_The Ten Tropes._
Certain Tropes were commonly handed down by the older Sceptics, 36
by means of which [Greek: epochê] seems to take place.
They are ten in number, and are called synonymously [Greek:
logoi] and [Greek: tropoi]. They are these: The first is based
upon the differences in animals; the second upon the differences
in men; the third upon the difference in the constitution of the
organs of sense; the fourth upon circumstances; the fifth upon
position, distance, and place; the sixth upon mixtures; the
seventh upon the quantity and constitution of objects; the
eighth upon relation; the ninth upon frequency or rarity of 37
occurences; the tenth upon systems, customs, laws, mythical
beliefs, and dogmatic opinions. We make this order ourselves. 38
These Tropes come under three general heads: the standpoint
of the judge, the standpoint of the thing judged, and the
standpoint of both together. Under the standpoint of the judge
come the first four, for the judge is either an animal, or a
man, or a sense, and exists under certain circumstances. Under
the standpoint of that which is judged, come the seventh and the
tenth. Under the one composed of both together, come the fifth
and the sixth, the eighth and the ninth. Again, these three
divisions are included under the Trope of relation, because 39
that is the most general one; it includes the three special
divisions, and these in turn include the ten. We say these
things in regard to their probable number, and we proceed in the
following chapter to speak of their meaning.
THE FIRST TROPE.
The first Trope, we said, is the one based upon the 40
differences in animals, and according to this Trope, different
animals do not get the same ideas of the same objects through
the senses. This we conclude from the different origin of the
animals, and also from the difference in the constitution of
their bodies. In regard to the difference in origin, some
animals originate without mixture of the sexes, while others
originate through sexual intercourse. Of those which 41
originate without intercourse of the sexes, some come from fire,
as the little animals which appear in the chimneys, others from
stagnant water, as musquitoes, others from fermented wine, as
the stinging ants, others from the earth, others from the mud,
like the frogs, others from slime, as the worms, others from
donkeys, as the beetles, others from cabbage, as caterpillars,
others from fruit, as the gall insect from the wild figs, others
from putrified animals, as bees from bulls, and wasps from
horses. Again, of those originating from intercourse of the 42
sexes, some come from animals of the same kind, as in most
cases, and others from those of different kinds, as mules.
Again, of animals in general, some are born alive, as men,
others from eggs, as birds, and others are born a lump of flesh,
as bears. It is probable therefore, that the inequalities and 43
differences in origin cause great antipathies in the animals,
and the result is incompatibility, discord, and conflict between
the sensations of the different animals. Again, the differences
in the principal parts of the body, especially in those 44
fitted by nature to judge and to perceive, may cause the
greatest differences in their ideas of objects, according to the
differences in the animals themselves. As for example, those who
have the jaundice call that yellow which appears to us white,
and those who have bloodshot eyes call it blood-red.
Accordingly, as some animals have yellow eyes, and others
blood-shot ones, and still others whitish ones, and others eyes
of other colors, it is probable, I think, that they have a
different perception of colors. Furthermore, when we look
steadily at the sun for a long time, and then look down at a 45
book, the letters seem to us gold colored, and dance around. Now
some animals have by nature a lustre in their eyes, and these
emit a fine and sparkling light so that they see at night, and
we may reasonably suppose that external things do not appear the
same to them as to us. Jugglers by lightly rubbing the wick 46
of the lamp with metal rust, or with the dark yellow fluid of
the sepia, make those who are present appear now copper-colored
and now black, according to the amount of the mixture used; if
this be so it is much more reasonable to suppose that because of
the mixture of different fluids in the eyes of animals, their
ideas of objects would be different. Furthermore, when we 47
press the eye on the side, the figures, forms and sizes of
things seen appear elongated and narrow. It is therefore
probable that such animals as have the pupil oblique and long,
as goats, cats, and similar animals, have ideas different from
those of the animals which have a round pupil. Mirrors according
to their different construction, sometimes show the external 48
object smaller than reality, as concave ones, and sometimes long
and narrow, as the convex ones do; others show the head of the
one looking into it down, and the feet up. As some of the
vessels around the eye fall entirely outside the eye, on 49
account of their protuberance, while others are more sunken, and
still others are placed in an even surface, it is probable that
for this reason also the ideas vary, and dogs, fishes, lions,
men, and grasshoppers do not see the same things, either of the
same size, or of similar form, but according to the impression
on the organ of sight of each animal respectively. The same
thing is true in regard to the other senses; for how can it 50
be said that shell-fish, birds of prey, animals covered with
spines, those with feathers and those with scales would be
affected in the same way by the sense of touch? and how can the
sense of hearing perceive alike in animals which have the
narrowest auditory passages, and in those that are furnished
with the widest, or in those with hairy ears and those with
smooth ones? For we, even, hear differently when we partially
stop up the ears, from what we do when we use them naturally.
The sense of smell also varies according to differences in 51
animals, since even our sense of smell is affected when we have
taken cold and the phlegm is too abundant, and also when parts
around our head are flooded with too much blood, for we then
avoid odors that seem agreeable to others, and feel as if we
were injured by them. Since also some of the animals are moist
by nature and full of secretions, and others are very full of
blood, and still others have either yellow or black bile
prevalent and abundant, it is reasonable because of this to
think that odorous things appear different to each one of them.
