HOW TO CONSTRUCT AND DELIVER ORATIONS
THE APPLICATION OF THE MEANS
The previous chapter was used to show what means orators employed in
constructing their oratory, and this chapter will be devoted to
showing students how to adopt and use those means. It would be of
little use to tell students of oratory how others made their effects
unless they are shown how they can produce equal results; therefore
this chapter will be a chapter of _hows._ It will consider the proper
arrangement of all the forms of creating and delivering the
oratorical message, and deal at length with the conveying of the
thought by means of the putting together of words and interpreting it
through an understanding and an application of inflection and
emphasis. It has been shown that oratory, through all its existence,
has been created by means of the effective use of negative and
positive words, phrases, and sentences; correct application of
apposition and opposition; proper grouping of words and phrases in
the form of series; the driving home and clinching of points; and
many other ways of conveying thought by means of speech, and that
these means have been passed from Gorgias to Isaeus, from Isaeus to
Demosthenes, from Demosthenes to Cicero, and from these masters of
old transmitted to Webster, Clay, Lincoln, Roosevelt, Bryan,
Watterson, and the other able and careful public speakers of our day.
Not only will the arrangement of words be thoroughly considered, but
their utterance will receive much attention, the aim of the author
being to show how, by the inflection, emphasis, and tone of the
living voice, thought can be interpreted, and an impression made by
the speaker on the minds and actions of others by means of the spoken
word. Attention will also be given to getting the mentality into the
voice, making the soul of the speaker shine through the medium that
is to make the thought apparent to the listener.
INFLECTION
_What is inflection?_ Inflection is a bending of the voice.
_How many inflections are there?_ Two. The rising and the falling.
_What does the rising inflection signify?_ The rising inflection, in
the main, signifies uncertainty. Whatever is uncertain, negative,
qualified, conditional, incomplete, or continuous, requires the
rising inflection; as,
_Uncertainty._ A government having at its command the
armies, the fleets, and the revenues of Great Britain,
might possibly hold Ireland by the sword. . . . But, to
govern Great Britain by the sword--so wild a thought has
never, I will venture to say, occurred to any public man of
any party. --MACAULAY
In this example the first sentence is uncertain because Ireland might
possibly be held by the sword, but it is not certain that it could
be. The second sentence is assertive, and requires the falling
inflection.
_Negative._ _He_ have arbitrary power! My Lords, the East
India Company have not arbitrary power to give him; the
King has no arbitrary power to give him; your Lordships
have not; nor the Commons; nor the whole legislature. We
have no arbitrary power to give, because arbitrary power is
a thing which neither any man can hold nor any man can give.
--BURKE
Here is a splendid string of negatives, not demonstratively spoken,
but given in the form of clear argumentation, and for that reason
every member requires the rising inflection. The opening exclamation,
"_He_ have arbitrary power," should be given the falling inflection
because it is a positive denial of his right to possess it. Were this
extract spoken vehemently instead of argumentatively, it would take
the falling inflection on all its members; but it is clearly intended
to be negatively spoken, because the orator immediately follows it
with positive statements, thus denoting a contrast. Therefore the
exclamation alone is given the falling inflection.
_Exception._ It should be remembered that only while the thought is
negative should the words be given the rising inflection, and that
whenever emphasis is placed on the negative word it removes the
negative quality and makes the thought positive, thus necessitating
the use of the falling inflection. Consequently, whenever a negative
is used in the sense of a contradiction it should be given the
falling inflection, because it is just as positive to deny the
assertion of a speaker as it is for the speaker to make the
assertion; as,
I am charged with being an emissary of France. An emissary
of France! and for what end? It is alleged that I wish to
sell the independence of my country! and for what end? Was
this the object of my ambition; and is this the mode by
which a tribunal of justice reconciles contradictions?
_No!_ I am _no_ emissary. --ROBERT EMMET
The positive statement is, "I am charged with being an emissary of
France"; and the contradiction, "_No!_ I am _no_ emissary." Emphasis
being placed on the negative word "no" necessitates the falling
inflection being used in order to make the contradiction positive.
_Qualified Negative._ A negative is qualified when it is restricted
in any manner by the use of such words as "only," "alone," "merely,"
etc., such words receiving the inflection and being negatived; as,
In reading great orations one not only learns something of
the methods and style of the orator, but obtains an epitome
of the history of the times. --WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN
Mr. Bryan here states that by means of reading one learns something
of the methods and style of the orator, and also gains an epitome of
the history of the times; and that he does not only learn the former,
but that he also gains the latter. In this sentence everything is
positive except the negatived word "only," this being the only word
in the sentence that is acted upon by the negative word "not,"
because the reader learns something of the methods and style of the
orator, but not only this, because he obtains an epitome of the
history of the times as well. "Only," being the negatived word (the
word upon which the negative acts), it should be given the rising
inflection, while the balance of the sentence, being positive, should
be given the falling inflection.
_Qualified._ I believe in the doctrine of peace; but, Mr.
President, men must have liberty before there can come
abiding peace. --JOHN M. THURSTON
The phrase, "I believe in the doctrine of peace," is qualified by the
concluding statement, "men must have liberty before there can come
abiding peace"; and any expression that is qualified should be given
the rising inflection. In this example Senator Thurston states that
he believes in peace, _provided_ peace can be had with liberty; but
that if the loss of liberty is the price exacted for peace, then he
prefers war. In order to convey the meaning of this example, the
first phrase should be given the rising inflection and the last
phrase the falling; the qualified taking the rising, and the
concluding the falling inflection.
