and until
they have received these certificates they should not be allowed to
practise. This is the rule in every other learned profession, and there
can be no reason why it should not be adopted by the engineers. It is the
only method by which it can take rank amongst the learned professions;
and as no other requires more scientific knowledge, or is entrusted with
a greater portion of responsibility or a larger amount of trust, or where
failure becomes more disastrous, it is quite clear that no man should be
allowed to practise it unless he has passed a proper examination, and has
received a certificate of competency from proper authorities.
Against this proposal it may be argued, that many illiterate men,
although of great original genius, would be excluded if their competency
were tried by such a test. My reply is, let them not be tried only
by the ordinary rules of scientific books, but also by the general
principles which the candidate professes, and let those principles be
tested, to prove how far they are in accordance with sound philosophy.
A man like Stephenson or Brindley, although illiterate, may understand
these principles perfectly, and yet may not be able to explain them.
Nevertheless, let him be examined, but in a different manner from the
ordinary routine, and it will soon be discovered whether his profession
and his practice are founded upon true mechanical and philosophical
principles.
If these examinations are properly conducted every possible objection
will be abolished, and no scientific educated engineer, or any illiterate
person of true scientific genius, will be prevented from pursuing the
profession, whilst only the speculator and charlatan will be excluded.
By this means the public will be assured that the works for which they
subscribe the funds will be conducted in the best manner, and most
probably to a successful termination. At present, the system upon which
public works are carried on is wholly wrong. There is no system. Any
man without business, competent or not, dubs himself engineer, starts a
project, well or ill founded, as the case may be, _generally the latter_,
and issues a prospectus to the public, to obtain the necessary funds to
carry his proposal into effect. Next he gets a contractor to back him
by taking a certain number of shares, provided that he has the contract
at his own price. The shares he looks upon as good for nothing, and
therefore adds so much more to his ordinary profits, so that instead of
receiving 10 or 12 per cent. upon his cost price, which is the usual rule
of the trade, he gets double, with the shares into the bargain, all of
which is added to the capital of the undertaking; and in order to carry
into effect this wasteful policy, the contractor generally stipulates for
two or three of his own nominees to be placed upon the board, to “_look
after_” his interests, so that, in point of fact, he pays himself pretty
nearly what he likes. The engineer, who ought to be his master, loses
all control over him, and in many cases becomes little better than his
servant. This is certainly a most discreditable state of things, and has
been the cause of the most wasteful expenditure, and the ruin of many
valuable undertakings, and it will always continue to be the case so long
as the present system prevails.
The real object of the civil engineer is to promote the civilization
of the world, by the proper application of all the great mechanical
means at his command, and to take a high, independent position as a
scientific man, thoroughly versed in his profession both theoretically
and practically, and wholly independent of contractors, and all sinister
influences. Unless he can do this, he never will be held in that esteem
and respect, or take that high position without which no professional
man can properly discharge the duties that he owes to himself and to the
public.
Against what I have said it may perhaps be urged that I assign too high a
place to the profession to which my father and myself have had the honour
to belong; but I think that when the subject has been calmly and fairly
considered it will be generally admitted that I have not done so without
reason. Without wishing for a moment to depreciate the merits of any
other body of men, I think it will be conceded that the objects proposed
by the engineer, and the acquirements, knowledge, and experience that he
must possess before he can practise successfully, are at least equal to
those of any other profession, particularly after the practical examples
exhibited to the world of the great benefits that engineering has already
conferred upon mankind. Therefore are we entitled to be ranked amongst
the most learned professions, and to receive all the honours they have
most justly earned; and I trust the time is not far distant when this
justice will be accorded to them.
Before concluding this sketch of my career I will offer a few
observations as to what I consider, from my experience, the best plan
of education for the profession of a civil engineer. Hitherto there has
been no regular system. A youth leaves school about the age of seventeen
or eighteen, without any previous training, and his parents, thinking
that he has got a mechanical turn, as it is termed, decide at once to
make him a civil engineer, whether he likes it or is fit for it or not.
They then send him, with a considerable premium, to an engineer of some
standing and practice, who, unless special conditions are made (and
very few engineers will make them), will not undertake to teach him the
profession. The pupil is sent into the office, and placed under the
direction of the principal assistant, who directs him to do whatever is
required, if he can do it, whether drawing, writing, or calculating, or
anything else; and if he wishes to learn anything, he must find it out
himself: neither the principal nor assistant explains the principles or
reasons of anything that is done. If he prove to be steady, intelligent,
and useful, keeps the regular office hours, and evinces a determination
to understand thoroughly the why and wherefore of every kind of work
that is brought before him, and by this means acquires some practical
knowledge, he will soon attract the notice of his employer, and will
be gradually transferred from one department to another, until the
expiration of his pupilage, which varies from three to four years; then,
if he really has acquired a competent knowledge of the profession, and
the employer thinks his old pupil can be of further service to him, he is
engaged at a moderate salary, to be employed in such capacity as he is
fit for. If during his pupilage he has made but little progress, nothing
beyond mere routine, he is discharged with a certificate according to his
merits, and sent into the world, to find his way forward as best he can.
Now it should be understood that the pupil only learns one part of his
business, such as the construction of railways, canals, improvement of
rivers, docks, drainage, harbours, and waterworks, and the buildings
connected with them; but there is another and very important part of
civil engineering, namely, _the mechanical department_, of which he
remains totally ignorant. Nor will he gain any insight into the raising
of coals, iron, or any other geological product. Now, in order to form
a good civil engineer, in my opinion it is absolutely necessary that he
should be well acquainted with all these different branches. To this
it may be replied, that it is not necessary an engineer should be
acquainted with all departments of the profession, but only with the
one to which he intends more particularly to devote himself. Now this
is a very great mistake, for they are all so intimately connected, that
without having a general knowledge of the whole you cannot practise
in any one department with complete success; for whenever you have to
rely upon the resources of another department you can never make sure
of being thoroughly well served, unless you are yourself a tolerable
judge of work. I repeat, then, that an engineer who has studied only
one department cannot be termed properly educated. And the question
arises, what is the best mode of education for a pupil to obtain this
multifarious, and, as I contend, absolutely necessary, information, to
enable him to practise the profession of a civil engineer in the most
enlightened, scientific, and practical manner? My answer is this: Let
him first get a sound elementary education in the several departments of
arithmetic, algebra, geometry, natural philosophy, geography, geology,
astronomy, chemistry, land and hydrographical surveying, as well as
grammar, English composition, history, French, German, and Latin,
according to the improved system of modern education; every youth of
ordinary talents has a tolerably fair knowledge of these at seventeen or
eighteen. What then should be the training for an engineer? First let him
go through the best course of modern education at his command, including
the elements of geometry, mathematics, and the physical sciences, not
excluding Latin and Greek, in spite of the prejudice against them now
frequently expressed. Then let him be apprenticed for two or three years
to some good steam engine and machinery manufacturer, where he should
learn to make drawings and calculations, handle tools, make models,
steam-engine machinery, and put machinery together. By this means,
if he applies his mind to it properly, he may become a practical as
well as theoretical mechanician, which is the soundest basis for good
engineering; indeed, without this it is impossible for an engineer to be
thoroughly successful, but being well grounded in this most important
knowledge, all the others will become comparatively easy. Having gone
through this apprenticeship, let him bind himself for three or four years
to some well-known civil engineer, of large practice in railways, docks,
harbours, waterworks, canals, drainage, rivers, &c. In this office the
pupil will learn everything connected with these departments, and as
they are founded more or less upon practical mechanics, he will soon
find that from his previous mechanical education he has already acquired
considerable knowledge of them, and it will only be necessary to apply
those principles, modified according to the particular circumstances
required: in fact, the principles are the same, although applied upon a
larger scale.