And it is the same in regard to things of taste, as some 52
animals have the tongue rough and dry and others very moist. We
too, when we have a dry tongue in fever, think that whatever we
take is gritty, bad tasting, or bitter; and this we experience
because of the varying degrees of the humors that are said to be
in us. Since, then, different animals have different organs for
taste, and a greater or less amount of the various humors, it
can well be that they form different ideas of the same objects
as regards their taste. For just as the same food on being 53
absorbed becomes in some places veins, in other places arteries,
and in other places bones, nerves, or other tissues, showing
different power according to the difference of the parts
receiving it; just as the same water absorbed by the trees
becomes in some places bark, in other places branches, and in
other places fruit, perhaps a fig or a pomegranate, or something
else; just as the breath of the musician, one and the same 54
when blown into the flute, becomes sometimes a high tone and
sometimes a low one, and the same pressure of the hand upon the
lyre sometimes causes a deep tone and sometimes a high tone, so
it is natural to suppose that external objects are regarded
differently according to the different constitution of the
animals which perceive them. We may see this more clearly in 55
the things that are sought for and avoided by animals. For
example, myrrh appears very agreeable to men and intolerable to
beetles and bees. Oil also, which is useful to men, destroys
wasps and bees if sprinkled on them; and sea-water, while it is
unpleasant and poisonous to men if they drink it, is most
agreeable and sweet to fishes. Swine also prefer to wash in vile
filth rather than in pure clean water. Furthermore, some 56
animals eat grass and some eat herbs; some live in the woods,
others eat seeds; some are carnivorous, and others lactivorous;
some enjoy putrified food, and others fresh food; some raw food
and others that which is prepared by cooking; and in general
that which is agreeable to some is disagreeable and fatal to
others, and should be avoided by them. Thus hemlock makes the 57
quail fat, and henbane the hogs, and these, as it is known,
enjoy eating lizards; deer also eat poisonous animals, and
swallows, the cantharidae. Moreover, ants and flying ants, when
swallowed by men, cause discomfort and colic; but the bear, on
the contrary, whatever sickness he may have, becomes stronger by
devouring them. The viper is benumbed if one twig of the oak 58
touches it, as is also the bat by a leaf of the plane-tree. The
elephant flees before the ram, and the lion before the cock, and
seals from the rattling of beans that are being pounded, and the
tiger from the sound of the drum. Many other examples could be
given, but that we may not seem to dwell longer than is
necessary on this subject, we conclude by saying that since the
same things are pleasant to some and unpleasant to others, and
the pleasure and displeasure depend on the ideas, it must be
that different animals have different ideas of objects. And
since the same things appear different according to the 59
difference in the animals, it will be possible for us to say how
the external object appears to us, but as to how it is in
reality we shall suspend our judgment. For we cannot ourselves
judge between our own ideas and those of other animals, being
ourselves involved in the difference, and therefore much more in
need of being judged than being ourselves able to judge. And
furthermore, we cannot give the preference to our own mental 60
representations over those of other animals, either without
evidence or with evidence, for besides the fact that perhaps
there is no evidence, as we shall show, the evidence so called
will be either manifest to us or not. If it is not manifest to
us, then we cannot accept it with conviction; if it is manifest
to us, since the question is in regard to what is manifest to
animals, and we use as evidence that which is manifest to us who
are animals, then it is to be questioned if it is true as it is
manifest to us. It is absurd, however, to try to base the 61
questionable on the questionable, because the same thing is to
be believed and not to be believed, which is certainly
impossible. The evidence is to be believed in so far as it will
furnish a proof, and disbelieved in so far as it is itself to be
proved. We shall therefore have no evidence according to which
we can give preference to our own ideas over those of so-called
irrational animals. Since therefore ideas differ according to
the difference in animals, and it is impossible to judge them,
it is necessary to suspend the judgment in regard to external
objects.
_Have the So-called Irrational Animals Reason_?
We continue the comparison of the so-called irrational animals 62
with man, although it is needless to do so, for in truth we do
not refuse to hold up to ridicule the conceited and bragging
Dogmatics, after having given the practical arguments. Now most 63
of our number were accustomed to compare all the irrational
animals together with man, but because the Dogmatics playing
upon words say that the comparison is unequal, we carry our
ridicule farther, although it is most superfluous to do so, and
fix the discussion on one animal, as the dog, if it suits you,
which seems to be the most contemptible animal; for we shall
even then find that animals, about which we are speaking, are
not inferior to us in respect to the trustworthiness of their
perceptions. Now the Dogmatics grant that this animal is 64
superior to us in sense perception, for he perceives better
through smell than we, as by this sense he tracks wild animals
that he cannot see, and he sees them quicker with his eyes than
we do, and he perceives them more acutely by hearing. Let us
also consider reasoning, which is of two kinds, reasoning in 65
thought and in speech. Let us look first to that of thought.