_Conditional._ If ye love wealth better than liberty, the
tranquility of servitude than the animating contest of
freedom, go from us in peace. --SAMUEL ADAMS
Here we have two conditional phrases and one concluding phrase. All
expressions that are conditional in character require the rising
inflection, and the clause that concludes the sentence takes the
inflection that interprets the thought. Therefore, if the concluding
clause is positive, as in this example, it should be given the
falling inflection; but if negative, it should be given the rising
inflection. There is no exception to the conditional clause taking
the rising inflection, because it is always uncertain in character,
and whatever is uncertain should always be given the rising
inflection, but the concluding clause, whenever it is negative, is
given the rising inflection; as,
So, on the other hand, if I take the life of another,
without being aware of any intended violence on his part,
it will constitute no excuse for me to prove that he
intended an attack upon me. --SARGENT S. PRENTISS
_Continuity._ Whenever the thought is continuous the rising
inflection should be employed until a conclusion is reached; as,
In speaking to you, men of the greatest city of the West,
men of the state which gave to the country Lincoln and
Grant, men who preëminently and distinctly embody all that
is most American in the American character, I wish to
preach, not the doctrine of ignoble ease, but the doctrine
of the strenuous life, the life of toil and effort, of
labor and strife. --ROOSEVELT
The thought here is continuous and incomplete until we come to the
phrase "the doctrine of the strenuous life," and in order to obtain
an unbroken flow of speech the rising inflection should be used until
the close of the negative phrase "not the doctrine of ignoble ease,"
but from there to the end of the sentence the falling inflection
should be used because of its positive character and the fact that
the thought is practically complete with the utterance of the phrase
"but the doctrine of the strenuous life," all that follows being
merely an amplification.
QUESTIONS
_How many kinds of questions are there?_ Two.
_What are they called?_ They are called direct and indirect.
_What difference is there between these two kinds of questions?_ The
direct question may be answered by either yes or no; the indirect
question is answered by a statement or explanation. Usually there is
uncertainty as to the answer to the direct question, and therefore
the question should generally be given the rising inflection, but as
soon as uncertainty ceases to exist as to the answer to a question,
it should be given the falling inflection. Therefore, if the speaker
knows that the answer is sure to be yes, or if he knows that the
answer is sure to be no, the question should take the falling
inflection, for then there would be no uncertainty as to the reply to
the question. On the other hand, if, for any reason, the quality of
uncertainty exists in the indirect question, it should be given the
rising inflection. The general supposition regarding questions is
that they usually require the rising inflection, but the reverse of
this is the fact. A question should only be given the rising
inflection when the speaker is not sure as to whether the answer will
be yes or no, or when an indirect question is expressive of the
uncertainty of the speaker; as, What did you say? Direct questions,
whenever the answer is anticipated, or the question repeated with
marked emphasis, or spoken with earnestness in the shape of an
appeal, should be given the falling inflection; as,
Immortal spirits of Hampden, Locke, and Sidney, will it not
add to your benevolent joys to behold your posterity rising
to the dignity of men, and evincing to the world the
reality and expediency of your systems, and in the actual
enjoyment of that equal liberty, which you were happy, when
on earth, in delineating and recommending to mankind?
--SAMUEL ADAMS
The falling inflection should be given this direct question because
the anticipated answer is yes.
The falling inflection should be given a direct question such as,
Has the gentlemen done? has he _completely_ done?
The reason the falling inflection is here used is that the question
is repeated with marked emphasis, and whenever a question is so
repeated it should be given the falling inflection on the repetition.
The falling inflection should also be given all direct questions that
are earnest appeals; as,
Will you _please_ forgive me?
_Direct Question._ Undoubtedly the world is better; but
would it have been better if everybody had then insisted
that it was the best of all possible worlds, and that we
must despond if sometimes a cloud gathers in the sky, or a
Benedict Arnold appeared in the patriot army, or even a
Judas Iscariot among the chosen twelve? --GEORGE W. CURTIS
_Indirect Question._ When, O Catiline, do you mean to cease
abusing our patience? How long is that madness of yours
still to mock us? When is there to be an end of that
unbridled audacity of yours, swaggering about as it does
now? --CICERO
A direct question is sometimes used in the form of a statement; as,
The constitutional question is: Has Congress the power,
under our Constitution, to hold in subjection unwilling
vassal states? --GEORGE F. HOAR
This is a direct question, but because it is a statement put forth to
be argued it should be given the falling inflection. If a request is
made of a presiding officer for information regarding what question
is then before the body, and the officer replies with a direct
question, he should give it the falling inflection, because he does
not speak it as a question but as a statement in reply to the
member's question as to what is then before the meeting.
_What does the falling inflection signify?_
The falling inflection, in the main, signifies certainty. The arrival
at a result, commands (whether negatively or positively constructed),
and all positive words, phrases, and sentences, require, as a rule,
the falling inflection.
_The Arrival at a Result._ We are all born in subjection,
all born equally, high and low, governors and governed, in
subjection to one great, immutable pre-existent law, prior
to all our devices, and prior to all our contrivances,
paramount to all our ideas, and all our sensations,
antecedent to our very existence, by which we are knit and
connected to the eternal frame of the universe, out of
which we cannot stir. --BURKE
The result here is not reached until we come to the final phrase "out
of which we cannot stir," and although this is a negative phrase, so
far as the construction goes, it requires the falling inflection
because it closes the thought and is positive in its nature.
_Commands._ These things I command you, that ye love one
another. --ST. JOHN, XV., 17
This is a commandment given by Jesus to His disciples, and both
phrases require the falling inflection. It makes no difference
whether the command is to do or not to do a certain thing, all
commandments, of whatever nature, require falling inflection; as,
Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any
likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is
in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the
earth. --EXODUS, XX., 4
_Also,_ Honor thy father and thy mother: that thy days may
be long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee.
--EXODUS, XX., 12
_Positive._ To the cant about the pharisaism of reform
there is one short and final answer. The man who tells the
truth _is_ a holier man than the liar. The man who does not
steal _is_ a better man than the thief. --GEORGE W. CURTIS
All positive words, phrases, and sentences require, as a rule, the
falling inflection, the only exception being when the words or
phrases are arranged in the form of a series. This point is fully
brought out and developed in the treatment of series in another part
of this chapter.
