to enable the recruit to support the rifle and rest his muscles,
whilst the instructor modifies, or corrects, his position. An incorrect
position, however, usually arises from want of accuracy in the
preliminary actions which lead to it, and it is to these that attention
must be given, for a faulty position once acquired cannot easily be
corrected.
=5.= With regard to the firing positions, the standing position is a
convenient one to commence elementary instruction. When recruits have
acquired facility in handling the rifle, they will be trained for the
most part in the lying position, either in the open or behind cover,
and occasionally in the kneeling position behind cover.
=6. Progression of Training.=--Elementary instruction in firing will be
divided into the following stages:
(i) Trigger-pressing from aiming-rest.
(ii) Snapping from aiming-rest.
(iii) Assuming the various firing positions.
(iv) Loading and unloading in the various firing positions.
(v) Aiming and firing in the various firing positions in the
open, including loading, adjusting sights, and unloading.
(vi) As in (v), with the various firing positions adapted to
different forms of cover.
(vii) Muscle exercises.
Section =25=.--Trigger-Pressing and Snapping.
=1. Importance of Trigger-Pressing.=--(i) Instruction in firing will
commence with training in pressing the trigger. The vital importance
of performing this action correctly must be impressed upon recruits.
They must understand that, however carefully and accurately the rifle
is aimed, accurate shooting is impossible if trigger-pressing is
faulty, as aim will be disturbed at the moment of discharge. Faultless
trigger-pressing is absolutely essential for accurate firing.
=2. Need for Mental Effort.=--Trigger-pressing requires most careful
individual instruction, during which the necessity for determination
and strong personal effort of will will be impressed on the mind of
every recruit. The power of concentrating the mind and controlling the
nerves and muscles by exercising the will are all developed by practice
in trigger-pressing, and these qualities of character are essential for
good shooting and for fire discipline.
=3. Rules for Trigger-Pressing.=--(i) The trigger of the S.M.L.E.rifle
has a double pull-off, and two distinct pressures are necessary to
fire the rifle. The first pull should be taken when the rifle has
been brought into position for aiming; the second when the sights are
aligned on the mark. The charger-loading Lee-Enfield rifle has a single
pull-off.
[Illustration: =Fig. 15.=--METHOD OF PRESSING TRIGGER WITH FOREFINGER.]
(ii) The direction of the pull-off is diagonally across the small of
the butt. The first joint of the forefinger should be placed round the
_lower_ part of the trigger (Fig. 15). In order not to disturb the aim
_breathing must be restrained when pressing the trigger. In firing the
trigger must be pressed so as to release the cocking-piece without
disturbing aim._
(iii) To do this _a gradually increasing pressure_ must be exerted
on the trigger until the spring is released. Such pressure will
be facilitated if the grip of the trigger hand on the rifle is
strengthened slightly, as though to oppose the inward pressure of the
trigger finger with an equal gradual counter-pressure. This will give
the whole action the effect of a squeeze with the hand, of which the
pressure of the trigger finger is the most important part--the part on
which the mind must be concentrated. _On no account must the pressure
of the finger in any degree take the form of a pull or jerk._
(iv) Fig. 16 shows the results of faulty trigger-pressing in firing.
The trigger has been pulled or jerked to the left instead of being
properly pressed, and the grouping of shots--low to the right--shows
how aim has been disturbed in consequence.
=4. Method of Instruction.=--(i) The rifle will be rested on sandbags
(Fig. 17), or an aiming-rest, and the recruit will be seated with
his elbows rested on a table. The instructor will first see that the
recruit can _move his trigger-finger independently of the remainder of
the hand and arm_, if necessary, by making him practise this action.
[Illustration: <ff>Fig. 16.=--SHOT GROUP ILLUSTRATING RESULT OF FAULTY
TRIGGER-PRESSING.]
(ii) In order that he may learn from experience the pressure required
to release the cocking-piece, the soldier in commencing instruction
in trigger-pressing, will be directed to place his forefinger under
that of the instructor, but without exercising pressure, whilst the
instructor carries out the motion (Fig. 18). Then, to enable the
instructor to ascertain whether the method is understood, the soldier
will place his finger over that of the instructor, and exert the
pressure. Finally, the soldier will himself press the trigger, while
the instructor uses the aim-corrector to see that aim is not disturbed
when the trigger is pressed. Special care will be taken that the
_breathing is restrained while pressing the trigger. The use of the
sling for steadying the rifle during firing is not to be taught._
=5. Declaring the Point of Aim.=--The recruit must always be made
to say after the spring is released whether the aim was maintained
truly at the moment of snapping. If not, he must state definitely the
direction in which the rifle was pointed at the moment of discharge. By
this means recruits will find out and correct their own faults, and the
contraction of bad habits will be avoided.
=6. Tests of Trigger-Pressing and Snapping.=--From time to time
the instructor will test the aim and steadiness of each recruit in
trigger-pressing and snapping with an aim-corrector or an aiming-disc
(Fig. 19). If necessary, further lessons in trigger-pressing will be
given. Progress should also be tested from time to time by grouping
practice on the miniature range or 30 yards range. These practices
will help to develop steadiness until range practice is begun. Daily
practice in snapping is necessary for trained soldiers as well as for
recruits.
Section =26=.--The Various Firing Positions.
=1. Vulnerability of Different Firing Positions.=--In the open up to
1,000 yards the lying position will usually prove the least vulnerable
to the effects of both rifle and artillery fire, as it is the most
difficult to discern and exposes the smallest surface to fire. As a
rule, the lying position is also the least vulnerable to the effects of
rifle fire at all ranges. On the other hand, it is more vulnerable
to the effects of shrapnel in the open than the kneeling or sitting
positions. The use of entrenchments, however, whenever possible,
usually obviates the necessity for assuming the lying position in the
open in attacking a strongly-held defensive position.
[Illustration: =Fig. 17.=--SHOWING GRIP OF RIGHT HAND, AND TRIGGER
FINGER.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 18.=--INSTRUCTOR ILLUSTRATING CORRECT METHOD OF
PRESSING THE TRIGGER.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 19=--CORRECT METHOD OF USING AIMING-DISC.
(_See Appendix, Sec. IV., “Aiming-Disc.”_)]
[Illustration: =Fig. 20.=--STANDING POSITION--SIDE VIEW.
_Points to note:_
1. Body well balanced.
2. Left elbow well under rifle.
3. Good bed for the butt.
4. Firm grip with both hands.
5. Eye well back from the cocking-piece.
6. Sights perfectly upright.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 21.=--STANDING POSITION--FRONT VIEW.
_Points to note:_
1. Body well balanced.
2. Left elbow well under rifle.
3. Good bed for the butt.
4. Firm grip with both hands.
5. Eye well back from the cocking-piece.
6. Sights perfectly upright.]
=2. Need for Avoiding Unnecessary Movement.=--Recruits will be trained
to assume the various firing positions rapidly, and to perform the
loading and aiming motions with as little movement as possible. All
unnecessary movement in performing these motions must be avoided,
especially in the open, as movement attracts the eye and tends to
betray the position of targets which, when stationary, would be
invisible or extremely difficult to discern.
=3. Standing Position= (Figs. 20 and 21).--(i) The standing position
will, as a rule, be used on service to fire from breastworks, high
walls, and cover, such as long grass or standing corn, or to take
a snap-shot when advancing, so that the pace of the advance is not
materially checked. For the height over which a man can fire standing
see Sec. 31, para. 2.
(ii) =Rules for the Standing Position.=--Body turned half right, left
foot carried to the left and slightly forward, so that the body is
erect and well-balanced, left elbow well under the rifle, the butt well
into the hollow of the shoulder, rifle gripped firmly with both hands,
eye well back from the cocking-piece, sights perfectly upright.
=4. Lying Position= (Fig. 22).--(i) The lying position will generally
be adopted by troops on open ground, or when firing from continuous low
cover, or from behind small rocks, trees, etc. Preliminary instruction
in firing and firing exercises will, as a rule, be carried out in the
lying position as being the most convenient.
(ii) Other conditions being equal, this position has the advantage that
its use in firing results in a greater extent of dangerous space than
in the case of other firing positions [Sec. 9, para. 2 (ii)].
(iii) =Rules for Firing In the Lying Position.=--Turn half right, bring
the rifle to the right side as when standing, holding it in the left
hand. Place the right hand on the ground, and lie down on the stomach
with the legs separated, left shoulder well forward, left arm extended
to the front, and rifle resting in the left hand in a convenient
position, muzzle pointing to the front and clear of mud or dust on
the ground. The line of the body may be slightly oblique to the line
of fire, _but this oblique angle must not be exaggerated, as it will
tend to increase vulnerability by presenting a greater surface to the
enemy’s fire than when the body is parallel to the line of fire_ (see
Fig. 30).