This kind of reasoning, judging from the teachings of those
Dogmatics who are now our greatest opponents, those of the Stoa,
seems to fluctuate between the following things: the choice of
the familiar, and avoidance of the alien; the knowledge of the
arts that lead to this choice; and the comprehension of those
virtues that belong to the individual nature, as regards the
feelings. The dog then, upon whom it was decided to fix the
argument as an example, makes a choice of things suitable to 66
him, and avoids those that are harmful, for he hunts for food,
but draws back when the whip is lifted up; he possesses also an
art by which he procures the things that are suitable for him,
the art of hunting. He is not also without virtue; since the 67
true nature of justice is to give to every one according to his
merit, as the dog wags his tail to those who belong to the
family, and to those who behave well to him, guards them, and
keeps off strangers and evil doers, he is surely not without
justice. Now if he has this virtue, since the virtues follow 68
each other in turn, he has the other virtues also, which the
wise men say, most men do not possess. We see the dog also brave
in warding off attacks, and sagacious, as Homer testified when
he represented Odysseus as unrecognised by all in his house, and
recognised only by Argos, because the dog was not deceived by
the physical change in the man, and had not lost the [Greek:
phantasia katalêptikê] which he proved that he had kept better
than the men had. But according to Chrysippus even, who most 69
attacked the irrational animals, the dog takes a part in the
dialectic about which so much is said. At any rate, the man
above referred to said that the dog follows the fifth of the
several non-apodictic syllogisms, for when he comes to a meeting
of three roads, after seeking the scent in the two roads,
through which his prey has not passed, he presses forward
quickly in the third without scenting it. For the dog reasons in
this way, potentially said the man of olden time; the animal
passed through this, or this, or this; it was neither through
this nor this, therefore it was through this. The dog also
understands his own sufferings and mitigates them. As soon as 70
a sharp stick is thrust into him, he sets out to remove it, by
rubbing his foot on the ground, as also with his teeth; and if
ever he has a wound anywhere, for the reason that uncleansed
wounds are difficult to cure, and those that are cleansed are
easily cured, he gently wipes off the collected matter; and 71
he observes the Hippocratic advice exceedingly well, for since
quiet is a relief for the foot, if he has ever a wound in the
foot, he lifts it up, and keeps it undisturbed as much as
possible. When he is troubled by disturbing humours, he eats
grass, with which he vomits up that which was unfitting, and
recovers. Since therefore it has been shown that the animal 72
that we fixed the argument upon for the sake of an example,
chooses that which is suitable for him, and avoids what is
harmful, and that he has an art by which he provides what is
suitable, and that he comprehends his own sufferings and
mitigates them, and that he is not without virtue, things in
which perfection of reasoning in thought consists, so according
to this it would seem that the dog has reached perfection. It is
for this reason, it appears to me, that some philosophers have
honoured themselves with the name of this animal. In regard to
reasoning in speech, it is not necessary at present to bring 73
the matter in question. For some of the Dogmatics, even, have
put this aside, as opposing the acquisition of virtue, for which
reason they practiced silence when studying. Besides, let it be
supposed that a man is dumb, no one would say that he is
consequently irrational. However, aside from this, we see after
all, that animals, about which we are speaking, do produce human
sounds, as the jay and some others. Aside from this also, even
if we do not understand the sounds of the so-called irrational 74
irrational animals, it is not at all unlikely that they
converse, and that we do not understand their conversation. For
when we hear the language of foreigners, we do not understand
but it all seems like one sound to us. Furthermore, we hear dogs
giving out one kind of sound when they are resisting someone, 75
and another sound when they howl, and another when they are
beaten, and a different kind when they wag their tails, and
generally speaking, if one examines into this, he will find a
great difference in the sounds of this and other animals under
different circumstances; so that in all likelihood, it may be
said that the so-called irrational animals partake also in
spoken language. If then, they are not inferior to men in the 76
accuracy of their perceptions, nor in reasoning in thought, nor
in reasoning by speech, as it is superfluous to say, then they
are not more untrustworthy than we are, it seems to me, in
regard to their ideas. Perhaps it would be possible to prove
this, should we direct the argument to each of the irrational 77
animals in turn. As for example, who would not say that the
birds are distinguished for shrewdness, and make use of
articulate speech? for they not only know the present but the
future, and this they augur to those that are able to understand
it, audibly as well as in other ways. I have made this
comparison superfluously, as I pointed out above, as I think 78
I had sufficiently shown before, that we cannot consider our own
ideas superior to those of the irrational animals. In short, if
the irrational animals are not more untrustworthy than we in
regard to the judgment of their ideas, and the ideas are
different according to the difference in the animals, I shall be
able to say how each object appears to me, but in regard to what
it is by nature I shall be obliged to suspend my judgment.
THE SECOND TROPE.
Such is the first Trope of [Greek: epochê]. The second, we said 79
above, is based upon the differences in men. For even if one
assent to the hypothesis that men are more trustworthy than the
irrational animals, we shall find that doubt arises as soon as
we consider our own differences. For since man is said to be
composed of two things, soul and body, we differ from each other
in respect to both of these things; for example, as regards the
body, we differ both in form and personal peculiarities. For the 80
body of a Scythian differs from the body of an Indian in
form, the difference resulting, it is said, from the different
control of the humors. According to different control of the
humors, differences in ideas arise also, as we represented under
the first Trope. For this reason there is certainly a great
difference among men in the choice and avoidance of external
things. The Indians delight in different things from our own
people, and the enjoyment of different things is a sign that
different ideas are received of the external objects. We differ 81
in personal peculiarities, as some digest beef better than
the little fish from rocky places, and some are affected with
purging by the weak wine of Lesbos. There was, they say, an old
woman in Attica who could drink thirty drachmas of hemlock
without danger, and Lysis took four drachmas of opium unhurt,
and Demophon, Alexander's table waiter, shivered when he was 82
in the sun or in a hot bath, and felt warm in the shade;
Athenagoras also, from Argos, did not suffer harm if stung by
scorpions and venomous spiders; the so-called Psylli were not
injured when bitten by snakes or by the aspis, and the
Tentyrites among the Egyptians are not harmed by the crocodiles
around them; those also of the Ethiopians who live on the 83
Hydaspes river, opposite Meroe, eat scorpions and serpents, and
similar things without danger; Rufinus in Chalcis could drink
hellebore without vomiting or purging, and he enjoyed and
digested it as something to which he was accustomed; Chrysermos,
the Herophilian, ran the risk of stomach-ache if he ever took 84
pepper, and Soterichus, the surgeon, was seized by purging if he
perceived the odor of roasting shad; Andron, the Argive, was so
free from thirst that he could travel even through the waterless
Libya without looking for a drink; Tiberius, the emperor, saw in
the dark, and Aristotle tells the story of a certain Thracian,
who thought that he saw the figure of a man always going before
him as a guide. While therefore such a difference exists in men 85
in regard to the body, and we must be satisfied with
referring to a few only of the many examples given by the
Dogmatics, it is probable that men also differ from each other
in respect to the soul itself, for the body is a kind of type of
the soul, as the physiognomical craft also shows. The best
example of the numerous and infinite differences of opinion
among men is the contradiction in the sayings of the Dogmatics,
not only about other things, but about what it is well to seek
and to avoid. The poets have also fittingly spoken about 86
this, for Pindar said--
"One delights in getting honors and crowns through
storm-footed horses,
Another in passing life in rooms rich in gold,
Another still, safe travelling enjoys, in a swift ship,
on a wave of the sea."