_Qualified Positives._ The words "only," "alone," "merely," etc.,
when not qualified by the negative word "not," generally qualify some
other word or phrase; as,
Every thing around was wrapped in darkness, and hushed in
silence, broken only by what seemed, at that hour, the
unearthly clank and rush of the train. --EDWARD EVERETT
Here "only" qualifies what the silence was broken by. The meaning
being that it was broken by but one thing, and that was "the
unearthly clank and rush of the train." "Only," in this example,
requires the falling inflection because it is positive.
_Apposition._ By means of the addition of words or phrases of like
natures, we illustrate and explain; as,
The hardest chemist, the severest analyzer, scornful of all
but the driest fact, is forced to keep the poetic curve of
nature, and his result is like a myth of Theocritus.[1]
--EMERSON
"The severest analyzer" is employed to explain what "the hardest
chemist" is, therefore the two phrases are in apposition. This form
of construction is often used in explaining who persons are; as,
I, Henry V, King of England, etc.
All these terms are in apposition and should receive the same
inflection, because identity of inflection conveys similarity of
thought. Here is another good example of apposition:
Identity of law, perfect order in physics, perfect
parallelism between the laws of nature and the laws of
thought exist. --EMERSON
EMPHASIS
_What is emphasis?_ Any impressive utterance that arrests the
attention of the listener.
_Is it placed merely on single words?_ No. It may be placed on
individual words, phrases, or sentences.
_Does it consist of force alone?_ No. Emphasis consists of time,
pitch, force, quality, and location.
_Time._ By time is meant the rapidity of utterance; as,
With noiseless foot he paces the lonely hall, half lighted
by the moon--he winds up the ascent of stairs, and reaches
the door of the chamber. --DANIEL WEBSTER
The idea is here brought out by means of the slow, measured manner in
which the murderer is described noiselessly passing through the
lonely hall and winding up the stairway. If this passage were quickly
and violently spoken, a mis-interpretation would be given it. Time,
in this instance, gives emphasis to the thought.
The light of the newly kindled sun, indeed, was glorious.
It struck upon all the planets, and waked into existence
their myriad capacities of life and joy. As it rebounded
from them, and showed their vast orbs all wheeling, circle
beyond circle in their stupendous course, the sons of God
shouted for joy. --HORACE MANN
This passage is also made emphatic by the time employed. It requires
rapidity of utterance in order to express the ideas of the awakening
of life and the joy of man.
_Pitch._ By pitch is meant the tone of voice employed--its height or
depth; as,
With simple resignation, he [Garfield] bowed to the divine
decree. --JAMES G. BLAINE
The words "With simple resignation" require simplicity of voice, but
the phrase "he bowed to the divine decree" should be spoken in a low,
impressive tone, the better to express the feeling of reverence. The
idea is here conveyed as much by the pitch of the voice as by the
words themselves.
People of Hungary! will you die under the exterminating
sword of the savage Russians? If not, defend yourselves!
Will you look on while the Cossacks of the far North tread
under foot the bodies of your fathers, mothers, wives, and
children? If not, defend yourselves! Will you see a part of
your fellow citizens sent to the wilds of Siberia, made to
serve in the wars of tyrants, or bleed under the murderous
knout? If not, defend yourselves! Will you behold your
villages in flames, and your harvests destroyed? Will you
die of hunger on the land which your sweat has made
fertile? If not, defend yourselves! --LOUIS KOSSUTH
This example must be spoken in an inspiring tone; the oft-repeated
phrase, "If not, defend yourselves," should be given a gradual rise
in pitch on each repetition until the final one is spoken almost in a
shout. It is this gradual change in pitch that increases the emphasis
on this important phrase each time it is spoken.
_Force._ By force is meant the loudness of voice; as,
For my part, whatever anguish of spirit it may cost, I am
willing to know the whole truth; to know the worst, and to
provide for it. --PATRICK HENRY
By means of the force placed upon the words "whole," "worst," and
"provide," the thought is driven home with earnestness, and as the
words grow in importance the force of the voice should increase. It
is mainly by means of this gradual increase in the force of the voice
that an ascending series is marked; as,
Our petitions have been slighted; our remonstrances have
produced additional violence and insult, our supplications
have been disregarded; and we have been spurned, with
contempt, from the foot of the throne! --PATRICK HENRY
The earnestness and force of the speaker's delivery should grow with
each succeeding phrase, until it bursts out with its greatest power
and expression on the final one. Care should be exercised to go from
one phrase to another by a gradual increase of force, culminating on
the concluding phrase.
All important or significant words require emphasis by means of
force; as,
It _must_ be confessed, it _will_ be confessed; there is no
refuge from confession but suicide, and suicide _is_
confession. --DANIEL WEBSTER
_Quality._ By quality is meant the kind of voice--whether it is
smooth or rough, rich or poor, large or small, expressive or
non-expressive of the many emotions which the human voice is capable
of producing. A tone may be raucous, because it is held in the
throat; it may be nasal, through being held in the head; it may be
breathy, through a waste of breath; or, on the other hand, it may
possess those qualities of clearness, smoothness, and richness that
come only from a properly developed and correctly used vocal
mechanism. The quality of the voice may be pure, aspirated, or
whispered; as,
_Pure Quality._ This uncounted multitude before me and
around me proves the feeling which the occasion has
excited. These thousands of human faces, glowing with
sympathy and joy, and from the impulses of a common
gratitude turned reverently to heaven in this spacious
temple of the firmament, proclaim that the day, the place,
and the purpose of our assembling here made a deep
impression on our hearts. --DANIEL WEBSTER
This example should be spoken in a clear, ringing, buoyant voice;
and, if so spoken, the quality would be pure.