In laying down a railway the young engineer will have to consider the
particular local, geographical and geological features of the country
through which the line is to pass, and the extent of mechanical power
that will be necessary to work it effectually, consistent with the cost
of making the cuttings and embankments. Here is a purely mechanical
question, which the pupil’s previous instruction will enable him to
decide, and which he could not do without this instruction.
If it be a question of improving a river, the quantity of water flowing
through it, the inclination of its bed, the extent and levels of the
district which it has to drain, will reduce themselves to the laws of the
pressure and movement of fluids, which are explained under the general
theorems of hydraulics and hydrostatics, supplemented by certain rules
derived from practical experience, such as friction, &c.
Again, if it be the making of a harbour, the student must first
thoroughly examine the nature of the locality, that is, its geographical
position and geological character. As regards the former, whether the
harbour is to be at the mouth of a river, whether that river discharges
its waters into a bay, or through a projecting exposed line of coast
where the main tidal currents run continuously and rapidly past it. With
regard to the latter, whether the adjacent coasts be flat and alluvial;
or elevated, but still composed of soft alluvial or sandy and calcareous
soil, easily abraded or worn away by the passing currents; or whether
they be composed of the harder or primary rocks. He must also carefully
consider the strength and the direction of the currents. All these
various conditions must be carefully weighed before coming to a decision.
In constructing close harbours, the same observations must be made. Each
of these cases requires a totally different kind of treatment, and the
correct method can only be ascertained by a thorough investigation and
knowledge of the local circumstances, such as winds, tides, currents,
coasts, &c., so that the harbour when constructed may afford every
facility for ingress and egress, safety when within, and not be liable to
any deposit.
In order to give the requisite supply of water to canals it is imperative
that sufficient reservoirs should be established chiefly at the high
level if possible, also at each intervening ascent and descent; but
it is most desirable that there should be only one high level, and
generally speaking this may obtained; but when, from particular local
circumstances, this cannot be done, then the high levels, even at
considerable extra expense, should be reduced to as few as practicable.
The same may be said with regard to railways, but in the case of canals
it is always absolutely necessary that there should be reservoir space
to supply the greatest amount of lockage that may be required during
the season when there is the least quantity of rainfall. The rainfall in
any given district may always be ascertained by proper rain gauges; and
whenever it has been found that there is no probability of obtaining a
sufficiency of water to pass the amount of trade that may be expected
over any given length of canal, then the high level must be lowered
sufficiently to obtain the required supply. When, from peculiar local
circumstances, this cannot be done, then it will become necessary to
erect steam engines of the requisite power to pump back the water from
the lower to the higher levels. But as a rule it will be found, that by
laying out a canal properly, and by storing sufficient water to answer
all the required lock supply at proper places, pumping back will only be
necessary in extreme cases. This, however, is a question of detail that
will be governed by the local circumstances of each particular case.
With regard to the construction of canals, that must be regulated by
the quantity of trade to be passed, and the charges that it will bear;
but, within certain limits, the larger the canal the better. In the case
of ship canals for seaborne vessels, it is advisable to construct them
wherever they can be made at a reasonable cost, and there is traffic
enough to pay a fair interest upon the capital.
In the drainage of extensive districts of lowlands, whether bordering
upon rivers or otherwise, it is the better plan, with some exceptions,
to divide the lowland from the highland waters, and to discharge them by
separate outfalls; because if they are both discharged by one outfall,
the highland water, coming from a higher level, and naturally having the
greatest velocity, will force its way first to the outfall, and until
it is discharged the lowland water cannot get off, but will accumulate
upon and inundate the adjacent lands. Again, if only one outfall be
provided, a much more extensive system of main and interior drains
will be required, as these latter must serve as reservoirs to contain
both waters until they can be discharged by the common outfall; but by
keeping them distinct from each other, the highland water may readily be
discharged into the upper part of the rivers or watercourses, whilst the
lowland water may be made to discharge itself at the lowest point the
outfall will admit of, and will get off before the highland water can
reach it. Moreover, the highland water, being discharged so much higher
up the watercourses or rivers, will scour out their channels as well as
the outfall, prevent them from filling up, and preserve them in the best
state both for drainage and navigation. These catchwater drains for the
highland waters will also be found very useful for supplying the lowland
districts with fresh water for cattle, domestic purposes, and irrigation
during the summer and dry seasons, when fresh water is so much needed for
the lowlands. This system was first introduced by my father, in 1805, in
the drainage of the extensive district of lowlands bordering upon the
river Witham, between Boston and Lincoln, amounting to about 150,000
acres.
Generally speaking, before attempting to improve the interior drainage of
any lowland district, it is necessary, in the first place, to examine the
state of the outfall, and how far it is capable of improvement; before
this is ascertained it is impossible to lay down any effectual plan. In
order to make the outfall effective it should be improved to the greatest
extent practicable, so that the low-water line or level may be reduced
to the lowest point. Having done this, the interior drainage may be laid
out accordingly. When this is combined with the catchwater system above
described, the drainage may be rendered as complete as possible, as far
as it can be upon the natural principle of gravitation. When the water
cannot be discharged from the outfall at all times by gravitation, we
must enlarge the main and tributary drains, so that they may serve as
reservoirs to contain the drainage water during the time that the outfall
sluice is closed in consequence of the water in the river or the sea,
where the outfall sluice may be placed, being higher than the level of
the water in the main and interior drains. No land can be considered as
properly drained unless the surface of the water in the adjacent drains
can be kept from 2 to 3 feet below the surface of the adjacent lands
at all times. There must be no stagnation of water; at the same time
there must always be the means, as far as practicable, of supplying the
land with that proper degree of moisture necessary for nourishing the
soil, either from the direct rainfall or from the water discharged into
the catchwater drains from the adjacent highlands; and if these be not
sufficient, then they may be supplemented by reservoirs of the proper
dimensions attached to them. The best mode of arranging this is, of
course, a matter of detail, keeping always in view the great principle of
a thorough drainage and an ample supply of fresh water. The system that I
have above explained is based upon the soundest principles of theory and
practice, and therefore I feel no hesitation in recommending it.
With regard to the sewerage and drainage of towns, the same principle
may be adopted, modified according to local circumstances. The drains
here will require greater fall or inclination. The sewage should not
be discharged into the watercourses, but into separate depôts at a
proper distance from the dwellings. These depôts should be thoroughly
ventilated, and the sewage deodorized by mixing it with earth, or some
other suitable substance, that will not impair its value, and then it may
be sold for manure; and thus instead of becoming a nuisance it may be
turned to profitable account.
All rivers in densely populated countries should have their flood waters
stored in capacious reservoirs, with proper sluices, in the main or
adjacent subsidiary valleys, so that during the dry seasons there may
be always an ample supply of good water for domestic and agricultural
purposes, irrigation, and navigation. The reservoirs will also be
advantageous in preventing the too frequent inundations and consequent
devastation caused by floods.
In waterworks gravitation should be adopted wherever practicable, so
that the source of supply shall be placed at such an elevation that it
may command the highest part of the buildings to be supplied, thus all
artificial power for pumping will be avoided. But in most cases, except
where natural lakes can be found, it will be necessary to make settling
or filtering reservoirs, from which the water when sufficiently pure
may be delivered into the supply reservoirs, and both of these should
be capacious enough to contain a sufficient supply for a month, more
or less, according to the particular local circumstances. Last, but
not least, the quality of the water for the proposed supply should be
thoroughly tested chemically, in order to ascertain its purity; it should
be as soft as possible, and be free from vegetable as well as all other
matter prejudicial _to health_; and it must be obtained in sufficient
quantity to guarantee a supply of thirty gallons a day to each inhabitant
of the town, with the means of augmenting the supply at the same rate for
any increase of inhabitants. The conduit which is to supply the service
reservoir should be covered throughout, as well as the service reservoir,
which of course should be occasionally cleansed; the other, or settling
reservoir, near the fountain head, need not be covered if made large
enough; that also should be cleansed as often as is necessary.