(iv) =Adjusting Sights.=--To adjust sights in the lying position draw
the rifle back with the left hand until the lines on the backsight
can be seen clearly. In the case of S.M.L.E. and Charger-loading
Lee-Enfield rifles, draw the rifle back through the left hand.
(v) =Height of Rifle above Ground.=--For the height over which a man in
the lying position can fire see Sec. 31, para. 2. If it is necessary
for improving the field of fire and obtaining better fire effect to
increase the height of the body above ground, this can be done by
raising it on the elbows and at the same time slightly retiring it.
=5. Kneeling Position= (Figs. 23 and 24).--(i) The kneeling position
is used mainly when firing from continuous cover, such as a low wall,
bank, or hedge, or in long grass, crops, etc., which would obstruct the
line of sight if the prone position were adopted. For the height over
which a man in the kneeling position can fire see Sec. 31, para. 2.
(ii) =Rules for Firing in the Kneeling Position.=--The soldier may
kneel on either or both knees. When kneeling on one knee the body may
be supported on the heel, or not, as desired. The left knee will be in
advance of the left heel, and the left elbow will rest on or over
the left knee. The left leg, hand, and arm, and the right shoulder,
should be in the same vertical plane when firing in the open kneeling
on the right knee. When kneeling on both knees, the body may rest on
both heels, or be kept upright to suit the height of the cover, the
elbows in both instances being unsupported by the body.
[Illustration: =Fig. 22.=--PRONE POSITION--SIDE VIEW.
_Points to note_:
1. Body oblique to line of fire.
2. Legs separated.
3. Heels on ground.
4. Good bed for the butt.
5. Firm grip with both hands.
6. Eye well back from the cocking-piece.
7. Sights perfectly upright.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 23.=--KNEELING POSITION--SIDE VIEW.
_Points to note_:
1. Body well balanced.
2. Left elbow well under rifle.
3. Good bed for the butt.
4. Firm grip with both hands.
5. Eye well back from the cocking-piece.
6. Sights perfectly upright.
7. Left heel slightly behind left knee.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 24=--KNEELING POSITION--FRONT VIEW.
_Points to note_:
1. Body well balanced.
2. Left elbow well under rifle.
3. Good bed for the butt.
4. Firm grip with both hands.
5. Eye well back from the cocking-piece.
6. Sights perfectly upright.
7. Left knee, forearm, rifle, and
right shoulder, in one vertical
plane.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 25.=--SITTING.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 26=--SITTING POSITION WHEN FIRING--AIMING DOWN
STEEP SLOPE.]
=6. Sitting Position= (Figs. 25 and 26).--The sitting position will
be the most suitable when on ground falling at a steep slope. In this
position the right shoulder should be kept well back, the left forearm
supported by the thigh, and the right elbow resting against the right
knee, or unsupported, as desired.
Section =27=.--Loading and Unloading.
=1. To Load= (Fig. 27).[13]--(i) Bring the rifle to the right side
in front of the hip, with the muzzle pointing upwards, small of the
butt just in front of the hip, grasping the stock with the left hand
immediately in front of the magazine. Turn the safety-catch completely
over to the front with the thumb or forefinger of the right hand.
(_Charger-loading Lee-Enfield Rifle._--Lower the safety-catch with the
thumb of the right hand.)
(ii) Pull out the cut-off if closed, first pressing it downwards with
the thumb, then seize the knob with the forefinger and thumb of the
right hand, turn it sharply upwards, and draw back the bolt to its full
extent.
(iii) Take the charger between the thumb and first two fingers of the
right hand, and place it vertically in the guides. Then, placing the
ball of the thumb immediately in front of the charger, and hooking
the forefinger under the cut-off, force the cartridges down with
a firm and continuous pressure until the top cartridge has engaged
in the magazine. Force the bolt sharply home, turning the knob well
down, and, with the thumb or forefinger of the right hand, turn the
safety-catch completely over to the rear. (_Charger-loading Lee-Enfield
Rifle._--Raise the safety-catch with the forefinger of the right hand.)
Then button the pouch, seize the rifle with the right hand in front of
the left, bring the left foot back to the right and order arms.
(iv) =Loading the Magazine.=--The magazine will hold two charges of
five cartridges each, but should in ordinary circumstances be loaded
with one only, as the soldier will thus retain the power of adding
another charge at any time should necessity demand. If, when on the
line of march, it is desired to charge the magazine without loading the
rifle, the top cartridge may be pressed downwards with the thumb and
the cut-off closed. _After the rifle is once charged the soldier is
responsible that his magazine is refilled at once whenever it has been
emptied._
=4. To Unload.=--Carry out the directions in para, 1 (i) and (ii), but
after drawing back the bolt, without turning the knob down, work the
bolt rapidly backwards and forwards until the cartridges are removed
from the magazine and chamber, allowing them to fall on the ground.
Then close the breech, press the trigger, close the cut-off by placing
the right hand over the bolt and pressing the cut-off inwards, apply
the safety-catch, lower the backsight or the long-range sights, and
order arms.
=5. Rapid Loading.=--(i) When he is able to aim and fire steadily in
all positions and from various classes of cover, the soldier will be
exercised in combining rapid loading with the greatest rapidity of
aim consistent with accuracy. Rapid loading will first be practised
separately, using dummy cartridges in chargers. When five rounds have
been inserted in the magazine, the bolt will be closed and turned
over, and the rifle will at once be unloaded and another charger
inserted similarly. Rapid loading should be practised in all positions,
but especially in the lying position.
[Illustration: =Fig. 27.=--LOADING IN STANDING POSITION.
_Points to note_:
1. Body erect and well balanced.
2. Left elbow close to body.
3. Firm grip with left hand, close in front of magazine.
4. Muzzle pointing upwards.
5. Butt well forward.
6. Forefinger of the right hand under the cut-off.
7. Eyes on the mark.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 28.=--FIRING IN THE OPEN. HEADS LOWERED; OBSERVER
WATCHING FRONT.]
(ii) =Rapid Firing.=--The rate of firing should be increased gradually,
provided that faults of aiming and trigger-pressing are not acquired.
Short bursts of rapid fire only will be permitted, the firing being
carefully regulated and controlled. A target will always be indicated.
=6. Caution.=--Before dummy cartridges are used on parade, special
precautions will be taken to insure that neither ball nor blank
ammunition is taken to the parade ground. _The instructor will
personally examine all cartridges, rifles, pouches, and bandoliers,
before loading takes place._
Section =28=.--Use of the Safety-Catch and Cut-Off.
=1.= Troops armed with rifles fitted with safety-catches will
invariably set the catch to safety before movement. The use of the
cut-off is to be confined in their case to occasions when they are
not actually engaged with the enemy. Then it may be employed for the
purpose either of charging the magazine without inserting a cartridge
in the chamber, or to unload the rifle while retaining cartridges in
the magazine.
=2.= The cut-off is never to be used to enable the rifle to be used as
a single loader, and is not to supersede the use of the safety-catch.
In the case of rifles which have no safety-catches, the cut-off
will be pressed in and the rifle unloaded on all occasions when the
safety-catch is ordered to be applied in these instructions. In an
advance in extended order, however, these rifles may be carried during
movement at the slope instead of being unloaded.
Section =29=.--Instruction in Aiming and Firing.
=1. Rules for Aiming and Firing.=--(i) The rules for taking accurate
aim have already been stated. In combining aiming with the movements
for firing in the various firing positions the following rules will be
observed:
(ii) Direct the eyes on the mark. Then bring the rifle into the hollow
of the right shoulder, and press it in with the left hand, grasp the
small firmly with the thumb and three fingers of the right hand,
place the forefinger round the lower part of the trigger, and exert
sufficient pressure to take the pull. In making these motions, the
backsight will be kept upright, the left elbow brought well under the
rifle, and the right elbow brought a little lower than and well to the
front of the right shoulder.
(iii) As the rifle touches the shoulder, bring the cheek down on the
butt, keeping the face well back from the right hand and cocking-piece,
close the left eye, align the sights on the mark, _restrain the
breathing_, and press the trigger.