_Aspirated Quality._ Gracious God! In the nineteenth
century to talk of constructive treason! --WILLIAM PINKNEY
The words, "Gracious God!" are expressive of repressed indignation
and should be uttered in a tone that is only partly vocalized; and,
when so spoken, the quality is aspirated. An aspirated tone is one
that is surrounded with breath, only a portion of which is vocalized.
_Whispered Quality._ The whisper is seldom used by the orator, but is
often employed by the actor. Whispered speech is speech that is
produced by the articulation of breath without that breath being
converted into voice. For instance, when Hamlet sees the ghost of his
father he articulates, but does not vocalize, the following:
Angels and ministers of grace defend us! --SHAKESPEARE
Hamlet is so awed by the presence of the spirit of his father as to
be deprived of the use of his voice, although he retains the ability
to speak, and when one produces speech without voice he is using the
whispered quality. The whisper is articulated breath, but not
vocalized breath. It is speech, but not voice.
_Location._ By location is meant the position that the word or phrase
holds in the sentence. If the emphasis is properly built up, the
speaker will move from the weaker to the stronger, from the lesser to
the greater; as,
Here, then, are the three liberties: liberty of the
producer, liberty of the distributer, liberty of the
consumer. The first two need no discussion--they have been
long, thoroughly, and brilliantly illustrated by the
political economists of Great Britain, and by her eminent
statesmen; but it seems to me that enough attention has not
been directed to the third, and, with your patience, I will
dwell on that for a moment before proceeding to other
topics. --HENRY WARD BEECHER
Mr. Beecher states that his intention is to speak on the liberty of
the consumer; therefore, in enumerating the three liberties, he
places the one he intends to discuss in the vantage position--the
last.
When a word, phrase, or sentence is set against another word, phrase,
or sentence, both members of the opposition require emphasis; as,
Law and arbitrary power are in eternal enmity.
--EDMUND BURKE
The placing of "law" against "arbitrary power" requires that the
opposing words should be made emphatic by means of emphasis as well
as by inflection. All words or thoughts that are contrasted (single,
double, or triple opposition) should be emphasized by the application
of force, and the contrast brought out through the proper placing of
the inflection. It is by means of inflection and emphasis that all
contrasts in delivery are marked.
The repetition of a word or phrase requires that the repetition
should be made more emphatic than the first utterance by means of
greater force; as,
They have answered then, that although two hundred thousand
of their countrymen have offered up their lives, there yet
remain lives to offer; and that it is the determination of
_all,_ yes, of ALL, to persevere until they shall have
established their liberty, or until the power of their
oppressors should have relieved them from the burden of
existence. --DANIEL WEBSTER
A series of emphatic words requires that there should be a general
increase in force on all the members of the series; as,
The universal cry is--_let us move against Philip_--LET US
FIGHT FOR OUR LIBERTIES--+LET US CONQUER OR DIE.+
--R. B. SHERIDAN
Where a word is used to qualify another, the qualifying word should
be emphasized; as,
They planned no _sluggard_ people, passive while the
world's work calls them. They established no _reactionary_
nation. They unfurled no _retreating_ flag.
--ALBERT J. BEVERIDGE
The fathers planted a people, established a nation, and unfurled a
flag; but they did not plant a _sluggard_ people, establish a
_reactionary_ nation, nor unfurl a _retreating_ flag. It is by means
of placing the emphasis on the qualifying words in this example that
the meaning is instantly interpreted.
Some years ago a critic,[2] in commenting on E. H. Sothern's reading
of the line from _The Love Chase,_ "The cause of causes, lady,"
justly criticised him for emphasizing the unimportant word _of,_ but
the critic himself fell into as great an error as the actor when he
cited the following as correct placing of emphasis: My _heart_ of
HEARTS, the _man_ of MEN, _great_ among the GREATEST, _mightiest_ in
the MIGHTIEST, and _cause_ of CAUSES. The meaning in each instance is
best brought out by placing the principal emphasis on _heart, man,
great, mightiest,_ and _cause,_ and secondary emphasis on _hearts,
men, greatest, mightiest,_ and _causes._ The ideas being that it is
in the very center of the heart, that he towers above all others,
that it is stronger than all others, and that it is the creator of
creatures. Therefore the phrases should read: My HEART of _hearts,_
the MAN of _men,_ GREAT among the _greatest,_ MIGHTIEST in the
_mightiest,_ the cause of _causes._
The same critic, a little further on in the same book,[3] takes Julie
Marlowe to task for reading the following lines from _Romeo and
Juliet_ thus:
_Deny_ thy father and _refuse_ thy name.
He states it should be read:
Deny thy _father_ and refuse thy _name._
In the opinion of the author, both the actress and the critic are
half right and half wrong, the scene requiring that emphasis should
be placed on the four words; thus,
_Deny_ thy _father_ and _refuse_ thy _name._
This reading clearly denotes what Juliet desires shall be done with
both the father and the name; the other readings do not.
Daniel Webster, in his reply to Senator Hayne, used this striking
arrangement of words to express his idea of the unity of liberty and
union:
_Liberty_ and _union, now_ and _forever, one_ and
_inseparable._
In most readers the passage is marked, liberty _and_ union, thus
making the important connective _and,_ which has practically nothing
to do with conveying the thought, all-important, and sinking into
insignificance the thought words of the orator. Webster distinctly
says that "liberty" and "union" are "one and inseparable," whereas by
putting the emphasis on the word _and_ the speaker distinctly states
that they are two. Webster undoubtedly intended "liberty" and "union"
to be synonymous--"liberty" meaning the same as "union," and "union"
the same as "liberty"--what constituted the one being exactly the
same as what constituted the other. Therefore, like emphasis should
be placed on both words.