Where the water cannot be supplied by means of gravitation, then the
artificial method of pumping by steam engines or water-wheels, or other
means, must be adopted; but in this case also settling, filtering,
and service reservoirs must be employed, as already described. It is
unnecessary to remark that in all cases the reservoirs and conduits
should be made thoroughly water-tight and impervious to any drainage
water from the adjacent districts.
Docks may be divided into two classes, viz. floating and dry docks; the
former may be designated as enclosed spaces filled with water, penned up
to such depth as may be required for floating vessels of all classes.
These docks or basins must be rendered water-tight, and in most cases it
is necessary to surround them with nearly vertical walls, to economize
space and to enable vessels to come alongside and discharge and receive
cargoes.
With regard to the situation of these docks and designing the plans for
them, this depends upon the local circumstances and the requirements of
the particular class of vessels that they are to accommodate, and the
trade that is to be carried on in them. Without a thorough knowledge of
all these circumstances it is impossible to give anything like a correct
opinion as to their dimensions, mode of designing them, or any other
particulars. I may say generally, however, that as these docks are always
situated contiguous to some river or harbour, either with or without the
tidal ebb and flow, the position and direction of the entrances to the
docks become of the greatest importance, in order that they may not be
too much exposed, and that vessels may be enabled to enter and depart
with the greatest facility; and in such part of the river or harbour
where there is the greatest depth of water and the best channel outwards
and inwards. There should also, as far as possible, be the means of
supplying the basins with clear water, in order to diminish the amount
of deposit within; there should also be a smaller or entrance basin
adjoining the outer lock, the level of water in which can be more readily
adjusted with that of the adjacent river or harbour, so that vessels may
be taken into the docks with the greatest despatch out of the reach of
the currents in the outer harbour, and without the necessity of lowering
the surface of the water in the inner basin.
Floating docks in general should have dry docks attached to them, for the
purpose of repairing vessels; and these dry docks should communicate by
means of a tunnel or culvert with the tidal river or harbour.
With regard to the warehouse accommodation for receiving and delivering
the different classes of merchandise brought to or taken out of the
vessels frequenting the docks, these should as far as possible be made
fire-proof, and should be properly adapted for the reception of the
different articles placed in them, so that they may be stowed away in the
most convenient manner and be readily accessible. Where space will permit
it is desirable to keep the warehouses as low as possible; by this means
the damage in the event of fire will be greatly reduced, and the expense
of taking in and delivering goods considerably diminished, and the cost
of construction lessened also.
Between the warehouses and the edge of the dock there should be
sufficient space for a road all round the warehouses; and between the
road and the edge of the dock there should be landing-sheds, so that the
cargoes of vessels, when discharged, may be placed there, to be examined
and sorted, and from thence taken away to their destination, or delivered
into the warehouses, as occasion may require. All inflammable articles,
such as oils, naphtha, turpentine, tar, pitch, jute, hemp, flax, &c.,
should be stowed away in low warehouses or covered sheds, completely
isolated, and with the interior divided into distinct compartments,
with access round each. These compartments should be no larger than
necessary. Railways should be laid along all the quays, and should be
carried through the ground floors of the whole of the warehouses, while
the upper floors should also have rail or tramways through each division
of goods, with the necessary turn-tables at their intersection with each
other. These railways should be worked either by steam power or horse
traction, as may be most advisable. All the quays and warehouses should
be supplied with a sufficient number of cranes, of the requisite strength
to lift and stow away the heaviest goods. These cranes should be worked
either by hydraulic, steam, vacuum, manual, or animal power, as may be
most advisable; in fact, they should be so designed that they may be
worked either by the one or the other, as may be required.
Fresh water should be laid round all the quays and warehouses, through
iron or glazed earthen pipes, and there should always be an ample supply,
either for vessels frequenting the docks, or for extinguishing fires;
and for this purpose capacious tanks or reservoirs should be established
at the most convenient places; and if these reservoirs cannot be made at
a sufficient height so as to command the highest warehouses, then the
water should be forced through the hose attached to the supply-pipes
by steam or other power, as shall be found most advisable. Gas, also,
in properly fitted pipes, should be distributed over the quays and
warehouses, and the movable lights should be as few as possible; those
that are used should be properly guarded, so that all risk of fire from
them may be avoided. No lucifer-matches should be permitted in any part
of the establishment, nor should smoking be allowed. By these means the
probabilities of fire will be reduced; and if, notwithstanding these
precautions, a fire should break out, there will be the most ample
provision for extinguishing it in the shortest possible time, and with
the least damage to the property.
With regard to architecture, that strictly belonging to the office of the
civil engineer is of the most simple character. The buildings should be
laid out in the best manner, and the most convenient for their respective
purposes, and thoroughly substantial. At the same time, their exterior
appearance should possess a certain degree of symmetry and dignity, so as
to impress upon the spectator the idea that they are thoroughly adapted
for their purpose. The materials should be chiefly iron, stone, and
brick; and timber should only be used when absolutely necessary. At the
same time, although it is not altogether necessary, the civil engineer
should have a thorough knowledge of the five orders of architecture,
and the mode of applying them; the principles of constructing and
equilibrating arches of all kinds must be thoroughly understood; and if
he intends to combine the practice of domestic and public architecture
with that which is only strictly necessary for civil engineering, then he
must enter more largely into the subject, and study the different ancient
and modern styles of building.
Surveying and levelling will also form an important part of his
duties. In order to understand them it is necessary that he should
know thoroughly plane and spherical trigonometry, and the calculations
necessarily connected with them. He should also have a certain knowledge
of astronomy, to enable him to calculate the tides and other phenomena
connected therewith, and to be able to lay down correct charts of any
harbour or sea coast, with the soundings, currents, and winds prevailing
there.
Geology will form another important department of study, without which he
cannot understand the nature of the materials that he will have to deal
with, such as stone, lime, cements, earths, &c.; the angles at which they
will stand in making deep cuttings and embankments; the best and most
durable kind to be employed in any particular work, the proper mode of
working it, and how to place it in the best position so as to resist the
effects of the atmosphere or running water, the concussion of waves, &c.,
in the most effectual manner. The study of geology will further enable
him to account for the formation of shoals and any given line of coast,
together with the operation of the currents upon them, and the best mode
of remedying their disastrous effects; also the best plan for designing
and constructing harbours on each particular coast or situation.
Again, by having a thorough knowledge of the strata and formation of any
given district of country, he will be enabled to ascertain where water
may be found, and in what quantity; and if he practises mining, he will
be able to predict with tolerable certainty where different kinds of
minerals may be obtained, such as coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, gold,
silver, &c., and the mode of working them to the greatest advantage.
In fact, geology combined with mineralogy he will find to be of most
essential service in almost every department of civil engineering.
_Embankments._--This is another department of engineering which requires
a good deal of skill and judgment, particularly along an exposed open
coast, where lowlands are to be protected against the encroachments of
the sea. The first point is to select the line of embankment in such a
manner that there shall always be in front of it a good foreshore, so
that the force of the sea may be broken before it reaches the embankment;
that is to say, where practicable, to have a certain extent of green or
outlying marsh in front of it, so that the embankment when completed
will seldom have a head of water to contend with at high tide of above
six or seven feet. And even with this moderate depth at high water, when
exposed to the action of a heavy gale of wind, there will for three or
four hours be a considerable broken sea, calculated to do a great deal
of damage, if the embankment be not properly constructed. Now, if the
embankment have a good green foreshore in front, with sea slope of about
5 or 6 to 1, well sodded up, a facing of clay about 18 inches thick, 6
feet above the highest level of spring tides, the top being 6 feet wide,
with back slopes of 2 to 1, with a back ditch 10 feet from the foot
of the inner slope, the interior of the embankment being composed of
sound earth well rammed or pressed together, so as to make it solid--an
embankment of this kind will be able to resist such a pressure as we may
ordinarily expect it to be exposed to.