(iv) _Great care must be exercised to insure that the forefinger is not
placed on the trigger before the rifle is in contact with the shoulder,
and that a firm grip is maintained with both hands while firing. Unless
the butt rests firmly in the hollow of the shoulder, accurate shooting
is impossible._
(v) _The further the eye is kept from the backsight the more clearly
will the sights be defined, the less strained will be the position of
the head and neck, and the less will be the effect of recoil._
=2. Aiming and Firing Practices.=--In aiming and firing practices, the
firer should always declare the direction of his aim at the moment of
discharge before removing the rifle from the shoulder for the reasons
given in Sec. 25, para. 5. The instructor will carefully supervise
practices, and will test the accuracy of aiming with the aim-corrector
or aiming-disc. Having carried out the motions described in paras, (ii)
and (iii) above, the recruit after a pause will bring the rifle to the
loading position, and practise the motions again, or he will apply the
safety catch and order arms, according to the orders of the instructor.
Section =30=.--Firing in the Open.
=1.= The need for avoiding unnecessary movements in assuming the
various firing positions in loading and aiming will have been impressed
upon recruits during their instruction in the firing positions and
loading. Recruits must be taught that it is especially important to
avoid these unnecessary movements when firing in the open [Sec. 72,
para. 3 (iii)]. _In firing in the open, the head should be lowered in
the intervals of firing, but the ground in front must be watched by
selected observers_ (Fig. 28).
=2. Positions in the Open.=--Besides avoiding movements betraying their
position, recruits will be taught to select positions in the open
so as to avoid as far as possible backgrounds which increase their
visibility [Sec. 72, para. 4 (ii)]. They will be taught, as part of
their instruction in visual training, to note the effect of different
backgrounds upon the visibility of service targets. They will learn
that concealment may be possible even in the open without cover, for
troops at longer ranges when not in movement may be invisible to the
naked eye. Individual men, when motionless in the open, may also be
invisible to the naked eye within close range.
Section =31=.--Firing from Cover.
1. Instruction in the choice and use of ground and its natural or other
features as cover for concealment or protection from the enemy’s fire,
and in adapting the different firing positions to various forms of
cover, will be part of the field training of men at a stage which will
combine training in fire discipline and manœuvre (see Chapters III.
and VI. of _Drill and Field Training_ of this series). Full directions
regarding the choice and use of the ground and its existing features
as cover are contained in Sec. 33[14] of _Drill and Field Training_ of
this series. Training in the construction and use of hasty fire-cover,
and more elaborate forms of constructed cover, such as various field
entrenchments, are dealt with in _Field Entrenchments_ of this series,
which also deals with the preparation of doors, windows, and buildings,
as well as banks, ditches, etc., to serve as cover. Training in firing
in the different firing positions from behind various common forms
of cover will form part of the elementary instruction of recruits in
firing.
=2. Height of Cover for Use in Different Firing Positions.=--The
heights over which a man of average stature can fire on level ground in
the various firing positions are as follows: Lying, 1 foot; kneeling,
3 feet; standing, 4 feet 6 inches. On level ground a man can fire over
about five-sixths of his own height. Higher cover can be used when
firing uphill than when firing downhill.
=3. Rules for Firing from Cover.=--(i) Instructors must impress on
recruits that the most important requirement in firing from cover is
_the ability of a man to use his rifle to the best advantage, and that
the eyes must be kept on the enemy between shots_ to avoid losing sight
of targets. In using cover, the recruit must be taught to keep as near
to the cover as possible, compatible with ease in firing. He must also
be taught when possible to fire round the side of cover rather than
over it.
[Illustration: =Fig. 29.=--FIRING ROUND COVER--CORRECT.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 30.=--FIRING ROUND COVER--UNNECESSARY EXPOSURE.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 31.=--FIRING FROM FOLD OF GROUND--SIDE VIEW.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 32.=--FIRING FROM FOLD OF GROUND--UNNECESSARY
EXPOSURE.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 33.=--FIRING FROM FOLD OF GROUND--CORRECT METHOD.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 34.=--FIRING OVER CONTINUOUS COVER.
Waiting to Fire. Centre, correct position; right and left, incorrect
positions--unnecessary exposure.]
(ii) =Adapting Firing Positions to Different Forms of Cover.=--The
following notes and illustrations lay down general rules as to the
correct method of adapting the different firing positions to various
forms of cover commonly found in the field.
(iii) =Isolated Cover.=--Figs. 29 and 30 illustrate the correct and
incorrect methods of using isolated cover. Fig. 29 shows the minimum
exposure, the whole body being protected by cover. Fig. 30 shows
unnecessary exposure of the head and body, and also of the legs, owing
to the extreme oblique angle of the body to the line of fire. As a rule
isolated cover should be avoided even if it affords protection from
fire, as in the case of occasional rocks or small mounds of earth,
especially at close ranges, because men, if seen occupying such cover,
can easily be marked down by the enemy, and hit on leaving it. Rocks
may also be dangerous, owing to the risk of injury from splinters.
(iv) =Continuous Cover=--(_a_) _Ridges and Folds of Ground._--Figs.
31, 32, and 33 show correct and incorrect methods of using ridges
and folds of ground as cover. These features commonly provide good
cover, especially the latter, which may be difficult to recognize
from a distance. If properly used, they may afford concealment and
protection from the enemy’s fire, for which as a rule they do not offer
well-defined targets. For instance, the fold of ground in Fig. 33 would
be invisible if it were not indicated by the men’s heads.
(_b_) _Low Cover._--Figs. 34 to 38 show the correct and incorrect
methods of using low cover. Figs. 39 to 42 show correct and incorrect
methods of using higher forms of continuous cover, such as stone and
brick walls, banks, etc. As a rule these forms of cover, whether
consisting of hedges, with or without ditches, banks, or walls, have
the disadvantage of offering well-defined targets to the enemy’s fire
and may, in addition, obstruct the advance of troops occupying them.
Stone and brick cover, in addition, involves the risk of injury
through splinters or demolition if subject to artillery fire.
=4. Method of Instruction.=--(i) Instruction should be carried out
under practical conditions. If necessary, different forms of cover
can be improvised by the use of sandbags, hurdles, boxes, etc. The
instructor will give practical illustrations of the correct method of
adapting the different firing positions to various forms of cover. He
will then order each man to adapt the different firing positions to
cover, and criticize faults, or call on other recruits in the class to
criticize them.
(ii) When recruits have progressed sufficiently, they should be sent
out to the front of the class as fatigue-men to make use of various
forms of cover, such as folds of ground, hedges, ditches, walls, trees,
isolated bushes, undergrowth, tufts of grass, etc., in advancing
towards the class. Besides taking cover, they should go through the
loading and aiming motions as though firing at the class.
(iii) The instructor will make use of these object-lessons to point out
the advantages and disadvantages of various forms of cover, the correct
and incorrect methods of using cover, and the danger of exaggerated or
unnecessary movement of the head, arms, or rifle in loading and aiming
which tend to betray the position of men or make them easy to mark
down. This instruction can be carried out on miniature ranges according
to the directions laid down in Chapter X., Sec. 72, para. 3 (iv).
=5. Rules for Selecting Cover.=--The following general rules will
help to guide soldiers in selecting cover. They must remember that in
the field the selection of cover may often involve a choice between
alternative disadvantages. It may not be possible to avoid bad cover
or to find good cover, and it may sometimes be better to use bad cover
than to remain in the open. Soldiers, therefore, must be taught in the
course of their field training to make the best use of ground and cover
under the varying conditions of each tactical situation.
[Illustration: =Fig. 35.=--FIRING OVER CONTINUOUS COVER.
Correct and incorrect prone position for loading and waiting to fire.
The unnecessary exposure and movements of the rifle of the man on the
right are wrong.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 36.=--FIRING OVER CONTINUOUS COVER.
Correct and incorrect prone positions. Unnecessary exposure of man on
right.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 37.=--FIRING ROUND CONTINUOUS COVER: LYING
POSITION--FRONT VIEW.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 38.=--FIRING ROUND CONTINUOUS COVER: LYING
POSITION--SIDE VIEW.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 39.=--KNEELING BEHIND COVER--POSITION WHEN LOADING.
_Points to note_:
1. No undue exposure.
2. Watching front.
3. Trigger guard downwards to facilitate loading
and sight-setting.
4. Muzzle clear of cover.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 40.=--KNEELING BEHIND COVER--POSITION WHEN LOADED.
_Points to note_:
1. No undue exposure.
2. Watching front.
3. Trigger guard outwards.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 41.=--KNEELING BEHIND COVER--POSITION WHEN FIRING.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 42.=--KNEELING BEHIND COVER--POSITION WHEN FIRING.]