Every sentence contains at least one thought; and in every group of
words conveying a thought some particular word carries that thought
to the mind. Such words are the thought words. This can be best
illustrated by examples. In her plea for mercy Portia says:
The quality of mercy is not _strain'd;_[4]
In this line, _strain'd_ is the word that conveys the idea. It is not
_quality_ nor _mercy_ that Portia desires to impress on the mind of
Shylock, but the fact that mercy is not _strain'd._ Antonio had
confessed the bond, Portia had stated that nothing but the mercy of
the Jew could save him from paying the penalty, and in making this
statement she had used the word _must._ Shylock replied by saying:
"On what _compulsion_ must I?" In other words, how are you going to
compel me? And it is this thought of the Jew's to which she replied.
In the same speech Portia says:
. . . we do _pray_ for mercy,
And that same prayer doth teach us all to _render_
The deeds of mercy.
The thought words, as the author sees them, are here italicized, but
his reading of the lines differs from any he has heard from the stage
or seen marked by critics. The great tendency is to come down hard on
the word _deeds,_ whereas it is one of the least important words in
the entire sentence; it might be omitted without injury to the
thought or the sense. Mr. Alfred Ayres, from whose work, _Acting and
Actors,_ the author has before quoted, advises the laying of the
stress on the word _all_; but there is no better reason for
emphasizing that word than there is for placing the stress upon
_deeds._ The passage in the prayer to which Portia refers is:
"Forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors," this being a clear
statement of the supplicant's understanding of the necessity of his
forgiving his debtors if he is to entertain the hope of having his
debts forgiven by the heavenly Father. The verse following the Lord's
prayer more clearly brings out this idea: "For if ye forgive men
their trespasses, your heavenly Father will also forgive you."[5] The
words "pray" and "render" are, therefore, the thought words--by means
of their contrast they bring out the idea--and for this reason they
require the emphasis. A paraphrase will demonstrate the correctness
of this statement: We _ask_ for mercy, and that prayer tells us to
_give_ mercy. The _receiving_ of mercy being contingent on the
_granting_ of it.
COMBINED USE OF INFLECTION AND EMPHASIS
Inflection and emphasis, as before stated, are two of the principal
means at the disposal of a speaker for the interpretation of thought.
By these two means of expression, and the use of the proper
color-tone in the voice, the thought can be clearly conveyed. By
inflection and emphasis, words, phrases, and sentences are
contrasted, and by means of contrast the mind of the listener is
directed to the point that the speaker wishes him to see; as,
I propose, then, in what follows to make some remarks on
communion with God, or prayer in a large sense of the word;
not as regards its external consequences, but as it may be
considered to affect our own minds and hearts.
--CARDINAL NEWMAN
The speaker states that he does not intend to discuss prayer so far
as its external consequences are concerned; and if he stopped there,
we should know what he intended not to discuss; but when he adds the
positive, "but as it may be considered to affect our own minds and
hearts," we know exactly what he intends to avoid and what he intends
to take up, and this double knowledge is imparted to us by means of
the contrast that the Cardinal uses. It is very well to tell a person
not to do a certain thing, but it is much stronger and more
comprehensive if he is also told what to do. It is all well and good
to be told what will not justify action on one's part, but it is far
better to be told what will; as,
It is the apprehension of impending harm, and not its
actual existence, which constitutes the justification for
defensive action. --SARGENT S. PRENTISS
Here we are told that both the existence and apprehension of bodily
harm will justify defensive action, and the point is, therefore,
placed beyond misunderstanding by means of contrast.
_How many forms of contrast are there?_ There are three: the single,
the double, and the triple.
_What is the single contrast?_ The single contrast is where one word,
phrase, or sentence is contrasted with another; as,
Helen was not a sinner, but a sufferer, and our feeling for
her should not be one of hatred, but of compassion.
--GORGIAS
The sentence gives two examples of the single contrast, "sinner"
being opposed to "sufferer" and "hatred" opposed to "compassion."
_What is the double contrast?_ The double contrast is where two words
or phrases are contrasted with a like number of words or phrases; as,
In fact it is a universal law, not that the stronger should
yield to the weaker, but the weaker to the stronger; that
the stronger should lead, and the weaker follow. --GORGIAS
In this example, "stronger," the first time it is used, is contrasted
with "weaker" the second time it is used, and the first "weaker" with
the second "stronger." In the second phrase, "stronger" is contrasted
with "weaker," and "lead" with "follow."
The double contrast requires, as a rule, that the first member should
be given the falling inflection, the second the rising, the third the
rising, and the fourth the falling, thus bringing the first and the
third, the second and the fourth, in contrast; as,
For it is equally wrong and stupid to censure what is
commendable, and to commend what is censurable. --GORGIAS
This is a good illustration of the double contrast. "Censure" is
contrasted with "commend," and "commendable" with "censurable." When
the double contrast is contained in two phrases, the first phrase
being positive and the other phrase negative, the first member should
be given the rising inflection, the second the falling, the third the
falling, and the fourth the rising. In this way the contrast will be
clearly shown and the negative and positive qualities retained; as,
Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth
and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and
steal; but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where
neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do
not break through nor steal.[6] --THE BIBLE
In this example, "Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth" is
contrasted with "but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven," and
as the former is negative, it requires the rising inflection, while
the latter requires the falling inflection, because it is positive;
"where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through
and steal" is contrasted with "where neither moth nor rust doth
corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal"; therefore
the former, being positive, should be given the falling inflection,
while the latter, being negative, should be given the rising
inflection.
In the triple oppositions the inflections alternate, the first member
receiving the rising inflection, the second the falling, the third
the rising, the fourth the falling, the fifth the rising, and the
sixth the falling; as,
She loved me for the dangers I had passed,
And I loved her that she did pity them. --SHAKESPEARE
"She" is contrasted with the second "I," "me" with her," and
""dangers" with "pity."