There may be extraordinary cases where this will not be sufficient. When
these occur it will be necessary to pave the surface with stone, about 9
inches thick, or with fagots. The former is, however, decidedly the best
plan, as it will be permanent, whereas fagots are constantly rotting, and
require renewal.
If the sea shows a tendency to carry away the foreshore, it must be
prevented, by means of jetties so disposed as to collect the alluvial
matter held by the sea water in suspension. These, if properly designed
and constructed, will generally have the desired effect.
In cases where the water outside is deep and the sea face of the
embankment may be exposed to a head of water of 12 feet and upwards,
much greater precautions must be taken to guard against accident. The
sea slopes of the embankment must be increased to 7 or 9 to 1, well
faced with clay and paved with stone, having the foreshore in front well
protected with jetties. In fact, no two cases will be alike: each must
be treated separately according to the particular local circumstances,
and therefore it is impossible to design a proper plan for any embankment
without knowing all the local circumstances. The general principle is
that the sea face of the embankment should never be less than from 4
or 5 to 1. In some particular cases a less slope will do, say 3 to 1.
This, however, certainly depends upon local circumstances. The base of
the outer slope should be particularly watched, and if any crack appears
to be forming, it should be immediately stopped by jetties carried out
as far as necessary. In forming embankments it is usual, when it can
be done, to take the earth from the outside of the sea slope, but this
should never be done within less than 10 yards from the base of the
slope, and these “_floor pits_,” as they are termed, should generally not
exceed 12 to 18 inches in depth, and be increased in width in proportion
to the quantity of earth required for the bank; at every 10 or 15 yards,
in the longitudinal direction, the earth should not be removed, but left
to form small cross banks between the floor pits, so as to prevent any
current being formed in them; thus these floor pits will soon be filled
up by the alluvial matter brought in by the tide, when the outside slopes
of the bank are neither exposed to the heavy lash of the waves nor to
strong currents. Then if they are covered with good grass sods properly
laid on and beaten into the face of the bank it may suffice, but not
otherwise. If this should not answer the slope must be increased and, if
necessary, paved with stone as above mentioned. When good clay cannot be
obtained to face the bank, then the best of the earth that can be got
must be employed, mixed with straw, well puddled with water, and laid
upon the surface of the bank in a moist state about 18 inches thick, and
then faced with stone about 9 inches thick, well rammed edgeways into it.
In cases where it is necessary to protect any line of coast against the
ravages of the ocean, the measures to be adopted will depend upon the
form and geological character of the coast to be so protected, whether
low flats and alluvial, or cliffs composed of rocks more or less hard,
and easily acted upon by the waves, rain, and atmosphere. In the former
case it will generally be found that the coast is surrounded by extensive
flat sands, and that the water holds a large quantity of alluvial matter
in suspension. The great object, therefore, should be to cause this
alluvial matter to be deposited in such form and in such places as are
best adapted to our purpose. Now this may generally be effected in an
inexpensive manner, considering the object to be attained, by a series
of jetties, either composed of stakes wattled together with fagots, or
lines of loose stones disposed in such a manner that they shall break the
rising and falling waters, and make them stagnant between the jetties,
so that they may deposit their alluvial matter. In the first instance
these jetties need not be raised more than two feet above the level of
the sand, and when the sand or alluvial soil has accumulated up to the
top, they may be again raised to a similar height, and so on until the
soil in front of the coast has been converted into a green marsh; thus
there will not only be formed a protection to the coast invaded by the
sea, but fresh land may be gained in front of it and embanked from the
sea. It is impossible to explain the precise disposition and direction
of these jetties and works without a thorough knowledge of the locality,
and such circumstances as its exposure to winds, tides, and currents.
The principle however is to check the currents gradually, and in such a
way as to prevent any strong current from being formed; for if a new and
strong current should be created, not only will the alluvial matter not
be deposited, but the works themselves will be carried away, and all the
labour and expense will be wasted. It is generally advisable that such
works should be commenced near the shore, and worked downwards towards
the sea; thus, if they are properly managed, no deep pools or strong
currents will be formed behind them; and the required process of filling
or silting up will proceed regularly seaward, always increasing the
protection required, and obtaining additional land as they proceed.
In some cases, where the sea is heavy, it may be necessary to have
stronger jetties or works to relieve and protect the minor ones above
described; but these should only be resorted to in places where the
others are insufficient, or in greatly exposed situations; wherever the
minor works will suffice, as they will in most cases if properly applied
and constructed, the less heavy works are resorted to the better, as
the great object is to lead not drive Nature; that is, to work with her
instead of against her. By this means a few bricks and stakes will do
a great deal more than far greater and more expensive works. So far as
regards low alluvial coasts, these, if properly managed, will be found
comparatively easy to deal with.
When we come to rocky coasts that are wearing away by the combined action
of the sea below and the rains and atmosphere above, and where there is
little or no alluvial matter held in suspension by the waters, that might
be collected so as to form a protecting deposit at their base, then we
must adopt a different system, but not altogether ignoring the other when
it can be made useful. In this latter case we must secure the bases of
the cliffs at least up to high-water mark by means of retaining walls,
where the rock itself is not hard enough to resist the action of the sea.
These walls need not be carried higher than absolutely necessary. In some
cases a mere footing will do; in others, the wall may be carried up to
half tide; and in others up to the full high-water mark; and although the
rock may be naturally soft, yet if its surface be protected by harder
stone, even of a very moderate thickness, it will be quite sufficient
to resist further encroachment by the sea. As these retaining walls
will be founded upon a base of solid rock, there is very little fear of
their being undermined; therefore, when I said before that it would be
necessary to carry these retaining walls up to high-water mark, it must
be understood as applying only to those rocks that are easily abraded by
the sea.
There is another point to be attended to. The base being secured, we
must look to the cliff above. Here, from the effect of rains, the water
frequently cannot get away, accumulates behind at the top, and sinks
through the fissures, when partly by hydraulic pressure and partly by
the effects of frost, large masses are detached and fall below; and as
this is continually occurring, the progress of decay goes on increasing.
Having secured the base, the next thing, where practicable, is to slope
off the upper surface of the cliff, so as to prevent it from overhanging,
and then to make a drain at the back to carry off any water that may
lodge there. By these means, if properly carried into effect, the base
of the cliff being protected against the sea from below and rainwater
from above, there is every probability that it will be preserved, in all
ordinary cases. In extraordinary cases additional measures must be taken
to meet them upon the same principles. With regard to retaining walls
of brickwork or masonry, these should be always in excess of strength
beyond the pressure, whether vertical or lateral, that they may have to
resist. When the pressure is simply lateral, then the mean thickness
of wall built of masonry and brickwork--the mean thickness, generally
speaking, of the main body of the wall--should be about one-fourth of
the height, besides counterforts at the back at certain distances from
each other, regulated according to the particular circumstances. These,
upon the average, including the thickness of the main wall, will make the
total mass to be equal to nearly one-third of the total height. My father
frequently made these walls curved in the front as well as at the back,
the front being struck from a radius whose centre was level with the top
of the wall, and of such a length that the face of the wall should batter
one-fifth of the total height; the back of the wall should be struck from
a centre at the same level as the other, but a little longer, so that
at the base the wall might be about 2 feet thicker than at the top, in
addition to two or three footings of 6 inches each; and the base of the
wall was made to incline backwards, according to the radius from whence
it was struck.