_Points to note_
1. No undue exposure.
2. Body well balanced.
3. Left elbow well under rifle.
4. Good bed for the butt.
5. Firm grip with both hands.
6. Eye well back from the cocking-piece.
7. Sights perfectly upright.
8. Rifle, but not hand, resting on cover.
9. Position adapted to the cover.
(i) =Good Cover.=--Perfect cover--which, however, will very rarely be
found--will combine the following advantages:
(_a_) Affords a clear view up to the enemy’s position.
(_b_) Permits the free use of the rifle.
(_c_) Gives concealment to the firer.
(_d_) Provides protection for him against the enemy’s fire
without hindering forward movement.
(ii) =Bad Cover= involves any of the following disadvantages:
(_a_) Offers a well-defined target for the enemy’s fire, and
provides no protection from its effects.
(_b_) Gives a restricted view of the enemy’s position.
(_c_) Restricts the free use of the rifle.
(_d_) Obstructs the advance of troops occupying it in attack.
(iii) =Dangerous Cover.=--Features of ground which offer clearly
defined targets for the enemy’s fire, and afford no protection from
its effects, are dangerous cover if occupied in view of the enemy,
especially if they run parallel to his position. Common examples of
such features are an isolated hedge or the edge of a wood.
=6. Penetration of the Pointed Bullet.=--A table will be found in the
Appendix to _Field Entrenchments_ of this series giving the approximate
penetration of the pointed bullet when firing at various substances.
In order to obtain bullet-proof cover, an extra thickness of substance
must be added to these measurements of penetration. Earth should not be
less than 3½ feet thick to afford bullet-proof cover. If the soil is
free from stones, a thickness of 4 feet is desirable. _This thickness
may roughly be measured with a service rifle, 3 feet 8½ inches long._
Section =32.=--Muscle Exercises.
=1.= (i) To accustom the muscles to the strain of prolonged firing the
following exercises will be performed daily during the elementary
training of recruits, and frequently by trained soldiers. Care must
be taken that men are not unduly fatigued by the exercises, and that
they do not commence them when they are tired. In each practice, a
conspicuous object, representing the target, will be indicated, and the
rifle will invariably be thrown into approximate alignment with it.
(ii) In the first and third exercises the correct aiming position
will be assumed, including taking the pull, bringing the cheek on to
the butt, and closing the left eye, but without actually aligning the
sights. In the second exercise the first pull will be taken when the
right hand grasps the rifle, but the head will not be lowered, the left
eye will not be closed, nor will the sights be aligned.
=2. First Practice.=--To be performed with and without bayonet fixed.
Caution:--_Muscle Exercise._ _First Practice._ Commands:--_Standing or
Lying_--_Load_.
_One._--Bring the rifle to the position for aiming, return at
once to the position for loading, and continue the practice.
_Unload._
=3. Second Practice.=--Caution:--_Muscle Exercise._ _Second Practice._
Commands:--_Standing or Lying_--_Load_.
_One._--Bring the rifle to the position for aiming.
_Two._--Quit the rifle with the right hand.
_Three._--Seize the rifle with the right hand, and at the same
time quit it with the left hand.
_Unload._
_Note._--The words _Two_ and _Three_ will be given at intervals of
about 10 seconds. The trigger will not be pressed when in the third
position.
=4. Third Practice.=--To be performed with and without bayonet fixed.
Caution:--_Muscle Exercise._ _Third Practice._ Commands:--_Standing or
Lying_--_Load_.
_One._--Bring the rifle to the position for aiming.
_Unload._
_Note._--The men will be trained progressively to hold the rifle in
this position until they can do so without fatigue for two minutes.
5. =Cadet Muscle Exercises.=--(i) In the case of Cadets, the above
muscle exercises may be carried out with a light rifle. Alternatively
the special exercises for Cadets suggested in the following paragraph
may be carried out in preference to the second and third Regulation
muscle exercises, the strain of which may develop slowness of movement
in young, growing lads by making the muscular tissues heavy rather than
well-toned. Moreover, the repetition of these exercises is monotonous,
and may cause a distaste for them in youths. Cadet muscle exercises
which consist of going through the various movements of assuming the
different firing positions, loading, sighting, _aiming_, and pressing
the trigger, are therefore suggested as a substitute for the Regulation
muscle exercises. The introduction of aiming at a mark--preferably a
service target--in the course of muscle exercises will help to develop
the muscles of the eye, together with those of the body and limbs.
(ii) These exercises have the advantages of occupying the mind of the
cadet while exercising his muscles, and so diverting attention from
the mere repetition of continued muscular effort, which is wearisome.
They avoid the heavy strain of the third Regulation musketry exercise,
and attain the object of the second--namely, to develop a firm grip of
the hand on the weapon, which is essential to service shooting, while
practising cadets in seizing the weapon quickly in the proper places.
They further embrace all the muscles used in the act of firing by
including the firing positions and trigger-pressing instead of those
used in taking aim alone, and at the same time co-ordinate them into
the quick, active movements essential for snapshooting and rapid firing.
(iii) Cadets must not be practised at these exercises till they have
been trained to perform correctly the various movements necessary for
assuming the different firing positions, loading, sighting, bringing
the rifle to the shoulder for aim, and pressing the trigger. They may
be exercised in squads, but the instructor must supervise the work
of each cadet, and be careful to see that all the separate movements
combined in each exercise are carried out correctly, without being
slurred or wrongly made.
(iv) The instructor must also be careful to see that no cadet continues
any muscle exercise until he is fatigued. The exercises must be
light at first, and gradually increased according to the strength
of individual cadets as their muscles grow stronger. Exercises will
be carried out under the control of the instructor and according to
his directions. Each exercise will be carried out in a series of
three movements, which may be repeated for a number of times at his
discretion.
(v) =Cadet Muscle Exercise.=--Caution:--_Muscle Exercise._
Commands:--_Firing Position._ _Rate of Fire._
_One._--Assume the firing position ordered, and bring the rifle
to the position for loading.
_Two._--Perform the action of loading and adjusting sights
correctly to a given range.
_Three._--Bring the rifle to the position for aiming, press the
trigger, and return at once to the position for loading.
_Note._--Rapid loading and unloading in the prone position with the
rifle to the shoulder will also prove a useful muscle exercise.
CHAPTER V
VISUAL TRAINING AND RANGING
Section =33=.--General Remarks on Visual Training.[15]
=1. Importance of Visual Training.=--Great as is the loss of fire
effect due to errors in judging distance and sighting, an even greater
amount of ammunition will be expended without good results unless the
soldier is trained to discern and select targets at close ranges, and
to recognize targets described to him at longer ranges.
=2.= Even at close range, in the open, service targets consisting
of troops are often impossible to discern with the naked eye when
motionless if their background harmonizes with their uniform. At
all ranges, except short distances within close range, troops in
neutral-tinted uniform, adopting formations which allow full use to be
made of ground and cover, are usually difficult to discern with the
naked eye even when in motion.
=3.= Finally, targets which consist of ground or its natural features
are not easy to recognize unless the eye of the soldier is specially
trained for this work, upon which fire effect in battle beyond close
range will depend. The eyesight of the soldier must, therefore, be
developed in special powers to enable him to discern and recognize the
targets of the modern battlefield at all ranges before he is able to
fire at them effectively.
=4. Scope of Training.=--(i) Visual training will include discernment
of targets, study and description of ground, recognition of and aiming
at targets described by word of mouth, judging distance by eye, and,
when possible, observation of the results of fire. Visual training
should at first be separated from training in judging distance, but as
proficiency is attained both should be combined after men have been
instructed in military vocabulary and study of ground, which lays
the foundation of instruction in recognition of targets. Training in
observation of results of fire by watching the strike of bullets on the
ground will be difficult to carry out except on dusty soil.
=5. Visual Training on Miniature Ranges.=--Directions for training
men in the different subjects of instruction mentioned in the above
paragraph, including observation of fire, are contained in Chapter X,
Sec. 72, para. 4.
Section =34=.--Discernment of Targets.
=1. Elementary Training.=--Training will begin with questions framed
to develop a man’s powers of discerning objects, _and describing
accurately and shortly what he sees_. At first any ordinary objects in
the vicinity of barracks will be counted, or instruction may be carried
out as in the elementary stage of training in observation and memory
according to the directions laid down in Sec. 45 of _Drill and Field
Training_ of this series.
=2. Training on the Ground.=--Training will then be carried out on
the ground. Exercises should first be carried out in good light, the
recruits being allowed to stand and obtain a good field of view.