And the poet says--
"One man enjoys this, another enjoys that."
The tragedies also abound in such expressions, for instance,
it is said--
"If to all, the same were good and wise,
Quarrels and disputes among men would not have been."
And again--
"It is awful indeed, that the same thing some mortals
should please,
And by others be hated."
Since therefore the choice and the avoidance of things, 87
depends on the pleasure and displeasure which they give, and the
pleasure and displeasure have their seat in perception and
ideas, when some choose the things that others avoid, it is
logical for us to conclude that they are not acted upon
similarly by the same things, for otherwise they would have
chosen or avoided alike. Now if the same things act upon
different men differently, on account of the difference in the
men, for this cause also suspension of the judgment may
reasonably be introduced, and we may perhaps say how each object
appears to us, and what its individual differences are, but we
shall not be able to declare what it is as to the nature of its
essence. For we must either believe all men or some men; but 88
to believe all is to undertake an impossibility, and to accept
things that are in opposition to each other. If we believe some
only, let someone tell us with whom to agree, for the Platonist
would say with Plato, the Epicurean with Epicurus, and others
would advise in a corresponding manner; and so as they disagree,
with no one to decide, they bring us round again to the
suspension of judgment. Furthermore, he who tells us to agree 89
with the majority proposes something childish, as no one could
go to all men and find out what pleases the majority, for it is
possible that in some nations which we do not know the things
which to us are rare are common to the majority, and those
things which happen commonly to us are rare. As for example, it
might happen that the majority should not suffer when bitten by
venomous spiders, or that they should seldom feel pain, or have
other personal peculiarities similar to those spoken of above.
It is necessary therefore to suspend the judgment on account of
the differences in men.
THE THIRD TROPE.
While, however, the Dogmatics are conceited enough to think 90
that they should be preferred to other men in the judgement of
things, we know that their claim is absurd, for they themselves
form a part of the disagreement; and if they give themselves
preference in this way in the judgment of phenomena, they beg
the question before they begin the judgment, as they trust the
judgment to themselves. Nevertheless, in order that we should 91
reach the result of the suspension of judgment by limiting
the argument to one man, one who for example they deem to be
wise, let us take up the third Trope. This is the one that is
based upon differences in perception. That the perceptions 92
differ from each other is evident. For example, paintings seem
to have hollows and prominences to the sense of sight, but not
to the sense of touch, and honey to the tongue of some people
appears pleasant, but unpleasant to the eyes; therefore it is
impossible to say whether it is really pleasant or unpleasant.
In regard to myrrh it is the same, for it delights the sense of
smell, but disgusts the sense of taste. Also in regard to 93
euphorbium, since it is harmful to the eyes and harmless to
all the rest of the body, we are not able to say whether it is
really harmless to bodies or not, as far as its own nature is
concerned. Rain-water, too, is useful to the eyes, but it makes
the trachea and the lungs rough, just as oil does, although it
soothes the skin; and the sea-torpedo placed on the extremities
makes them numb, but is harmless when placed on the rest of the
body. Wherefore we cannot say what each of these things is by
nature. It is possible only to say how it appears each time. We 94
could cite more examples than these, but in order not to
spend too long in laying out the plan of this book we shall
simply say the following: Each of the phenomena perceived by us
seems to present itself in many forms, as the apple, smooth,
fragrant, sweet, yellow. Now it is not known whether it has in
reality only those qualities which appear to us, or if it has
only one quality, but appears different on account of the
different constitution of the sense organs, or if it has more
qualities than appear to us, but some of them do not affect us.
That it has only one quality might be concluded from what we 95
have said about the food distributed in bodies, and the water
distributed in trees, and the breath in the flute and syrinx,
and in similar instruments; for it is possible that the apple
also has only one quality, but appears different on account of
the difference in the sense organs by which it is perceived. On 96
the other hand, that the apple has more qualities than those
that appear to us, can be argued in this way: Let us imagine
someone born with the sense of touch, of smell, and of taste,
but neither hearing nor seeing. He will then assume that neither
anything visible nor anything audible exists at all, but only
the three kinds of qualities which he can apprehend. It is 97
possible then that as we have only the five senses, we apprehend
only those qualities of the apple which we are able to grasp,
but it may be supposed that other qualities exist which would
affect other sense organs if we possessed them; as it is, we do
not feel the sensations which would be felt through them. But 98
nature, one will say, has brought the senses into harmony
with the objects to be perceived. What kind of nature? Among the
Dogmatics a great difference of opinion reigns about the real
existence of nature anyway; for he who decides whether there is
a nature or not, if he is an uneducated man, would be according
to them untrustworthy; if he is a philosopher, he is a part of
the disagreement, and is himself to be judged, but is not a
judge. In short, if it is possible that only those qualities 99
exist in the apple which we seem to perceive, or that more than
these are there, or that not even those which we perceive exist,
it will be unknown to us what kind of a thing the apple is. The
same argument holds for other objects of perception. If,
however, the senses do not comprehend the external world, the
intellect cannot comprehend it either, so that for this reason
also it will appear that the suspension of judgment follows in
regard to external objects.