_What is the triple contrast?_ The triple contrast is where three
words or phrases are contrasted with three other words or phrases; as,
Both parties deprecated war; but one of them would make war
rather than let the nation survive, and the other would
accept war rather than let it perish. --LINCOLN
The triple contrast is between "one" and "other," "make" and
"accept," "survive" and "perish." This is a splendidly constructed
sentence, and contains more information than many paragraphs made up
of numerous sentences. It is because of the masterly arrangement of
contrasts that so much is stated in so small a space.
_How are the contrasts to be brought out?_ By means of inflection and
emphasis. The single contrast requires that when both members are
positive the first should be given the rising inflection and the
second the falling; as,
The human mind is the brightest display of the power and
skill of the Infinite mind with which we are acquainted.
--JOHN TODD
The contrast is between the words "human" and "Infinite," and as both
of them are positive, "human" is given the rising inflection and
"Infinite" the falling, thus marking, by means of the different
inflections, the difference between the words. All words that are
contrasted are given emphasis as well as inflection.
Whenever the words or phrases that are contrasted consist of
negatives and positives, the former should be given the rising
inflection and the latter the falling inflection, irrespective of
their location; as,
They fell and were buried; but they never can die.
--GEORGE W. CURTIS
In this example the positive statement that the heroes "fell and were
buried" requires the falling inflection, while the negative one that
"they never can die" should be given the rising inflection in order
to mark the contrast.
PARENTHESIS
_What is a parenthesis?_ A parenthesis is a secondary idea that is
interjected into a main idea in order to amplify or explain it; as,
He who has a memory that can seize with an iron grasp and
retain what he reads--the ideas, simply, without the
language, and judgment to compare and balance--will
scarcely fail of being distinguished. --JOHN TODD
The main idea is, "He who has a memory that can seize with an iron
grasp and retain what he reads, will scarcely fail of being
distinguished"; the secondary, or parenthetical, idea being, "the
ideas, simply, without the language, and judgment to compare and
balance." This is a long and important parenthesis. It contains two
thoughts, "the ideas, simply, without the language," "and judgment to
compare and balance," which materially amplify the main thought and
at the same time qualify it.
_What is the use of the parenthesis?_ It is of great use to the
extempore speaker in that it permits him, after he has started his
sentence, to explain or amplify his thought before coming to a
conclusion; as,
A whole family, just, gentle and pure, were thus, in their
own house, in the night time, without any provocation,
without one moment's warning, sent by the murderer to join
the assembly of the just. --WILLIAM H. SEWARD
Seward starts with the idea of stating that a whole family were
foully murdered, but after commencing to express his thought, he
desires to qualify it, so he halts it to interject the fact that this
whole family were "just, gentle, and pure." Were it not for the use
of the parenthesis, he would have been compelled to use another
sentence. Care should be exercised in using parentheses, as they tend
to confuse the listener unless properly spoken.
_How should a parenthesis be spoken?_ In order to show that the
speaker has left the main idea and taken up a secondary one, he
should change the pitch of the voice on leaving the main idea, or
while speaking the parenthesis, and immediately resume the original
pitch on resuming the main idea.
The following is a striking example of the use of parenthesis. It is
a long, loose sentence, but full of information that may be better
expressed in this manner than by a number of short sentences:
This great nation, filling all profitable latitudes,
cradled between two oceans, with inexhaustible resources,
with riches increasing in an unparalleled ratio, by
agriculture, by manufactures, by commerce, with schools and
churches, with books and newspaper thick as leaves in our
forests, with institutions sprung from the people, and
peculiarly adapted to their genius; a nation not sluggish,
but active, used to excitement, practiced in political
wisdom, and accustomed to self-government, and all its vast
outlying parts held together by a federal government, mild
in temper, gentle in administration, and beneficent in
results, seemed to have been formed for peace.
--HENRY WARD BEECHER
The main thought consists of the short sentence, "This great nation
seemed to have been formed for peace," and all that explains its
situation, its resources, and its government is parenthetical. This
illustration is not cited as a good example for speakers to follow,
but it is merely given to show one of the means employed by Mr.
Beecher, an eloquent speaker, in expressing his ideas. The subject of
the construction of sentences is dealt with at length in the chapter
on Composition.
PAUSE
Pauses should be regulated by the sense and not by grammatical
punctuation. A pause is sometimes required where no mark of
punctuation is placed and at times a mark of punctuation should be
passed over quickly in order to not retard the conveyance of the
speaker's thought. The pauses used by the speaker, but note employed
by the grammarian, are called rhetorical pauses and are used for
emphasis; as,
Go, forget that you have a wife and children, to ruin, and
remember only--that you have France to save.[7]
THE SERIES
_What is a series?_ A series is a group of three or more important
positive words or phrases, of different meanings, yet so closely
related as to be capable of being welded into one thought; as,
Let old issues, old questions, old differences, and old
feuds be regarded as fossils of another epoch.
--ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS
The group that constitutes the series is composed of "old issues,"
"old questions," "old differences," "old feuds," which, united should
all "be regarded as fossils of another epoch."
_What use is the series?_ The series allows a speaker to gather many
forces, amalgamate them, thus uniting the feeble powers of the number
into the powerful strength of the one, and to direct the united force
to one point; as,
We are among the sepulchres of our fathers. We are on
ground distinguished by their valor, their constancy, and
the shedding of their blood. --DANIEL WEBSTER
The orator tells the assembly that they are on ground distinguished
by the valor of their fathers, but he does more: he tells them that
the ground was also distinguished by their constancy and the shedding
of their blood. The series enables the speaker to weld together
"valor," "constancy," and "blood," thus combining the three virtues
shown by the fathers, and this arrangement, the blending of the three
reasons, gives the one strong reason, the patriotism of our fathers,
for honoring the ground upon which the people were gathered. Cicero
thus clearly defines a series and tells what it accomplishes: "For
there is such an admirable continuation and series of things that
each seems connected with the other, and all appear linked together
and unified." This is exactly what a series is: Words or phrases that
are closely connected with one another and are all linked together;
as,
We welcome you to the immeasurable blessings of rational
existence, the immortal hope of Christianity, and the light
of everlasting truth! --DANIEL WEBSTER
_How many kinds of series are there?_ Two, the commencing and the
concluding.