Afterwards exercises should be carried out under all conditions of
light, and in cloudy or misty weather, men being trained to discern and
describe objects in the prone position in the open or behind cover,
when their field of view will be restricted.
=3. Visibility of Distinct and Neutral Colours.=--For exercises in the
field a certain number of dummy targets or fatigue-men will be placed
or posted beforehand in various selected positions unknown to the class
in the open, or partly behind cover, and against different backgrounds.
The targets should include both the distinct bull’s-eye and service
figure targets of different colours, and the fatigue-men should be
dressed in uniforms of both distinct and neutral tints, with the
object of showing the difference in visibility of distinct and neutral
colours against the same background. Neutral-tinted targets should
also be arranged against various backgrounds to show how background
affects visibility, as, for example, the difference in visibility of a
khaki uniform against a white wall, a sheet of water, a skyline, dark
ploughland, a green field, a brown hedge.
=4. Effect of Background on Visibility.=--During these exercises
opportunity will be taken by instructors to utilize the useful
object-lessons they provide upon the use of ground and cover. Men
should be made to note the varying visibility of objects according
to their background. They should be taught that the visibility of
targets naturally tends to increase the effect of fire directed at
them by facilitating discernment, judging distance, and aiming, while
the vulnerability of targets is decreased in proportion as they are
invisible or difficult to discern. Men must, therefore, be taught
to note the effect of different backgrounds upon the visibility of
fatigue-men in service uniforms. When being trained in the use of
ground and cover, they should learn, when possible, to avoid positions
such as a skyline or a background which contrasts sharply with their
uniforms, and may render them distinctly visible to the enemy [Sec. 72,
para. 4 (ii)].
=5. Describing Targets.=--In all exercises men will be given a definite
period of time--which may be decreased as progress is made--in which
to locate and count targets. Each man should then be asked how many
he has discerned. Men will in turn be asked to describe clearly and
shortly the nature and position of any target they have discerned which
has not already been described by a comrade. They should be taught to
use military vocabulary in describing targets, and to indicate their
position by the methods explained in Sec. 45. Visual training will thus
lay the foundation of instruction in recognition of targets.
=6. Use of Field-Glasses.=--In the case of targets which are difficult
to see, and which have not been discerned, the instructor may allow men
to discern the target with the aid of field-glasses, and then make them
try to discern the target with the naked eye, using natural features of
the ground in the vicinity of the target to locate its position. This
instruction will help to train men in the use of field-glasses and in
recognition of targets.
=7. Effect of Movement on Visibility.=--Finally, fatigue-men will be
employed to skirmish from cover to cover, and to perform the firing
motions from behind cover, in order to show how motion catches the eye
and exposes the firer’s position (Sec. 72, para. 3 [iii]).
=8. Locating an Enemy by Sound.=--Blank ammunition will be used to give
practice to the ear in locating an enemy by sound.
Section =35=.--Military Vocabulary and Study of Ground.[16]
=1. Importance of Military Vocabulary.=--(i) Soldiers must be trained
not only to discern, but to describe service targets of various kinds.
For this purpose they must be instructed in military vocabulary.
Military vocabulary comprises the technical terms applied to the
organization, weapons, equipment, formations, and duties of various
arms. Definitions of these technical terms are contained in the
various books of this series, including _Drill and Field Training_,
_Field Entrenchments_, and _First Aid_.
(ii) In this book, besides definitions of the technical terms which
apply especially to musketry, a list of terms and definitions applied
to natural and other features of ground and country is included on p.
xxvi as being a necessary part of the military vocabulary used in the
recognition and indication of targets.
=2. Need of a Standard Vocabulary.=--It is important that the military
vocabulary in each unit of an army, and, if possible, in the whole
army, should be uniform as to its various terms, especially in regard
to the indication and description of targets. Both fire-unit commanders
and men should therefore be thoroughly trained in applying a uniform
military vocabulary correctly to various service targets, such as units
of various arms in different formations and to the different natural
and other features of ground and country.
=3. Method of Instruction.=--(i) Instruction in military vocabulary may
be carried out in the following manner. In early lessons the instructor
will describe in detail simple prominent features, such as part of a
skyline or the line of a bank or hedge, and get each man in the class
to describe in similar terms another part of the line. He will then
practise them by the same method in describing more difficult and
extensive features. In this way men will gradually learn the correct
terms to apply to a great variety of natural features of ground. When
men have learnt how to describe various features of ground in correct
terms, the instructor will proceed to describe small areas of ground,
the limits of which he will first clearly define.
(ii) He will describe the shape and nature of the ground, as, for
instance, whether it is level, undulating or broken, and rocky, sandy,
or pasture. He will then describe its various natural and artificial
features, the different kinds of trees, fences, undergrowth, etc., on
it, and the shape and size of the fields, with the colour of the earth
or of crops growing in them. The approximate measurements of objects,
roughly estimated, may also be given, as, for instance, whether they
are large, small, of moderate size, tall, short, wide, or narrow. These
rough measurements will often help to distinguish objects, such as
trees, fields, hedges, or houses from one or more objects of a similar
nature. Men will first be thoroughly practised in completing the
description of ground and its features commenced by the instructor, and
then, as progress is made in describing ground which is merely pointed
out by the instructor without being partly described by him. Fig. 43
illustrates common features of ground which may be described in the
manner outlined in these paragraphs.
=4. Study of Ground.=--It is clear that instruction in military
vocabulary provides a good opportunity for training fire-unit
commanders and men in the study of ground, which is of the greatest
military importance. Therefore, in training men in the description of
ground, instructors should also train them _to recognize all features
of military importance_, such as good defensive positions, good lines
of approach, good halting-places for attack, covered approaches, dead
ground, obstacles, and good or dangerous cover.[17] When men have
learned to recognize features of military importance, the instructor
will indicate an area of ground, and question the class in turn as
to what military features may be seen on it. Men must describe these
military features in the correct terms, and they will thus learn an
extremely important branch of military vocabulary--namely, that applied
to ground--which must frequently be described to them and recognized
by them as aiming points in a later stage of their training.
[Illustration:
A. _Skyline_
B. _Hollow_
C. _Gentle slope_
D. _Steep slope_
E. _Dense cover_
F. _Crest of Hill_
=Fig. 43.=--MILITARY VOCABULARY--TERMS DESCRIBING COMMON FEATURES OF
GROUND.]
=5. Studying Ground from Cover.=--As progress is made in the study of
ground, the class should be made to examine the ground and to describe
it from behind cover to accustom them to its appearance, as they will
see it when firing from cover. This instruction will form a useful
preparation for the duties of reconnaissance and scouting. When the
class is sufficiently advanced, the areas of ground described will be
increased gradually, and, when necessary, these areas will be divided
into sectors, as described in Sec. 42, paras. 3 and 5, and each sector
will be divided into foreground, middle distance, and background. Men
will be trained to note the different zones of ground to which these
terms are applied, and then to apply them correctly in describing
ground.
=6. Committing Features of Ground to Memory.=--When men are
sufficiently advanced, they may be practised in examining ground for a
limited time, and then giving a correct description of its prominent
features and principal military features with their backs to it. The
instructor will check their description while it is being given by
looking at the ground, and bring out points which may have been missed
or forgotten by asking men questions. This practice will develop
the extremely useful power of rapidly noting features of ground,
and also of memorizing ground. The latter power will be useful in
reconnaissance, scouting, and reports.
=7. Study of Ground in Strange Country.=--As the ground and its
features, both natural and artificial, together with the names by which
they are called, differ considerably in different countries, men should
be trained in military vocabulary, the description and study of ground
both before and during military operations in unfamiliar country.
Section =36=.--General Remarks on Ranging.
=1. Importance of Ranging.=--(i) Accurate ranging when firing is of
vital importance, especially at distances beyond close range. Mistakes
in judging distance or range-finding, and errors in sighting, cause a
greater loss of fire effect than personal errors in shooting except
at close range. But even within close range mistakes of more than 100
yards are not infrequently made in judging distance. _The more accurate
the firing, the less will be the result if the sighting is incorrect
from any cause._
(ii) The measurement of ranges will commence the moment a firing-point
has been chosen. Range-taking increases in importance rapidly with
every 100 yards beyond 600 yards up to 2,000 yards, at which distance
troops not in a close formation are only visible when in motion, or
with a very favourable background or light.
=2. Methods of Ranging.=--(i) The principal means of ranging are--(_a_)
Judging distance by eye; (_b_) observation of fire; (_c_) use of
instruments such as the mekometer and the one-man range-finder. There
are several auxiliary methods of ranging such as back-reckoning, use of
maps, information obtained from aircraft, artillery or machine-guns,
sound and flash, cross-bearings, etc., which may be used occasionally
or in exceptional cases.