These walls, when they are to rest upon alluvial soil, must be founded
upon a platform composed of piles of a sufficient length and thickness,
driven at right angles to the line of the foundation, until with the
blow of a ram weighing 15 cwt. and falling 20 feet they will not move
one-eighth of an inch. These piles should be driven in regular rows,
longitudinally and transversely, about 3 feet apart, and hooped and shod
with wrought-iron hoops and shoes. At the front, immediately under the
tie of the wall, there should be a row of grooved and tongued sheeting
piles driven close together, and to the same depth as the others, about
6 inches thick, having a waleing or longitudinal brace 6 inches thick
and 12 inches wide, well bolted in each side of the top of the sheeting
piles. The loose earth should be taken out to about a foot in depth, and
the space filled in with stone or brickwork to the level of the pile
heads, which should be carefully trimmed, then covered with sills about
12 inches square, well spiked down to them. The spaces between the sills
should be well faced with brickwork, and the whole surface should then be
covered with 6-inch plank, properly spiked down to the sills below. Upon
this platform the masonry and brickwork of the wall should be built. The
wall should be carefully backed up as it proceeds with sound earth or
clay, or clay mixed with one-sixth of gravel or concrete, as shall be
deemed most advisable. These curved walls, if properly constructed, are
stronger and more economical than the ordinary walls.
In some cases, as in that of Sheerness, for example, the foundation is so
bad that a totally different plan must be adopted. At Sheerness it was
necessary that the base of the walls should be increased, distributing
the weight over a wider area, so that each superficial foot of the
superincumbent mass should have a larger bearing, thus greatly relieving
the pressure over every part.
The foundation upon which the walls were built was as bad as possible,
being composed of nothing but loose running silt and sand. Upon such a
foundation walls of the ordinary kind would not have stood; my father
therefore saw the necessity of designing some new construction, upon the
principles above mentioned. He had previously adopted something similar
for the docks at Great Grimsby, in Lincolnshire, in 1786, which design
was carried into effect with great success. The walls at Sheerness and at
Great Grimsby were built both upon the same principle, modified according
to local circumstances. Sheerness docks were finished altogether in the
year 1826, and they have stood ever since.
I believe that I have now enumerated all the chief points to which the
education of a civil engineer should be directed. Whilst he continues in
an engineer’s office, whatever business is brought before him, he should
always endeavour to thoroughly understand the reasons for which such and
such a work is proposed to be made, and the principles upon which it is
to be constructed; and if he finds, according to his previous education,
difficulties either in the principle or construction, he should modestly
state his doubts to his superior; if no explanation is given, he has
simply to do as he is ordered, making notes of his doubts, and when the
work is carried into effect he will then be able to ascertain how far he
was right or wrong. If the work turns out to be a failure, his previous
calculations will show him that he was right; but if the work succeeds,
his calculations were wrong, and he should carefully go over them again
to ascertain his error. He should follow the same process when he has
to design and carry into effect any work upon his own responsibility,
and if he is in doubt as to any point, let him consult some one of his
professional brethren in whom he has confidence. When he is consulted
on similar occasions by another engineer, let him give his advice and
opinion to the best of his power; by this means he will gain the respect
of his colleagues, and every one will be ready to help him when required.
Let him be particularly careful about his estimates; and after he has
estimated _fully_ the probable cost of a work, let him add an allowance
of quite 15 per cent. for contingencies, which in all engineering works
are so numerous and varied that it is almost impossible to foresee them.
We should always recollect that the great object of all engineering works
is to produce a fair return for the capital expended upon them, or, in
other words, that they should pay. If, after due calculation, it is found
there is no chance of that, they should not be undertaken; for although
it may be very gratifying to the professional reputation of an engineer
to have executed a great work, it is but a poor consolation to his
subscribers to find that their money has been comparatively thrown away
without any adequate return.
Upon these grounds, therefore, I think it is better that the engineer
should confine himself strictly to his business, that is, of designing
and estimating any proposed work in the best possible manner to ensure
the object intended. Let those who are most competent ascertain whether
there is a sufficient prospect of traffic to pay a good return for the
required capital; and so long as the engineer executes the work for his
estimate, he cannot be blamed if the work does not pay a sufficient
return. In fact, the whole commercial value of a work depends upon its
cost, and therefore it is so important that the estimate should be
adhered to as closely as possible, for if this be much exceeded the
commercial calculation falls to the ground, and then the subscribers
have just reason to complain. Against this I have heard it argued that
if correct estimates were always made, and the ultimate cost of many
works was known beforehand, they would never have been carried out,
although notwithstanding the increased cost they have finally proved to
be very valuable. This is certainly to some extent true; many inventions
and discoveries have ruined the original promoters, yet have ultimately
conferred the greatest benefits upon mankind; and many enterprises
that have ruined the original undertakers have greatly enriched their
successors. Still there can be no excuse for an engineer knowingly
underestimating the cost of a work; he is undoubtedly bound to make a
fair, honest estimate of every work committed to his charge, so far as
his judgment goes; having done that his duty is discharged; nothing
further can be expected of him than to see that the work entrusted to his
care is strictly carried into effect according to that estimate.
* * * * *
Since the summer of 1866 I have done scarcely anything. The great crisis
and subsequent panic that occurred at that time paralysed the commercial
world. I considered my advancing years (I was then seventy-two), and
the great hazard and uncertainty of carrying on business, and thought
it most prudent to retire. After the harassing and anxious life that I
had led for so many years, I felt my health so shaken as to require
complete repose. But I hope, if God spares me, to be still useful to the
profession and my country, by completing a work on the drainage of the
fens and lowlands of Great Britain, and hydraulics generally. I also
design to write a history of engineering, enlarged from my Address to
the Institution of Civil Engineers, and a life of my revered father. All
these I have already sketched out, and I hope to complete them, if it
please God to spare my life a few years longer.
My apology for the present work is this: I think it is the duty of
everyone who has led an active professional life faithfully to record
the various works in which he has been engaged, the failures as well as
the successes, detailing the causes of both; for we frequently learn
more from the former than from the latter. I believe I have in this
book faithfully done this. From unavoidable circumstances I have been
obliged to trust entirely to memory while writing these pages, having
been totally precluded from consulting notes or memoranda of any kind; I
hope, therefore, that any inaccuracies that may be detected by the reader
will be pardoned, though I believe that in the main my statements will be
found correct.
Like others, I have had to contend with professional jealousy; but I
believe I have on all occasions done justice to my rivals, and I have
never wilfully attempted to injure anyone. Naturally of a very sanguine
temperament, I am but too apt to view things in a favourable light, and
to judge well of those with whom I come in contact; as a consequence
of this I have often been deceived by those in whom I have placed the
greatest confidence. This sanguine disposition has been the cause of
many disappointments; but it has also enabled me to bear up successfully
against failure, and still to look forward with hope to the future.
Whenever a misfortune has occurred I have endeavoured to forget it as
soon as possible; I always called to mind the words of the great Duke of
Wellington, who said, _There is no use in looking back and brooding over
the past; forget it, and apply your energies to the future, and do better
next time_. This many people either cannot or will not do; hence they
succumb. Doubtless everyone has his trials, and some are much better able
to get through them than others; nevertheless, a very little reflection
will show that what is past cannot be helped, and that by brooding over
misfortune we do no good, but only waste our energies and invite failure
in everything else.