THE FOURTH TROPE.
In order to attain to [Greek: epochê] by fixing the argument on 100
each separate sense, or even by putting aside the senses
altogether, we take up the fourth Trope of [Greek: epochê]. This
is the one based upon circumstances, and by circumstances we
mean conditions. This Trope comes under consideration, we may
say, with regard to conditions that are according to nature, or
contrary to nature; such as waking or sleeping, the age of life,
moving or keeping still, hating or loving, need or satiety,
drunkenness or sobriety, predispositions, being courageous or
afraid, sorrowing or rejoicing. For example, things appear 101
different as they are according to nature, or contrary to it; as
for instance, the insane and those inspired by a god, think that
they hear gods, while we do not; in like manner they often say
that they perceive the odor of storax or frankincense, or the
like, and many other things which we do not perceive. Water,
also, that seems lukewarm to us, if poured over places that are
inflamed, will feel hot, and a garment that appears
orange-coloured to those that have blood-shot eyes, would not
look so to me, and the same honey appears sweet to me, but
bitter to those who have the jaundice. If one should say 102
that those who are not in a natural state have unusual ideas of
objects, because of the intermingling of certain humors, then
one must also say, that it may be that objects which are really
what they seem to be to those who are in an unnatural condition,
appear different to those who are in health, for even those who
are in health have humors that are mixed with each other. For to 103
give to one kind of fluid a power to change objects, and not
to another kind, is a fiction of the mind; for just as those who
are in health are in a condition that is natural to those who
are in health, and contrary to the nature of those who are not
in health, so also those who are not in health, are in a
condition contrary to the nature of those in health, but natural
to those not in health, and we must therefore believe that they
also are in some respect in a natural condition. Furthermore, 104
in sleep or in waking, the ideas are different, because we
do not see things in the same way when we are awake as we do in
sleep; neither do we see them in the same way in sleep as we do
when awake, so that the existence or non-existence of these
things is not absolute, but relative, that is in relation to a
sleeping or waking condition. It is therefore probable that we
see those things in sleep which in a waking condition do not
exist, but they are not altogether non-existent, for they exist
in sleep, just as those things which exist when we are awake,
exist, although they do not exist in sleep. Furthermore, things 105
present themselves differently according to the age of life,
for the same air seems cold to the aged, but temperate to those
in their prime, and the same color appears dim to those who are
old, and bright to those in their prime, and likewise the same
tone seems faint to the former, and audible to the latter.
People in different ages are also differently disposed 106
towards things to be chosen or avoided; children, for example,
are very fond of balls and hoops, while those in their prime
prefer other things, and the old still others, from which it
follows that the ideas in regard to the same objects differ in
different periods of life. Furthermore, things appear different 107
in a condition of motion and rest, since that which we see at
rest when we are still, seems to move when we are sailing
by it. There are also differences which depend on liking or 108
disliking, as some detest swine flesh exceedingly, but others
eat it with pleasure. As Menander said--
"O how his face appears
Since he became such a man! What a creature!
Doing no injustice would make us also beautiful."
Many also that love ugly women consider them very beautiful
Furthermore, there are differences which depend on hunger or 109
satiety, as the same food seems agreeable to those who are
hungry, and disagreeable to those who are satisfied. There are
also differences depending on drunkenness and sobriety, as that
which we consider ugly when we are sober does not appear ugly to
us when we are drunk. Again, there are differences depending 110
on predispositions, as the same wine appears sourish to those
who have previously eaten dates or dried figs, but agreeable to
those who have taken nuts or chickpeas; the vestibule of the
bath warms those who enter from without, but cools those who go
out, if they rest in it. Furthermore, there are differences 111
depending on being afraid or courageous, as the same thing
seems fearful and terrible to the coward, but in no wise so to
him who is brave. There are differences, also, depending on
being sad or joyful, as the same things are unpleasant to the
sad, but pleasant to the joyful. Since therefore the 112
anomalies depending on conditions are so great, and since men
are in different conditions at different times, it is perhaps
easy to say how each object appears to each man, but not so of
what kind it is, because the anomaly is not of a kind to be
judged. For he who would pass judgment upon this is either in
some one of the conditions mentioned above, or is in absolutely
no condition whatever; but to say that he is in no condition at
all, as, for example, that he is neither in health nor in
illness, that he is neither moving nor quiet, that he is not of
any age, and also that he is free from the other conditions, is
wholly absurd. But if he judges the ideas while he is in any 113
condition whatever, he is a part of the contradiction, and,
besides, he is no genuine critic of external objects, because he
is confused by the condition in which he finds himself.