(ii) Observation of fire, when possible, is an effective means of
ranging. If uncertainty exists as to elevation, it is better to
underestimate than to overestimate the range. If it is necessary to
fire at ranges beyond 1,000 yards, and observation is not possible,
or the situation demands that some effect should be produced, quickly
combined sights may be employed. In all cases every available means
should be employed to find correct ranges. _No available means of
ascertaining ranges should ever be neglected, if time and opportunity
allow them to be used._
=3. Reconnaissance as an Aid to Ranging.=--As already stated,
range-finding will as a rule be in progress before fire is opened,
and the rapid reconnaissance of any ground on which a fire-fight is
likely to take place should provide information of the greatest value
to company officers responsible for the direction of fire. In preparing
a defensive position, there is usually ample time for ascertaining
ranges, and for using range-marks (Sec. 40, para. 5) and preparing
range-cards (Sec. 40, para. 1).
=4. Training of Officers and N.C.O.’s.=--As fire is controlled at
longer ranges, practice in judging distance is more necessary for
officers and non-commissioned officers than for the private soldier.
Soldiers who show aptitude in judging short distances by eye should,
however, be given training with their leaders at judging longer
distances. These men may also be selected for training in the use of
range-finding instruments and in the duties of observers (Sec. 42,
para. 9).
=5. Reduction of Errors by Training.=--Officers and non-commissioned
officers, by constant practice, will reduce their mean error in
judging distance from about 20 per cent. of the correct distance to
about 10 per cent., but much depends on the local conditions to which
the observer is accustomed. With thorough training the mean error of
private soldiers in judging distances within 800 yards should not
exceed 100 yards. Special attention should be paid to men whose mean
errors exceed this distance, with a view to discovering the cause and
reducing the error.
=6. Effect of Strange Conditions.=--Serious errors must be expected in
judging under strange conditions of ground and atmosphere. Exercises
in judging distance must therefore be carried out before, as well as
during, military operations in unfamiliar country.
Section =37=.--Judging Distances by Eye.
=1. Methods of Judging Distance by Eye.=--Distances may be judged by
eye in the following ways: (_a_) By measuring the intervening ground
with the eye in terms of some familiar unit, such as 100 yards; (_b_)
by the apparent size of the object, if its size is known, or, in other
words, by visual angles; (_c_) by the visibility of the object as
affected by light, atmospheric effect, background, etc.
=2. Rules for Judging Distance by Eye.=--(i) The varying nature of the
ground and its features, together with different conditions of light
and atmosphere, affect general impressions of distance as measured by
the eye by making objects look smaller or larger, and so making them
seem nearer or further away from an observer than they actually are.
(ii) =Conditions which appear to Increase Distance.=--Objects will
appear smaller, and therefore farther away than they are, under the
following conditions:
(_a_) When objects are of the same colour or a colour which harmonizes
with their background.
(_b_) On broken ground.
(_c_) When seen across a valley or undulating ground.
(_d_) In avenues, long streets, or ravines.
(_e_) When in shadow.
(_f_) When viewed in mist or failing light.
(_g_) When heat is rising from the ground.
(_h_) When seen near any other object which makes it appear smaller
than it is by the effect of comparison.
(_i_) When only partially seen, as in the case of troops firing from
cover.
(_j_) Troops kneeling or lying in the open seem farther away than when
standing.
(iii) =Conditions which appear to Decrease Distance.=--Objects will
appear larger, and therefore nearer than they are, under the following
conditions:
(_a_) When both object and background are of different or contrasting
colours.
(_b_) When the sun is behind the observer.
(_c_) In bright light or clear atmosphere.
(_d_) When the intervening ground is level or covered with snow.
(_e_) When seen across water or a deep chasm.
(_f_) When looking upwards or downwards.
(_g_) When the object is large, or when seen near any other object
which makes it appear larger than it is by effect of comparison.
(iv) =A General Rule.=--A good general rule to remember for practical
purposes is that _when a target is indistinct distance is apt to be
over-estimated, and that when a target is distinct distance is apt to
be under-estimated_. This general rule roughly sums up the effects
and the various factors mentioned in paras. (ii) and (iii), which
respectively tend to render targets less or more distinct.
=3. Judging Lateral Distance by Eye.=--The following is a rough guide
for judging lateral distances running at right angles to the observer
at various distances. With one eye shut and the hand at arm’s length to
the front with the fingers perpendicular, the breadth of six fingers
will cover 100 yards of lateral distance at a distance of 500 yards
from the observer. Under the same conditions, the breadth of three
fingers will cover a lateral distance of 100 yards at a distance of
1,000 yards. The breadth of two fingers will cover a lateral distance
of 100 yards at 1,500 yards, and the width of the thumb will roughly
cover 100 yards of lateral distance 2,000 yards away. This method
may be employed for estimating the approximate length of an enemy’s
column, or the extent of frontage known to be occupied by him.
=4. Method of Instruction=--(i) =Units of Distance.=--All the methods
mentioned in para. 1 should be practised by officers, N.C.O.’s, and men
under a variety of practical conditions, and in the prone, kneeling,
and standing positions, until it is found that distances can be judged
approximately from the general impression conveyed to the eye. The
class will first be familiarized with short units of distance not
exceeding 600 yards. _Special care will be taken to enable soldiers to
recognize the distance of 600 yards, as it is the limit of individual
fire._
(ii) =Figures.=--The class will at the same time study the visibility
of the figure standing, kneeling, and lying at known distances. They
will be required to remember the results of their observation, and be
given opportunities of seeing figures in varying conditions of light,
atmosphere, and background at known distances.
(iii) =Features of Ground.=--The class will next be practised in
judging the distance of natural features of ground, such as folds of
ground, hedges, patches of undergrowth, and other forms of cover, at
various known distances. This instruction will be followed by judging
the distances of fatigue-men seen at unknown distances in the different
firing positions both in the open against various backgrounds and
partly behind cover. The class will then be practised in judging the
distance of features of ground and different forms of cover at various
unknown distances. These various practices should be carried out with
the class in the standing, kneeling, and prone positions.
(iv) =Reasons for Estimates.=--Each observer should be asked by the
instructor to give reasons for his estimate of distance to guard
against the habit of rough guessing. To train observers in the habit
of taking into account every factor which will help them to judge
distance, the instructor should consider and explain the effects of
local conditions and other factors which affect judging the distance
of each object he indicates after the class have made their estimates.
Ample time should at first be allowed for judging distance, but as
progress is made the time should be limited. The above exercises must
include instruction in estimating lateral distances. _Rough guessing is
never to be allowed._
=5. Aids to Judging Distance by Eye.=--(i) The class should be trained
in various methods of assisting the eye when the distance of objects is
especially difficult to estimate approximately. For example, a maximum
and minimum estimate of the distance may be made, and the mean taken as
correct. Half the distance from the object may be estimated with the
aid, if possible, of some feature of ground, and double may be taken as
correct. When the object is partly hidden in a fold of ground, or when
it is of unknown size, distance from it may be estimated with the help
of some object of known size, such as a natural feature of the ground
or a human figure which may be near it.
(ii) Other rough methods which will assist them in judging distance
approximately may be explained to the men. For instance, the foresight
of the rifle _when correctly aligned_ will be approximately equal to
the height of a standing figure at 400 yards. The width of an ordinary
pencil held horizontally at arm’s length before the eye will cover an
upright figure at 200 yards, and the lead at its thick part will cover
a standing figure at 600 yards.
=6. Tests in Judging Distance by Eye=--(i) =Directions regarding
Tests.=--In every company, and at depôts, in addition to instructional
exercises, at least one test in judging the distances of four objects
will be held for all ranks in every three months, the distances of the
objects being between 200 and 800 yards.
All company officers, non-commissioned officers, and those men who are
in possession of badges for judging distance, will also be tested once
in every three months under regimental arrangements in judging the
distances of four objects between 200 and 1,400 yards.
Brigade commanders and officers commanding districts will issue such
orders as may be necessary for exempting non-commissioned officers and
men from these tests, but every officer and sergeant who would command
a company or smaller unit on mobilization should attend four tests
annually in judging distance up to 1,400 yards.
(ii) =Conditions of Tests.=--During tests in judging distance no
assistance from maps or other means should be allowed. The tests will
be conducted on unfamiliar ground, half the objects consisting of
fatigue-men or dummy figures representing skirmishers, and half of
natural objects marking fire positions, such as would be occupied on
service.