The motto of life should be, Forward! We must expect to be checked,
thwarted, and baffled in our endeavours to attain success; but these
obstacles, instead of totally arresting our progress, should serve only
to increase our energy. Like a river, impeded in its course, in silence
waits till its accumulated strength sweeps the obstruction from its
path, and it flows on majestically as before--so should we make every
difficulty we encounter add to our strength, instead of increasing our
weakness. Nevertheless, since “’tis not in mortals to command success,”
we may sometimes struggle in vain; and fortune ever against us, we may be
overcome at the last; but even then we have this satisfaction--we have
fought a good fight; we have done the best we could; we have done our
duty to the best of our ability, and that is all that can be required of
us. To do my duty has been my endeavour through life; and probably if I
had adhered to it more strictly I might have done a great deal better.
Nevertheless, little as I have done, I should not have accomplished half
so much had I not kept that one object in view, as far as my physical
and mental powers would permit; and this is no small consolation. The
old motto, “_Nil desperandum_,” should be constantly on our lips, and
should act like the spur on a jaded steed. Affairs are never so bad but
they might have been worse, and they may generally be mended by energy
and perseverance, and a determination to make the best of everything. We
may not be able to accomplish all we aspire to achieve; nevertheless by
refusing to yield to misfortune we shall escape the reproach of cowardice
and faintheartedness. When we suffer a defeat, let us calmly consider the
cause of it, and nine times out of ten we shall find that it is through
our own fault; these lessons of experience should be carefully laid to
heart, and serve for our future guidance.
I have never deemed wealth desirable for mere personal gratification, but
only in so far as it would have enabled me to help others, to promote
the advancement of science and the well-being of my fellow creatures;
this would have conferred the greatest happiness upon me, but it has
been denied by the Almighty Disposer of events, and most probably with
justice, that it might be done better by other hands. I therefore humbly
bow to the Almighty’s decision; and if I have done the best I could in
His sight, I am amply rewarded. I, however, most deeply regret that I
have not done more. I return my most fervent thanks to the Almighty that
He, out of His great mercy, has allowed me to do the little I have done;
and I most devoutly hope that He through His Son Jesus Christ will pardon
my shortcomings; and I say with all reverence, Bless the Lord for all His
mercies!
DAWLISH, _December 9, 1867_.
INDEX.
Aberdeen, 10, 15.
Acts of Parliament, 7, 159, 199, 200, 204, 205, 208, 209, 212, 223,
238, 399, 405.
Adventures in Greece, 102.
Adventures in Portugal, 352.
Adventures in Spain, 266, 269, 273.
Ægina, 78.
Africa an island, 141.
Aga, a Turkish, 118, 120, 131.
Aiasolok, 114.
Albion flour mills, 286.
Alderson, Baron, 238.
Alexandria, 131.
Alpheus, river, 98.
Ancholme level, 224.
Ancona, 44, 46.
Antiparos, 107.
Antwerp, 29.
Apollo, temple of, 119.
Approaches, London Bridge, 183-188, 197.
Aqueducts, 325, 369.
Arches, 6, 22, 25, 32, 150, 173, 178-180, 189, 275.
Ardres, 27.
Argos, 82.
Assouan, 144.
Astonishing the natives, 66.
Athenæum Club, 250.
Athens, 73, 104.
Athens, Maid of, 105.
Atmospheric railway, 421.
Atreus, hall of, 81.
Austria, 279.
Baden, 282.
Bairam, the, 124.
Baird, Mr., 254.
Balloon, 190.
Bangor Suspension Bridge, 244.
Banks, Sir Joseph, 248.
Bar at Portsmouth Harbour, 411.
Barcelona, 274.
Barrier banks, 216.
Barrow, Sir John, 249.
Bedford, Duke of, 199, 202, 205.
Bedford level, the, 158.
Belem, 324, 326.
Belgium, 26.
Benching, 167.
Bentinck, Lord George, 208.
Bentinck, Lord William, 207, 208.
Berne, 37.
Bessemer, 233.
Beveland, St., 317, 321.
Bey of Tunis, 373.
Bitter lakes, 139.
Blackett, 234.
Black Sluice Commissioners, 221.
Blackwall Railway, 293.
Blast-pipe, 243, note.
Blenkinsop, 233.
Boats, bridge of, 129.
Boiler, multitubular, 242.
Boston Corporation, 219.
Boswell, Captain, 33.
Boulton, 233, 413.
Bouyukderé, 126.
Bradley, Dr., 5, 31.
Bradshaw, Mr., 237.
Braga, 364.
Bramley fall, 177.
Breakwaters, 165, 397, 410.
Breakwaters, natural, 427.
Bridges, 6, 7, 22, 27, 30, 37, 40, 129, 150, 180, 275.
Bridges, suspension, 244.
Bridgewater Canal, 236, 237.
Brigands, 54, 55, 69, 92, 267.
Brindisi, 57.
Brindley, 237.
Bristol and Chepstow Railway, 299.
‘British and Foreign Harbours,’ 20, 75, 78, 198, 367, 415.
Brooke, Sir Arthur de Capel, 248.
Bronsted, Chevalier, 61.
Broussa, 121.
Brown, Mr. James, 290.
Bruges, 29.
Brunel, 239.
Brussels, 28.
Buckenshaw, 241.
Bull fight, 329.
Burge, Mr., 301, 310, 344.
Burney, Dr., 3.
Business, introduction to, 4.
Byron, Lord, 87.
Cadiz, 264.
Cairo, 132.
Calamata, 87, 96.
Canals, 39, 132, 138, 237, 244, 261, 284, 308.
Canova, 48.
Cannock Chase Railway, 296.
Cardiff docks, 367.
Carlists, 264, 269, 271, 273, 275.
Carrara, 151.
Carthage, 369.
Cartwright, General, 123.
Cast-iron dock gates, 165.
Cast-iron rails, 228, 240.
Catchwater drains, 52, 219, 226, 240.
Central Kent Railway, 300.
Chæronæa, lion of, 101.
Chapman, William, 243.
Charles XV. of Sweden, 308.
Chatham dry dock, 22, 165, 410.
Chatmoss, 238.
Cholera, 270, 278.
‘Chronicles of Old London Bridge,’ 193.
Church, General, 54.
Civil Engineers, Institute of, 428.
Civita Vecchia, 46.
Clarence Yard, Portsmouth, 46.
Cleopatra’s needle, 133, 145.
Coal tax, 184, 196.
Cobden, Mr., 299.
Cofferdams, 175, 409.
Cog-wheels, 231, 233.
Coimbra, 347.
Commissioners, Eau Brink, 158.
Conduits, 127.
Conolly, 252.
Conservators of the Thames, 7.
Consort, the late Prince, 208, 358.
Constantinople, 122, 126.
Continent, tours on the, 26-30, 36-154, 252-283, 304-399.
Convents, 68, 77, 82, 99, 104, 274, 275, 330, 364.
Conway Suspension Bridge, 244.
Copeland Islands, 18, 19.
Copenhagen, 314.
Copais, lake, 101.
Coquet river, 291.
Corfu, 57.
Corinth, 71.
Cornish high-pressure engines, 413.
Corporation of London, 7, 173, 174, 182.
Coronation in Lisbon, 341.
Cort, Mr., 233.
Crampton and Morris, 301.
Croker, John Wilson, 156, 158, 195, 250.
Cronstadt, 257.
Cross Keys bridge, 204.
Dagenham lake, 403.
Danube, 377.
Daunemora, 305.
Davy, Sir H., 31, 48, 248, 250.
Death of Mr. Rennie, Sen., 155.
Demetrius, 64, 144.
Denver Sluice, 198, 199.
Deptford Dockyard, 21, 22.
Diving bell, 162, 286, 409.
Docks, 257, 403, 442-445.
Dog, anecdote of, 39, note.
Donaghadee, 19, 198, 415.
Donaldson, Professor, 113.
Downie, Colonel, 271.
Drainage, 51, 199, 421, 422, 438.
Durham, Earl of, 292.
Dutch system of embanking, 217, 318.
Duty on stone, 34.