_What is a commencing series?_ A commencing series is always an
incomplete one, so far as the sense is concerned, as it requires
something more than the series to complete the sense. It generally
commences a sentence; as,
It is only when public opinion, or the strong power of
government, the formidable array of influence, the force of
a nation, or the fury of a multitude is directed against
you, that the advocate is of any use. --JAMES. T. BRADY
The series ends with "or the fury of a multitude," and the sense is
made complete by "is directed against you, that the advocate is of
any use."
A series is often composed of qualifying words; as,
What though it breaks like lightning from the cloud? The
electric fire had been collecting in the firmament through
many a silent, calm, and clear day. --ORVILLE DEWEY
The words "silent, calm, and clear" qualify the word day and
constitute a commencing series, because they require the word day to
complete the thought.
_What is a concluding series?_ A series is considered a concluding
one when the series is complete with the close of the series. It
generally concludes the sentence; as,
The remarkable people of this world are useful in their
way; but the common people, after all, represent the
nation, the age, and the civilization. --HENRY WARD BEECHER
The series consists of "the nation," "the age," "the civilization"; a
group of three important things which the common people represent.
Here is a good example of a concluding series of phrases:
With such consecrated service, what could we not
accomplish; what riches we should gather for her; what
glory and prosperity we should render to the union; what
blessings we should gather into the universal harvest of
humanity. --HENRY W. GRADY
A series constitutes sometimes a parenthesis; as,
For no cause, in the very frenzy of wantonness, by the red
hand of murder, he was thus thrust from the full tide of
this world's interests, from its hopes, its aspirations,
its victories, into the visible presence of death--and he
did not quail. --JAMES. G. BLAINE
This example opens with a commencing series which ends with "by the
red hand of murder," the sense of which is completed by "he was
thrust from the full tide of this world's interest into the visible
presence of death," but the thought is interrupted by the orator to
interject the parenthetical clause "from its hopes, its aspirations,
its victories," and as what completes the sense, "the full tide of
this world's interest," precedes the series, it is a concluding
series.
_Is there any difference as to how the two series should be spoken?_
Yes. The commencing series requires the falling infection on every
member except the last, which should be given the rising inflection;
as,
From the very beginning I chose an honest and
straightforward course in politics, to support the honor,
the power, the glory of my fatherland. --DEMOSTHENES
The series is embraced in the words "the honor, the power, the
glory," and as the sense is incomplete with the close of the series,
requiring "of my fatherland" to complete the sense, it is a
commencing series. The proper delivery of this series requires that
"honor" should be given the falling inflection, "power" the falling,
and "glory" the rising.
The concluding series requires the falling inflection on every member
except the next to the last, which should be given the rising
inflection; as,
He thinks the whole world sees it in his face, reads it in
his eyes, and almost hears its workings in the very silence
of his thoughts. --DANIEL WEBSTER
This is an excellent example of a concluding series of phrases. The
first phrase, ending with "face," requires the falling inflection;
the second, ending with "eyes," requires the rising inflection; the
third, ending with "thoughts," requires the falling inflection.
SERIES OF CONTRASTS
_What is a series of contrasts?_ A series of contrasts is where there
are at least three contrasts arranged in the form of the series; as,
Ask, and it shall be given you; seek, and ye shall find;
knock, and it shall be opened unto you.[8] --THE BIBLE
The series consists of three phrases, and the series must be brought
out by giving the first phrase the falling inflection, the second
phrase the rising inflection, and the third phrase the falling
inflection; and as there are three contrasts, "ask" being contrasted
with "given," "seek" with "find," and "knock" with "opened," we must,
in order to retain the concluding series, give "ask" the rising
inflection, "given" the falling, "seek" the falling, "find" the
rising, "knock" the rising, and "opened" the falling.
If the contrasts form a commencing series, the inflections should be
applied according to the rules regarding the series; as,
Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my
hand and heart to this vote. --DANIEL WEBSTER
"Sink" should be given the rising inflection, "swim" the falling,
"live" the rising, "die" the falling, "survive" the falling, and
"perish" the rising, for by so doing the contrasts will be marked and
the series retained. The series consists of "sink or swim, live or
die, survive or perish," and as it requires "I give my hand and heart
to this vote" to complete the sense, it is a commencing series.
MODULATION
_What is modulation?_ Modulation, in a broad sense, is coloring the
voice so as to make it explain by its tones the meaning of the spoken
words. It consists principally of inflection and pitch, but the
elements of emphasis also enter into it. By means of modulation
action is given to the voice--it rises, it falls, it glides, it
leaps, it bounds; all sounds are described--the moaning of the winds,
the rush of waters, the tramp of marching armies; all emotions are
expressed--the shout of joy, the cry of pain, the huzzah of victory.
The inflection of the voice interprets its meaning--whether it is
negative, positive, conditional, etc., the pitch of the voice
expresses the emotion--whether it is joyous, sad, indifferent, etc.
The speaking voice is divided into three registers, the medium, the
upper and the lower. The tones of the middle register are the
customary tones of the voice, and they are used for giving expression
to anything that is ordinary. They are expressive of unemotional
thoughts; as,
Some persons, for example, tell us that the acquisition of
knowledge is all very well, but that it must be useful
knowledge--meaning thereby that it must enable a man to get
on in a profession, pass an examination, shine in
conversation, or obtain a reputation for learning.