The observers will lie down or kneel behind cover, and estimates
will be recorded by adjusting the sights (or in the case of officers
by writing) in multiples of 50 yards; the objects should have been
previously placed or selected, or the position of the observers should
be chosen, so that the correct distance may closely approximate to some
multiple of 50 yards.
Half a minute will be allowed for each estimate, reckoned from the
moment when the object is pointed out or a shot is fired to draw
attention to the position of the object. At the conclusion of the
half-minute a whistle should be blown, when the observers will stand
to attention, and no further adjustment of the sights or writing will
be permitted. The register-keeper will then examine each rifle or
paper, and record the estimates in the register. On return to barracks,
the mean percentage of error of each observer will be entered in the
register, which will be preserved for record.
On the completion of the classification practices, the mean percentages
of error made by each individual officer, non-commissioned officer and
man since the last classification will be added together and divided by
the number of tests which he has attended, the average thus obtained
being regarded as the standard of proficiency of the individual until
the next classification.
Officers, non-commissioned officers, and men whose mean error exceeds
20 per cent., and those who have attended less than two tests, will be
regarded as inefficient. Additional practice will be afforded weekly
to all officers, non-commissioned officers, and men who are recorded
as inefficient, until the next quarterly test. Officers and sergeants
whose mean error exceeds 20 per cent. will not be classified as better
than second-class shots.
Section =38=.--Range-finding by Observation of Fire.
=1. When Observation is Possible.=--Observation of results is the best
means of correcting errors in sighting, but it is only practicable
(_a_) when the ground in the vicinity of the objective is of a nature
to show the strike of the bullets by dust, or (_b_) when the enemy is
in the open, and the accuracy of fire can be judged by its effect upon
him.
=2. Nature of Fire Necessary for Observation.=-_-A considerable volume
of rapid and concentrated fire is necessary to enable the strike of
bullets to be observed_, and for this purpose one or more Maxim guns,
or not less than two platoons, should be employed to fire. The distance
and nature of the ground will determine the volume of fire required,
but the greater the difficulty of observation the greater must be the
volume of fire. When trying for observation, third-class shots should
not be permitted to fire.
=3. Method of applying Fire for Observation=--(i) =Elevation.=--An
elevation well _under_ the estimated distance should first be selected,
and if the fire can be observed, the elevation should be increased by
not less than 100 yards at a time until the nucleus of the bullets is
seen to fall on the desired spot.
(ii) =Objective.=--The point at which the fire is directed may be the
actual objective, or ground in its vicinity which is more suited to
observation of the strike of the bullets.
(iii) =Position for Observation.=--The best position from which to
observe fire is behind, and, if possible, above the firers; but in this
position the bullets which fall short will be most easily seen, and
may be mistaken for the nucleus of the fire. Further, all shots will
appear to strike nearer to the observer than is really the case.
(iv) =Hints for Observers.=--To an observer on or behind a flank of the
firers, shots which pass over the mark will appear to fall towards the
flank on which he is posted, and those which drop short to fall towards
the opposite flank. Thus, if the majority of shots seem to an observer
on the _right_ flank to fall to the _right_ of the mark, the range has
been _over-estimated_, and if they seem to fall to the _left_, it has
been _under-estimated_.
=4. Verifying Ranges by Fire.=--When there is time and opportunity for
doing so, ranges which have been taken beforehand, especially those
taken in preparing a defensive position, should be verified by the
results of firing a number of rounds.
Section =39=.--Ranging by Auxiliary Methods and by Instruments.
=1.= Training in ranging should include instruction in practical
auxiliary methods such as by maps and range-finding instruments.
_Exercises in ranging by means of maps, range-finders, and the
eye, used in combination, should form an essential part of the
fire-direction practices of the annual course of musketry._
=2. Ranging by Map-Reading.=--Ranges may be ascertained by the use of
small scale maps, though large scale maps, if available, will be better
for this purpose. Instruction in field-sketching and reconnaissance
affords excellent opportunities for training in judging distance. For
map-reading, see _Signalling_ of this series; and for field-sketching
and reconnaissance, see _Drill and Field Training_ of this series.
=3. Back-Reckoning.=--Back-reckoning may be defined as deduction as to
distance made from any known range. For instance, in advancing on a
position the range of which is ascertained on commencing the advance,
the distance gained by each forward movement may be deducted from the
original range of the position in estimating its range for firing on it
at successive halts. Again, the range of an objective further away than
another objective, of which the range is known, may be estimated by
adding to the known range the estimated distance of the former from the
latter objective. An example of back-reckoning is shown in Fig. 44.
=4. Ranging by Gun-Flash and Sound.=--Light travels at the rate of
186,000 miles a second, so that a gun-flash is practically seen as it
issues from the muzzle, irrespective of the distance of the observer.
Sound, on the other hand, travels about 1,100 feet, or about 365 yards,
a second. By timing the interval between seeing the flash of a gun and
hearing the report, its approximate distance may therefore be deduced.
This, of course, will only be possible when the position of the gun is
betrayed by the flash, and when guns are fired singly at appreciable
intervals, or simultaneously, so that there is practically one flash
and one report at a time.
=5. Range-Finding Instruments.=--A certain number of officers,
N.C.O.’s, and men in each unit will be trained to use the One-Man
Range-Finder or the Mekometer instrument, full directions regarding the
use of which will be found in the official handbooks dealing with these
instruments.
Section =40=.--Range-Cards and Range-Marks.
=1. Range-Card.=--A range-card is a device for giving ranges to various
points in a field of fire for use in attack or defence. Range-cards
should be prepared by fire-unit commanders for their own use and for
use by N.C.O.’s and observers. When possible, the best way to prepare
a range-card is to use a piece of a large scale map of the country on
which to draw the range circles and direction lines. There will usually
be more time for preparing range-cards in defence than in attack, and
consequently range-cards prepared for defensive positions will as a
rule be more elaborate than those made for use in attack.
[Illustration: =Fig. 44.=--SIMPLE RANGE-CARD FOR ATTACK.
_Note._--The distances on the left are those from the enemy’s
position. Those on the right in brackets are only for the
range-taker’s information, and should not be shown on the card to
avoid confusion.]
=2. A Simple Range-Card for Attack.=--Fig. 44 shows a rough example of
a simple range-card made for use in attack over the ground shown in the
left sector of the sketch in Fig. 47, from which it will be seen that
the objects on the range-card are taken. This has been done to make
the example more practical and interesting. The ranges are supposed to
be taken from the cross-roads at X to a series of prominent objects
on or a little to either side of the line of advance. The distance of
each of these points _from the enemy’s position_ (2,000 yards away)
is carefully noted, and thus ranging during the attack is greatly
facilitated. The range of the enemy’s position from intermediate points
can also be more easily estimated by back-reckoning.
[Illustration: =Fig. 45.=--SIMPLE RANGE-CARD FOR DEFENCE.
_Note._--The point from which ranges are taken should always be
described clearly on the card to facilitate setting it.]
=3. A Simple Range-Card for Defence.=--Fig. 45 shows a rough example
of a simple range-card made for use in defence. The ranges in this
case are supposed to be taken from the point _A_ immediately south of
the church. The direction line from _A_ to the church is drawn thicker
than the other lines to facilitate “setting” the range-card in the
same manner in which a map is set. When the card is set for the point
from which ranges are taken--which is noted on the card--by pointing
the thick direction line on the church, the other direction lines will
indicate the ranges of the other points marked on the card.
=4. Foreground Range Sketch.=--(i)Fig. 46 shows an example of a
foreground range sketch for use in a defensive position. Such a
sketch would as a rule only be made in connection with very carefully
prepared firing-points; but as from seven to ten hours or more is
required to make any serious attempt to prepare and conceal a series
of firing-points carefully, it is clear that the range-taking and
range-marking party should have ample time to make an exhaustive
reconnaissance of the foreground, to put out the range-marks, and to
record their work in some simple form. One sketch such as Fig. 46 is
sufficient for the commander of a group of firing-points.
(ii) Points, the range of which may be ascertained and marked with
advantage in such sketches, include the exits and entrances to all
areas of dead ground, or likely cover from view or fire; the crests or
skylines--as seen from the firing-points--of all ridges and humps on
the foreground; patches or lengths of road likely to be traversed by
the enemy; gaps and gates in fences; corners of fields and enclosures;
bridges, culverts, etc.; and conspicuous single objects, as guide-marks
from which to estimate adjacent distances, such as isolated buildings,
signposts, rocks, milestones, double telegraph-posts, or other such
features.