Eastern Counties Railway, 293.
Eau Brink Commissioners, 158, 199, 212.
Eau Brink drainage, 198, 309.
Edfou, temple of, 136.
Edge rails, 240.
Education for Civil Engineer, 433-455.
Egypt, 133.
Elvas, 351.
Embankments, 132, 140, 214-218, 446.
Embankment, Thames, 192, 196.
Engineering works, 407-426.
Engineers, 294, 428, 431, 433.
Engineers, Dutch, 323.
Engineer to the Admiralty, 158.
Engines (_see_ Locomotives, Steam engines).
Engines, condensing, 171.
Engines, high-pressure, 171, 230.
Ephesus, ruins of, 114.
Epidauros, 79.
Estimating, 454.
Estremoz, 350.
Evaporation, 142.
Everest, Sir George, 3.
Evidence before Parliamentary committee, 185.
Exeter, Marquis of, 298.
Exhibition, International, 381.
Fens, drainage of the, 199.
Ferguson, Mr. James, 16.
Fernando, Dom, 325.
Field of the Cloth of Gold, 27.
Fischa Dagnitz, 383.
Fish Street Hill, 183.
Fishmongers’ Hall, 186.
Fleet, Russian, 252.
Florence, 150.
Foley, Mr., 86.
Fontes, M., 325, 335, 339, 349.
Foulkes, Sir William, 207, 211.
Fox, Williams, and Co., 168.
Francis, Emperor of Austria, 281.
Freibourg, 37.
Frere, Mr., 122.
Fruit vessels of St. Michael’s, 392.
Gallery of Illustration, 195.
Gantry crane, 287, 289.
Gauges, railway, 239, 418.
Gell, Sir W., 48, 78.
Geneva, 36.
Genoa, 152.
Geographical Society, Royal, 248.
Geology, 445.
George III., 20.
George IV., 34, 146, 195.
Gibraltar, 264.
Giles, Mr. Francis, 5, 17, 20, 21, 220, 285, 297.
‘Gipsey Queen,’ the, 302.
Gonsalvi, 50.
Gotha Canal, 308.
Gothenburg, 305.
Government workshops, 289.
Granada, 265.
Grand Sluice, 221.
Granite, 10, 15, 144, 177, 335.
Great Northern Railway, 224, 297.
Greece, adventures in, 102.
Greenlaw, Dr., 1.
Grey, Earl, 189, 291.
Groves, Dr., 145.
Guildford, Lord, 58.
Guimaraens, 363.
Gwilt, Mr. Joseph, 26.
Gwynne, Nell, 287.
Hackworth’s engine, 242.
Harbours, 54, 152, 198, 274, 290, 333, 336, 386, 399, 415, 437.
Hartlepool, 291.
Hartley, Sir Charles, 338.
Hellespont, 129.
Hetton Colliery railways, 235.
High-pressure engines, 171, 230.
Holland, 316-324.
Hollingsworth, Mr. James, 5.
Hollow walls, 164, 408.
Holyhead road, 244.
Hospitality, Portuguese, 353.
Humber, 224.
Huskisson, Mr., killed, 246.
Imperial Elisabeth Railway, 377.
Inventions, new, 232.
Ionian Islands, 54, 56.
Ireland, drainage in, 422.
Iron mines, 305, 310, 315.
Irrigation, 137.
Ismaila, lake, 139.
Ivens, Mr. Thomas, 386.
Jackson, Colonel, 249.
Jackson, Sir John, 26.
Jeffreys, Mr., 191.
Jessop, Jonas, 167, 243, 285.
Jessop, William, 241.
John, King, 205.
Jolliffe and Banks, 8, 34, 160, 192, 200, 222, 226, 409.
Jones, Mr., 6.
Jones, Mr. R. L., 173, 178, 183, 185.
Kalavatha, 85, 101.
Kennet and Avon Canal, 20.
Kurds, adventure with, 116, 120.
Lagoons of Venice, 41.
Lakes, 37, 101, 138, 139, 403.
Land, reclaiming from the sea, 214, 216, 318, 322.
Leghorn, 151.
Leicester, Earl of, 211.
Leonardi da Vinci, 39.
Lerna, 183.
Lesseps, M., 140.
Levelling, 445.
Lisbon, 324.
Litigation, 212, 296.
Livadia, 100.
Liverpool, Lord, 182.
Locomotives, 230-234, 240, 302.
London and Birmingham Railway, 243, 247.
London and Brighton Railway, 245.
London Bridge, 172-192, 263, 407.
London, Chatham, and Dover Railway, 286, 301.
London streets, 194.
Lonsdale, Earl of, 236.
Lowther, Lord, 243.
Lynn, 199, 212.
Lynn Corporation, 210.
Lunzi, Count, 61.
Machinery, 286, 287, 412.
Madrid, 271.
Magnesia, 115, 121.
Mahmoud, Sultan, 123.
Maid of Athens, 75.
Maina, 88.
Maitland, Sir Thomas, 54, 58.
Malaga, 265.
Malta, 145.
Mamelukes, 134.
Manchester and Liverpool Railway, 246.
Man, Isle of, 290.
Mantinea, 85.
Manzanilla wine, 269.
Marathon, 102.
Marathonesi, 90.
Marble, Parian, 106.
Marcet, Dr., 37.
Marine engines, 414.
Marriage, Oriental, 123.
Marsh fever, 320.
Marshland drainage, 199.
Martin, Sir T. B., 414.
Mayo, Dr. H., 3.
Mediterranean, 140.
Mehemet Ali, 133.
Melville, Lord, 17, 22, 158, 164.
Menai Straits bridge, 180.
Merthyr Tydvil, 231.
Messenia, 97.
Meston, Mr., 8.
Metropolitan Railway, 303.
Metternich, Prince, 280.
Mezzofanti, 44.
Middle Level Corporation, 206, 210.
Milan, 39.
Miletus, ruins of, 119.
Milman, Dr., 3.
Mint, 30, 286.
Mitylene, 109.
Mola di Gaeta, 149.
Moles, hollow, 46.
Montague, Mr., 85.
Monte Serrata, 275.
Moore, 50.
Morat and Bienne lakes, 37.
Morgan, Lady, 50.
Morea, tour through, 77.
Moscow, 261.
Mosques, Turkish, 125.
Murchison, Sir Roderick, 250.
Mycene, 81.
Napier, Sir Charles, 59.
Naples, 53, 147.
Napoleon, Louis, 308.
Napoli di Romania, 79.
Nash, 194.
Natur Geforsches, 280.
Negropont, 101.
Nene outfall, 199, 205.
Newcomen, 228.
Newry ship canal, 423.
Nicholas, Emperor, 253, 259.
Nile, 131, 134, 137, 138, 141, 143.
Norfolk Estuary, 208, 218.
Northfleet, 21.
Nyanza, lake, 138.
Oçana, 351.
Odessa, surveys at, 377, 378.
Old London Bridge, 172, 174, 181, 192.
Olympus, Mount, 121.
O’Neil, Mr., 349.
Oporto, 325, 331.
Orchomenus, 101.
Order of knighthood, 308.
Oscar, King of Sweden, 307.
Oscillating engines, 413.
Ostend, 30.
Ottoman troops, 125.
Ouse, 158, 206, 212.
Ovar, 342.
Owen, Colonel, 332.
Pæstum, 147.
Palmerston, Lord, 196.
Paris, 194.
Paris, cholera in, 279.
Parliamentary committees, 185, 295, 297.
Parliament, petition to, 191.
Paros, quarries at, 106.
Parthenon, the, 74, 75.
Patras, 64, 98.
Pedro, Dom, 339.
Peel, Sir Robert, 247.
Penn, Mr. John, 414.
Perceval, Mr., death of, 168.