Therefore neither can the one who is awake compare the ideas of
those who are asleep with those who are awake, nor can he who is
in health compare the ideas of the sick with those of the well;
for we believe more in the things that are present, and
affecting us at present, than in the things not present. In 114
another way, the anomaly in such ideas is impossible to be
judged, for whoever prefers one idea to another, and one
condition to another, does this either without a criterion and a
proof, or with a criterion and a proof; but he can do this
neither without them, for he would then be untrustworthy, nor
with them; for if he judges ideas, he judges them wholly by a
criterion, and he will say that this criterion is either true or
false. But if it is false, he will be untrustworthy; if, on 115
the contrary, he says that it is true, he will say that the
criterion is true either without proof or with proof. If without
proof, he will be untrustworthy; if he says that it is true with
proof, it is certainly necessary that the proof be true, or he
will be untrustworthy. Now will he say that the proof which he
has accepted for the accrediting of the criterion is true,
having judged it, or without having judged it? If he says so 116
without judging it, he will be untrustworthy; if he has judged
it, it is evident that he will say that he has judged according
to some criterion, and we must seek a proof for this criterion,
and for that proof a criterion. For the proof always needs a
criterion to establish it, and the criterion needs a proof that
it may be shown to be true; and a proof can neither be sound
without a pre-existing criterion that is true, nor a criterion
true without a proof that is shown beforehand to be trustworthy.
And so both the criterion and the proof are thrown into the 117
_circulus in probando_, by which it is found that they are both
of them untrustworthy, for as each looks for proof from the
other, each is as untrustworthy as the other. Since then one
cannot prefer one idea to another, either without a proof and a
criterion or with them, the ideas that differ according to
different conditions cannot be judged, so that the suspension of
judgment in regard to the nature of external objects follows
through this Trope also.
THE FIFTH TROPE.
The fifth Trope is that based upon position, distance, and 118
place, for, according to each of these, the same things appear
different, as for example, the same arcade seen from either end
appears curtailed, but from the middle it looks symmetrical on
every side; and the same ship appears small and motionless from
afar, and large and in motion near by, and the same tower
appears round from a distance, but square near by. So much for
distance. Now in reference to place, we say that the light 119
of the lamp appears dim in the sun, but bright in the dark; and
the same rudder appears broken in the sea, but straight out of
it; and the egg in the bird is soft, but in the air hard; and
the lyngurion is a fluid in the lynx, but is hard in the air;
and the coral is soft in the sea, but hard in the air; and a
tone of voice appears different produced by a syrinx, and by a
flute, and different simply in the air. Also in reference to 120
position, the same picture leaned back appears smooth, and
leaned forward a little seems to have hollows and protuberances,
and the necks of doves appear different in color according to
the difference in inclination. Since then all phenomena are 121
seen in relation to place, distance, and position, each of which
relation makes a great difference with the idea, as we have
mentioned, we shall be obliged by this Trope also to come to the
suspension of judgment. For he who wishes to give preference to
certain ones of these ideas will attempt the impossible. For if 122
he simply makes the decision without proof he will be
untrustworthy. If, however, he wishes to make use of a proof,
should he say that the proof is false, he contradicts himself,
but if he declares the proof to be true, proof of its proof will
be demanded of him, and another proof for that, which proof also
must be true, and so on to the _regressus in infinitum_. It is
impossible, however, to present proofs _in infinitum_, so 123
that one will not be able to prove that one idea is to be
preferred to another. Since then one cannot either without proof
or with proof judge the ideas in question, the suspension of
judgment results, and how each thing appears according to this
or that position, or this or that distance, or this or that
place, we perhaps are able to say, but what it really is it is
impossible to declare, for the reasons which we have mentioned.
THE SIXTH TROPE.
The sixth Trope is the one based upon mixtures, according to 124
which we conclude that since no object presents itself alone,
but always together with something else, it is perhaps possible
to say of what nature the mixture is, of the thing itself, and
of that with which it is seen, but of what sort the external
object really is we shall not be able to say. Now it is evident,
I think, that nothing from without is known to us by itself, but
always with something else, and that because of this fact it
appears different. The color of our skin, for example, is 125
different seen in warm air from what it is in cold, and we
could not say what our color really is, only what it is when
viewed under each of these conditions. The same sound appears
different in rare air from what it is in dense, and aromas are
more overpowering in the warm bath and in the sun than they are
in the cold air, and a body surrounded by water is light, but by
air heavy. Leaving aside, however, outer mixtures, our eyes 126
have inside of them coatings and humors. Since then visible
things are not seen without these, they will not be accurately
comprehended, for it is the mixture that we perceive, and for
this reason those who have the jaundice see everything yellow,
and those with bloodshot eyes bloody. Since the same sound
appears different in broad open places from what it does in
narrow and winding ones, and different in pure air and in
impure, it is probable that we do not perceive the tones
unmixed; for the ears have narrow winding passages filled with
vaporous secretions, which it is said gather from places around
the head. Since also there are substances present in the 127
nostrils and in the seat of the sense of taste, we perceive the
things smelled and the things tasted in connection with them,
and not unmixed. So that because of mixture the senses do not
perceive accurately what the external objects are. The intellect 128
even does not do this, chiefly because its guides, the
senses, make mistakes, and perhaps it itself adds a certain
special mixture to those messages communicated by the senses;
for in each place where the Dogmatics think that the ruling
faculty is situated, we see that certain humors are present,
whether one would locate it in the region of the brain, in the
region of the heart, or somewhere else. Since therefore
according to this Trope also, we see that we cannot say anything
regarding the nature of external objects, we are obliged to
suspend our judgment.
THE SEVENTH TROPE.