--ARTHUR JAMES BALFOUR
This is a plain, simple statement, spoken without emotion of any
kind, and therefore should be pitched in an ordinary key. The matter
need not necessarily be unimportant to be spoken in the medium
register, but it must be simple in its character and unimpassioned in
its nature, and for these reasons it is spoken in the ordinary tones
of the voice.
The lower register is expressive of solemnity, sorrow, and all
deep-seated emotions; as,
If the spirits of the illustrious dead participate in the
concerns and cares of those who were dear to them in this
transitory life, Oh, ever dear and venerated shade of my
departed father, look down with scrutiny upon the conduct
of your suffering son, and see if I have, even for a
moment, deviated from those principles of morality and
patriotism which it was your care to instil into my
youthful mind, and for which I am now to offer up my life!
--ROBERT EMMET
The upper register is used for expressing the emotions of a light and
joyous nature; as,
Advance, then ye future generations! We would hail you, as
you rise in your long succession, to fill the places which
we now fill, and to take the blessings of existence where
we are passing, and soon shall have passed, our own human
duration. We bid you welcome to this pleasant land of the
fathers. We bid you welcome to the healthful skies and the
verdant fields of New England. We greet your accession to
the great inheritance which we have enjoyed. We welcome you
to the blessings of good government and religious liberty.
We welcome you to the treasures of science and the delights
of learning. We welcome you to the transcendent sweets of
domestic life, to the happiness of kindred and parents, and
children. We welcome you to the immeasurable blessings of
rational existence, the immortal hope of Christianity, and
the light of everlasting truth! --DANIEL WEBSTER
Some of the stronger emotions, such as anger, defiance, and grief,
when not deeply felt, are expressed on the upper register; as,
We do not come as aggressors. Our war is not a war of
conquest; we are fighting in the defense of our homes, our
families and posterity. We have petitioned, and our
petitions have been scorned; we have entreated, and our
entreaties have been disregarded; we have begged, and they
have mocked when our calamity came. We beg no longer; we
entreat no more; we petition no more. We defy them.
--WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN
The following vivid description of the delivery of the Blind
Preacher, by the orator William Wirt, is a splendid example of
modulation in a comprehensive sense, because it depends on the
distinctive colors that are placed in the voice, as well as on
inflection and emphasis, for its effective presentation.
It was some time before the tumult had subsided, so far as
to permit him to proceed. Indeed, judging by the usual, but
fallacious, standard of my own weakness, I began to be very
uneasy for the situation of the preacher. For I could not
conceive how he would be able to let his audience down from
the height to which he had wound them, without impairing
the solemnity and dignity of the subject, or perhaps
shocking them by the abruptness of the fall. But, no! the
descent was as beautiful and sublime as the elevation had
been rapid and enthusiastic.
The first sentence, with which he broke the awful silence,
was a quotation from Rousseau: "Socrates died like a
philosopher, but Jesus Christ, like a God."
I despair of giving you any idea of the effect produced by
this short sentence, unless you could perfectly conceive
the whole manner of the man, as well as the peculiar crisis
in the discourse. Never before did I completely understand
what Demosthenes meant by laying such stress on delivery.
You are to bring before you the venerable figure of the
preacher; his blindness, constantly recalling to your
recollection old Homer, Ossian, and Milton, and associating
with his performance the melancholy grandeur of their
geniuses; you are to imagine that you hear his slow,
solemn, well-accented enunciation, and his voice of
affecting, trembling melody; you are to remember the pitch
of passion and enthusiasm to which the congregation were
raised; and then the few minutes of portentous, death-like
silence which reigned throughout the house; the preacher
removing his white handkerchief from his aged face (even
yet wet from the recent torrent of his tears), and, slowly
stretching forth the palsied hand which holds it, begins
the sentence, "Socrates died like a philosopher," then,
pausing, raising his other hand, pressing them both clasped
together with warmth and energy to his breast, lifting his
"sightless balls" to heaven, and pouring his whole soul
into his trembling voice--"but Jesus Christ, like a God!"
If he had been indeed and in truth an angel of light, the
effect could scarcely have been more divine.
In this chapter and the one preceding are given some of the
mechanical means of constructing speeches and delivering them, and in
thus telling the student of oratory the specific way of accomplishing
results, this book differs from the many that treat, or profess to
treat, of oratory. Demosthenes says: "To censure is easy for any man;
to show what measures the cause requires is the part of a
counsellor." This is a nugget of wisdom, and in adopting it the
author has used the injunction _do_ instead of issuing a number of
_don'ts,_ as is the custom of many teachers. He tells primarily what
to do and how to do it, and only in a secondary manner does he use
the negative way of instruction. In this chapter, students are shown
what means were employed by those who succeeded in mastering the art
of vocal expression and how they may adopt them in aiming to
accomplish the same results; and the author has no hesitancy in
stating that if the student will properly qualify himself to become
an orator by a diligent study of the method therein contained, he
will rise to eminence in a field of labor that repays with honors and
renown all who toil in it. This chapter treats of the mechanical
means of producing oratory and making orators, but the psychological,
or mental, means, which must be used in conjunction with the
mechanical in order that there may be life in the production, will
receive due attention in later chapters. Unless the mentality enters
into the work of the orator, it will be devoid of action, and
consequently not oratory; for, in the words of Demosthenes: "All
speech without action appears vain and idle."
FOOTNOTES:
[1] A Grecian pastoral poet who lived in the third century.
[2] Alfred Ayres in "Acting and Actors," page 128.
[3] Page 157.
[4] The Merchant of Venice, Act. IV, Scene I.
[5] St. Matthew, vi:14.
[6] Matthew, vi:19-20.
[7] Spoken to D'Aguesseau by his wife when he went to confront
his enraged King. Quoted by Wendell Phillips in his address
on "Idols."
[8] St. Matthew, vii:7.