Perkins, Mr., 172.
Peterhead, 11, 15, 17.
Petersburg, St., 253, 256.
Peter the Great, 257.
Peto, Betts, and Co., 211, 302, 340, 348.
Phigalian marbles, 96.
Picture galleries, 150.
Piers, curved, 53.
Piers, open, 147.
Piles for London Bridge, 175.
Pinto, Basto, and Co., 344.
Piræus, 72, 75.
Pitfour, 16.
Pitt, Mr., 17, 22, 163.
Pius VII., 51.
Platen, Count, 308.
Plymouth Breakwater, 165, 410.
Polyænus, 129.
Pompey’s Pillar, 133.
Ponta Delgada harbour, 385-398.
Pontine Marshes, 51.
Pont Sans Pareille, 27.
Porcelain manufactory, 344.
Port Patrick, 19, 20.
Port Said, 139.
Portsmouth Harbour, 410.
Portugal, 324, 352.
Portuguese bull fight, 329.
Portuguese railways, 339, 343, 345, 353.
Port wine district, 341.
Prevot, M., 67, 73.
Priene, 118.
Quarries, ancient Egyptian, 144.
Quarries, granite, 11.
Quarries, marble, 106, 151.
Rails, 240-242.
Railways, 132, 228, 243-248, 284, 292, 294, 299, 328, 339, 367,
415-418, 436.
Railway gauges, 239.
Railways in Sweden, 304, 307.
Railway mania, 294, 307.
Rainhill, competition of engines at, 240.
Raleigh Club, 250.
Ramadan, the, 127.
Ramsgate Harbour, 161, 399.
Reclaimed land, 421, 422.
Red Sea, 139.
Regent Street, 194.
Religious fanaticism in Turkey, 125.
Remington, Mr., 291, 404.
Rennie, Mr. George, 167, 244, 263, 287.
Rennie, Mr., Sen., 7, 20, 21, 31, 36, 145, 162, 163, 165, 168, 172,
180, 193, 198, 199, 205, 219, 286.
Reservoirs, 127.
Retaining walls, 451.
Rhone, 38.
Rigby, Messrs., 405.
Roads in Portugal, 344.
Robbers (_see_ Brigands).
‘Rocket,’ the, 240.
Rolling machinery at the Mint, 30.
Romans, the, 192.
Rome, 47.
Rosen, Count, 304, 309.
Roskilly, Dr., 148.
Royal Society, 248.
Royal William Yard, Stonehouse, 170, 410.
Rubens, 29.
Rummery Mill, 199.
Russia, 252.
Russian society, 256.
Rutland, Duchess of, 196.
Sadlier, John, M.P., 310.
Saldanha, Duke de, 325.
Salisbury, Marquis of, 182.
Salvatierra, 349.
Samuda, Messrs., 302.
Sandeman, Messrs., 333, 362.
Savery, 228.
Scalo, 99.
Scheldt, the, 316.
Schleswig, 312.
Schooldays, 2.
Scott, Mr., 121, 188.
Scotland, surveys in, 17.
Screw steamers, 288, 413.
Sea-walls, 448.
Sebastopol, 258, 287.
Serpent charmers, 136, 375.
Seville, 269.
Sewage, 425.
Sewers, 401.
Shaw, Waring, and Co., 341, 349.
Sheerness Dockyard, 22, 163, 408, 453.
Shelley, 2.
Ship canal, 284.
Sierra Morena, 270.
Simplon Pass, 37.
Smeaton, 162, 193, 228.
Smeatonian Society, 429.
Smirke, Sir Robert, 195, 197.
Smyrna, 110, 121.
Smyth, Admiral, 60, 66.
Society at Rome, 48.
Society in London, 263.
South Eastern Railway, 286, 300.
South Wales Railway, 299.
Southwark Bridge, 7, 17, 22-26, 30, 34.
Spain, 264.
Spanish peasantry, 268.
Sparta, 87.
Spezzia, 151.
‘Spry’ sloop of war, 133, 145, 154.
Stages, floating, 31.
Stationary engines on railways, 294.
Steam engines, 228-235, 287, 413.
Steam engine, Watt’s experiments with, 229.
Steam gun, the, 172.
Steam pumping, 161.
Steam vessels, 171, 258, 287, 302.
Stephenson, George, 235, 240, 247, 293.
Stephenson, Robert, 32, 132, 180, 206, 210, 247.
St. Michael’s, 385, 398.
Stockton and Darlington Railway, 20, 235.
Stroganoff, Count, 126.
Suez Canal, 138-143.
Sulina, 378.
Sun-and-planet wheel, 229.
Surveying, 445.
Sweden, 304.
Swedes, character of, 314.
Swedish iron, 316.
Swedish railways, 310.
Switzerland, 36.
Sword manufactory, Toledo, 272.
Tagus, 324, 327.
Taste, Committee of, 95.
Taygetus, Mount, 88, 92, 95.
Teddington Lock, 193.
Telford, Mr., 167, 180, 191, 198, 200, 221, 244, 247, 308.
Temples, 71, 74, 77, 82, 119, 136.
Terracina, 53.
Tertulia, Spanish, 271.
Thames, 193, 404, 422.
Thames frozen over, 6.
Thames Street, 183, 185.
Thames Tunnel shield, 412.
Thorwaldsen, 49.
Thurtle, Mr., 146.
Tide gauge, 401.
Tide level of Thames, 193.
Timsah, lake, 139.
Tiryns, 81.
Toledo, 272.
Trafalgar Square, 195.
Travellers Club, 248.
Travels, 26-30, 36-154, 252-283, 304-399.
Tredcroft, 2.
Trevithick, 230, 233.
Trench, Sir F., 196.
Trent, 224.
Trent Valley line, 247.
Tripolitza, 84.
Trophonius, cave of, 101.
Tunis, surveys in, 367.
Turks, 65, 71, 76, 79, 86, 99, 102, 112, 125, 126.
Tyne, 20.
Ubes, St., 360.
Utica, 371.
Valley of the Po, 39.
Vandyke, 29.
Vauxhall Bridge, 6.
Venice, 40.
Vent-pipes on conduits, 127.
Venus, temple of, 71.
Vermuyden, 324.
Verona, 40.
Viana, 337.
Vienna, 280.
Vienna, water supply of, 384.
Vignolles, Mr., 236, 246.
Vivian, 230, 233.
Vostizza, 99.
Walker, Mr. James, 209.
Wallace, Lord, 410.
Warehouses, 442.
Warsaw, 262.
Wash, the, 204, 207, 214.
Water-carriers in Portugal, 326.
Waterloo Bridge, 30-35, 50.
Waterloo, field of, 28.
Water supply, 127, 128, 369, 384, 401, 423.
Waterwheels, 193.
Waterworks, 441.
Watt, 171, 228, 413.
Welland, river, 207.
Wellington, Duke of, 182, 184, 188, 246, 282.
Wellington Street, Strand, 195.
Werry, Mr., 112.
Whidbey, Mr. Joseph, 166.
Whittlesea Mere, 205.
Wildmere Fens, 219.
William IV., 189.
Wilson, General, 253.
Wisbeach Corporation, 202.
Witham outfall, 207, 222, 224.
Wolves, 119.
Wooden rails, 228.
Woolwich Dockyard, 21, 22, 410.
Wright, Captain, 133.
Wrought-iron rails, 241.
Wyatt, Sir Philip, 196.
Xerxes, 129.
Yacht, Russian Emperor’s, 258-260.
Yagers, Tyrolese, 147.
Yarborough, Earl of, 227.
Yeats, Mr., 8.
York, Duke of, 177.
Young, Dr., 8.
Young, Mr. John, 204.
Zante, 57, 62.
Zoological Society, 251.
THE END.
LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS,
STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.