The seventh Trope is the one which, as we said, is based 129
upon the quantity and constitution of objects, constitution
commonly meaning composition. And it is evident that we are
obliged to suspend our judgment according to this Trope also in
regard to the nature of things. As for example, filings from the
horn of the goat appear white when they are seen separately and
without being put together; put together, however, in the form
of a horn, they look black. And the parts of silver, the filings
that is, by themselves appear black, but as a whole appear
white; and parts of the Taenarus stone look white when ground,
but in the whole stone appear yellow; grains of sand 130
scattered apart from each other appear to be rough, but put
together in a heap, they produce a soft feeling; hellebore taken
fine and downy, causes choking, but it no longer does so when
taken coarse; wine also taken moderately strengthens us, but 131
when taken in excess relaxes the body; food similarly, has a
different effect according to the quantity, at least, it often
disturbs the body when too much is taken, causing dyspepsia and
discharge. We shall be able here also to say of what kind 132
the cutting from the horn is, and what many cuttings put
together are, of what kind a filing of silver is, and what many
of them put together are, of what kind the tiny Taenarus stone,
and what one composed of many small ones is, and in regard to
the grains of sand, and the hellebore, and the wine, and the
food, what they are in relation, but no longer the nature of the
thing by itself, because of the anomaly in the ideas which we
have of things, according to the way in which they are put
together. In general it appears that useful things become 133
harmful when an intemperate use is made of them, and things that
seem harmful when taken in excess, are not injurious in a small
quantity. What we see in the effect of medicines witnesses
especially to this fact, as an exact mixture of simple remedies
makes a compound which is helpful, but sometimes when a very
small inclination of the balance is overlooked, the medicine is
not only not helpful, but very harmful, and often poisonous. So 134
the argument based upon the quantity and constitution of
objects, puts in confusion the existence of external objects.
Therefore this Trope naturally leads us to suspend our judgment,
as we are not able to declare exactly the nature of external
objects.
THE EIGHTH TROPE.
The eighth Trope is the one based upon relation, from which 135
we conclude to suspend our judgment as to what things are
absolutely, in their nature, since every thing is in relation to
something else. And we must bear in mind that we use the word
_is_ incorrectly, in place of _appears_, meaning to say, every
thing _appears_ to be in relation. This is said, however, with
two meanings: first, that every thing is in relation to the one
who judges, for the external object, _i.e._ the thing judged,
appears to be in relation to the judge; the other way is that
every thing is in relation to the things considered together
with it, as the relation of the right hand to the left. But we 136
came to the conclusion above, that every thing is in relation
to something, as for example, to the one judging; each thing
appears in relation to this or that animal, and this or that
man, and this or that sense, and in certain circumstances;
as regards things considered together, also, each thing appears
in relation to this or that mixture, and this or that Trope, and
this or that composition, quantity and place. And in another way
it is possible to conclude that every thing is in relation 137
to something, as follows: does the being in difference differ
from the being in relation, or not? If it does not differ, then
it is the same as relation; if it does differ, since every thing
which differs is in some relation, for it is said to be in
relation to that from which it differs, those things which are
in a difference are in a relation to something. Now according 138
to the Dogmatics, some beings belong to the highest genera,
others to the lowest species, and others to both genera
and species at the same time; all of these are in relation to
something, therefore every thing is in relation to something.
Furthermore, among things, some things are manifest, and others
are hidden, as the Dogmatics themselves say, and the things that
make themselves known to us are the phenomena, and the things
that are made known to us by the phenomena are the hidden
things, for according to the Dogmatics, the phenomena are the
outward appearance of the unknown; then that which makes known,
and that which is made known, are in relation to something;
every thing, therefore, is in relation to something. In 139
addition to this, some things are similar to each other, and
others are dissimilar, some are equal, and others are unequal.
Now these things are in relation to something, therefore every
thing is in relation to something, and whoever says that every
thing is not in relation to something, himself establishes the
fact that every thing is in relation to something, for even in
saying that every thing is not in relation to something, he 140
proves it in reference to us, and not in general, by his
objections to us. In short, as we have shown that every thing is
in relation to something, it is then evident that we shall not
be able to say exactly what each object is by nature, but what
it appears to be like in relation to something else. It follows
from this, that we must suspend our judgment regarding the
nature of things.
THE NINTH TROPE.
In regard to the Trope based on the frequency and rarity of 141
events, which we call the ninth of the series, we give the
following explanation: The sun is certainly a much more
astonishing thing than a comet, but because we see the sun
continually and the comet rarely we are so much astonished at
the comet that it even seems an omen, while we are not at all
astonished at the sun. If, however, we should imagine the sun
appearing at rare intervals, and at rare intervals setting, in
the first instance suddenly lighting up all things, and in the
second casting everything into shade, we should see great
astonishment at the sight. An earthquake, too, does not trouble 142
those who experience it for the first time in the same manner
as those who have become accustomed to it. How great the
astonishment of a man who beholds the sea for the first time!
And the beauty of the human body, seen suddenly for the first
time, moves us more than if we are accustomed to seeing it. That
which is rare seems valuable, while things that are familiar 143
and easily obtained seem by no means so. If, for example, we
should imagine water as rare, of how much greater value would it
seem than all other valuable things! or if we imagine gold as
simply thrown about on the ground in large quantities like
stones, to whom do we think it would be valuable, or by whom
would it be hoarded, as it is now? Since then the same things
according to the frequency or rarity that they are met with seem
to be now valuable and now not so, we conclude that it may be
that we shall be able to say what kind of a thing each of 144
them appears to be according to the frequency or rarity with
which it occurs, but we are not able to say what each external
object is absolutely. Therefore, according to this Trope also,
we suspend our judgment regarding these things.
THE TENTH TROPE.
The tenth Trope is the one principally connected with 145
morals, relating to schools, customs, laws, mythical beliefs,
and dogmatic opinions. Now a school is a choice of a manner of
life, or of something held by one or many, as for example the
school of Diogenes or the Laconians. A law is a written 146
contract among citizens, the transgressor of which is punished.
A custom or habit, for there is no difference, is a common
acceptance of a certain thing by many, the deviator from which
is in no wise punished. For example, it is a law not to commit
adultery, and it is a custom with us [Greek: to mê dêmosia
gynaiki mignusthai]. A mythical belief is a tradition 147
regarding things which never took place, but were invented, as
among others, the tales about Cronus, for many are led to
believe them. A dogmatic opinion is the acceptance of something
that seems to be established by a course of reasoning, or by
some proof, as for example, that atoms are elements of things,
and that they are either homogeneous, or infinitesimal, or of
some other description. Now we place each of these things
sometimes in opposition to itself, and sometimes in opposition
to each one of the others. For example, we place a custom in 148
opposition to a custom thus: some of the Ethiopians tattoo
new-born children, but we do not, and the Persians think it is
seemly to have a garment of many colors and reaching to the
feet, but we think it not so. The Indians [Greek: tais gynaixi
dêomosia mignyntai] but most of the other nations consider it a
shame. We place a law in opposition to a law in this way: 149
among the Romans he who renounces his paternal inheritance does
not pay his father's debts, but among the Rhodians he pays them
in any case; and among the Tauri in Scythia it was a law to
offer strangers in sacrifice to Artemis, but with us it is
forbidden to kill a man near a temple. We place a school in 150
opposition to a school when we oppose the school of Diogenes to
that of Aristippus, or that of the Laconians to that of the
Italians. We place a mythical belief in opposition to a mythical
belief, as by some traditions Jupiter is said to be the father
of men and gods, and by others Oceanus, as we say--
"Oceanus father of the gods, and Tethys the mother."
We place dogmatic opinions in opposition to each other, when 151
we say that some declare that there is only one element, but
others that they are infinite in number, and some that the soul
is mortal, others that it is immortal; and some say that our
affairs are directed by the providence of the gods, but others
that there is no providence. We place custom in opposition 152
to other things, as for example to a law, when we say that among
the Persians it is the custom to practice [Greek: arrenomixiai],
but among the Romans it is forbidden by law to do it; by us
adultery is forbidden, but among the Massagetae indifference in
this respect is allowed by custom, as Eudoxos of Cnidus relates
in the first part of his book of travels; among us it is
forbidden [Greek: mêtrasi mignusthai], but among the Persians it
is the custom by preference to marry so; the Egyptians marry
sisters also, which among us is forbidden by law. Further, 153
we place a custom in opposition to a school, when we say that
most men [Greek: anachôrountes mignuôntai tais heautôn gunaixin,
ho de Kratês tê Hipparchia dêmosia], and Diogenes went around
with one shoulder bare, but we go around with our customary
clothes. We place a custom in opposition to a mythical 154
belief, as when the myths say that Cronus ate his own children,
while with us it is the custom to take care of our children; and
among us it is the custom to venerate the gods as good, and not
liable to evil, but they are described by the poets as being
wounded, and also as being jealous of each other. We place a
custom in opposition to a dogmatic opinion when we say that 155
it is a custom with us to seek good things from the gods, but
that Epicurus says that the divine pays no heed to us;
Aristippus also held it to be a matter of indifference to wear a
woman's robe, but we consider it shameful. We place a school in
opposition to a law, as according to the law it is not allowed 156
to beat a free and noble born man, but the wrestlers and
boxers strike each other according to the teaching of their
manner of life, and although murder is forbidden, the gladiators
kill each other for the same reason. We place a mythical 157
belief in opposition to a school when we say that, although the
myths say of Hercules that in company with Omphale--
"He carded wool, and bore servitude,"
and did things that not even an ordinary good man would have
done, yet Hercules' theory of life was noble. We place a 158
mythical belief in opposition to a dogmatic opinion when we
say that athletes seeking after glory as a good, enter for its
sake upon a laborious profession, but many philosophers, on the
other hand, teach that glory is worthless. We place law in
opposition to mythical belief when we say the poets 159
represent the gods as working adultery and sin, but among us the
law forbids those things. We place law in opposition to dogmatic
opinion when we say that the followers of Chrysippus hold 160
that it is a matter of indifference to marry one's mother or
sister, but the law forbids these things. We place a mythical
belief in opposition to a dogmatic opinion when we say that 161
the poets represent Jupiter as descending and holding
intercourse with mortal women, but the Dogmatics think this was
impossible; also that the poet says that Jupiter, on account 162
of his sorrow for Sarpedon, rained drops of blood upon the
earth, but it is a dogma of the philosophers that the divine is
exempt from suffering; and they deny the myth of the
horse-centaurs, giving us the horse-centaur as an example of
non-existence. Now we could give many other examples of each 163
of the antitheses mentioned above, but for a brief argument,
these are sufficient. Since, however, such anomaly of things is
shown by this Trope also, we shall not be able to say what
objects are by nature, but only what each thing appears to be
like, according to this or that school, or this or that law, or
this or that custom, or according to each of the other
conditions. Therefore, by this Trope also, we must suspend our
judgment in regard to the nature of external objects. Thus we
arrive at [Greek: epochê] through the ten Tropes.