(iii) As will be seen in Fig. 46, names may also be allotted to patches
of dead ground within 1,000 yards or so of the firing-point. The
abbreviated names of months and days of the week lend themselves to
such a purpose, though any other short names will do equally well.
[Illustration: =Fig. 46.=--EXAMPLE OF A FOREGROUND RANGE SKETCH.
_Note._--Ranged points are indicated by a thick line. The
appearance of the Range-Marks is shown thus:--VIII. [= 850 yds.]
Names have been allotted to important dead spots within 1,000
yards--_e.g._, FEB. refers to the dead area immediately behind
the ridge ranged as 850.]
=5. Range-Marks.=--Range-marks are of special value to the defenders
in those firing-points in which they have been told off _to watch for
and deal with the enemy’s supports and reserves_ during their advance,
after fire has been opened and the enemy’s firing-line is already
pinned down, or is unable to cross certain areas on a foreground
prepared for defence until strongly reinforced (see p. 162, para. 3
(x), _Field Entrenchments_ of this series).
=6. Marking Ranges on Ground.=--(i) The actual marking of ranges on the
ground by means of visible marks may be done as follows: Range-marks
should be provided, and should be placed on that side of large trees,
houses, banks, etc., which is only visible to the defence. The simplest
arrangement consists of one white object per 100 yards range; 500 yards
may be denoted by the sign =V=, made with two boards, poles, etc.; and
1,000 yards by the sign =X=; intermediate hundreds being indicated by
single objects in addition, as above described. On a bank or slope
facing the firing-points Roman numerals may be cut out on the turf,
etc., or formed by arranging stones or planks.
(ii) =Marking on Trees.=--For marking on a tree the hundreds marks must
be one below the other, and patches of tin do very well for this. For
marking “fifties” an object much smaller but distinctly visible may be
added, or one object quite different to the remainder. On a tree marked
with tin discs, for example, half a disc would do for 50 yards.
(iii) =Marking on Buildings.=--For marking on a building, the colour to
be used depends on that of the masonry, etc. A whitewash-brush is one
of the best implements, if obtainable, and the marking, can be either
large Roman numerals or ordinary figures if they can be read clearly.
(iv) =Examples of Marks.=--In Fig. 46 five artificial range-marks
are shown--namely, 0000·(450) at the stack, V on May hill, VII on
March-April ridge, VII·(850) on Dec.-Feb. ridge, and X where Monday
road disappears into Hereham village. The walls round the village might
be marked in a similar manner, but the sketch is too small to show the
marks.
(v) =Size of Marks.=--A practical rule for the _size_ of mark is 1 foot
of height to the mark per 100 yards in the range, unless the background
is very good--such as black spots on a white wall--when half this
allowance will be ample.
CHAPTER VI
FIRE DIRECTION AND CONTROL
Section =41=.--General Remarks.
=1.= In the previous stages of instruction the foundation of training
for fire action beyond close range will have been laid. The eyesight
of both fire-unit commanders and men will have been trained to discern
service targets at all ranges, and they will have become familiar with
their appearance under various conditions of light and atmosphere, and
accustomed to look for them and detect them quickly. Both fire-unit
commanders and men will also have been trained in military vocabulary
and the study of ground, so that they apply a common phraseology to
various military objects, especially those under the head of service
targets, and also to the ground and its natural features, the military
value of which they will have learned in field training through
instruction in the use of ground and cover.
=2.= Fire-unit commanders and men must now be taught to work together
as an unit in directing fire at service targets beyond close range
by the efficient performance of the various duties described in the
following sections. This instruction should commence with lectures,
illustrated if possible by the use of the Solano and landscape targets
as described in Secs. 72, 73, and 74. Lectures should deal with
organization for fire action, the effect of rifle fire at various
ranges, the tactical application of rifle fire, the description and
recognition of targets, fire orders, fire discipline, and night firing.
=3. Lectures and Demonstrations= (see pp. 221-225). Special lectures in
their duties should be given to fire-unit commanders, non-commissioned
officers, and observers, and these lectures should include information
and hints which will enable fire-unit commanders to train their men
both by lectures and practical instruction. Lectures to men should
be given by their fire-unit commanders, and should deal with all
the various duties which are combined for fire action, including
organization and the duties of fire-unit commanders. These lectures
must deal thoroughly with the duties of men in the firing-line and with
the vitally important subject of fire discipline (see pp. 214, 215).
Section =42=.--Organization for Fire Action.[18]
1. Fire direction and control depend in a great measure upon good
organization for fire action. The value of this organization depends
on the fitness of superior officers and battalion commanders to handle
their troops efficiently, and issue such clear and concise orders as
will enable each unit to carry out its allotted task well supported,
with their communications and ammunition supply well maintained. The
duties of organization for fire action may be described generally as
follows:[19]
(i) Allotment of frontages and objectives to various units.
(ii) Arrangements for communications and ammunition supply.
(iii) Arrangements for covering fire by supports and reserves,
machine-guns, and artillery.
=2. Allocation of Frontages and Objectives.=--Both in attack
and defence a definite frontage in the field of fire--termed a
_sector_--should be allotted to each fire-unit by company and platoon
commanders. Thus the enemy appearing in any given sector will at
once be engaged by the unit to which that particular sector has been
allotted. Each fire-unit commander on receiving orders as to his
frontage, will indicate it to his unit in the manner described in the
following paragraphs, and must make sure that the N.C.O.’s, observers,
and men of his unit clearly understand the extent and limits of their
sector.
=3. Indicating the Limits of Sectors= (Fig. 47).--The limits of each
sector will be indicated by means of suitable description points (see
Sec. 45, para. 3) on each flank of the frontage allotted to an unit.
These description points should, as a rule, consist of distant features
of a landscape or of the field of fire. If no suitable description
points mark the limits of a sector exactly, the limits will be
indicated as being so many hand or finger breadths (Sec. 45, para. 7)
to the left or right of the nearest suitable description point. The
limits of sectors may be made to overlap in the same manner. In defence
there will generally be ample time for allotting frontages. In attack
frontages will usually be allotted on deployment, but whenever possible
they will be selected beforehand by preliminary reconnaissance.
=4. Object of Overlapping the Sectors.=--The overlapping of sectors
insures that the entire front is kept under close observation, and
that no part of it remains unswept by fire should occasion arise for
delivering fire at a target in any part. It also prevents waste of
ammunition and loss of fire effect through units firing at objectives
outside their own sectors unless this is necessary for the purpose of
mutual support.
=5. Example of Field of Fire divided into Sectors.=--(i) Fig. 47
shows a field of fire divided into overlapping sectors by the use
of description points. The sketch illustrates the arrangements made,
as the result of a hasty preliminary reconnaissance, by a company
commander for fire action by the four sections or normal fire-units of
his command on deployment in the early stage of attack. In defensive
positions similar arrangements may be made for indicating sectors
allotted to each locality. Defensive positions will usually include
a number of localities of special tactical importance. From these
localities either direct or flanking fire, or both, is brought to bear
on all ground over which the enemy may advance. As long as this is
done the intervening ground between localities need not be held in a
continuous line.
(ii) In defence, the arrangements for fire action will include the
various measures described in Chapter VIII of _Field Entrenchments_
of this series, such as clearing the foreground of features which
would afford cover to the enemy and assist his advance, and clearing
it of features to improve the defenders field of fire, together with
the construction of different obstacles to impede and check the
enemy’s advance or cause him to select lines of approach along avenues
commanded by the fire of the defenders.
=6. Direction and Control of Fire.=--Fire is said to be _directed_ by
the commander, who defines the objective against which it is to be
used, and to be _controlled_ by the fire-unit commanders, who give
the necessary executive words of command. In attack occasions will
frequently arise when fire-unit commanders must both direct and control
the fire of their units, while at close ranges, or when men are widely
extended, it may happen that the transmission of any fire-order is
impossible, and that each individual man must control his own fire.
=7. Fire-Unit.=--The normal infantry fire-unit is the section, though
under certain conditions at the longer ranges the fire of a platoon,
or even a whole company, may be controlled by its commander. _The
efficiency of section commanders is therefore of paramount importance._
[Illustration:
Emery Walker Ltd. sc.
=Fig. 47.=--ROUGH SKETCH OF A FIELD OF FIRE DIVIDED INTO OVERLAPPING
SECTORS BY THE USE OF DESCRIPTION POINTS ON DEPLOYMENT IN ATTACK.]
=8. Duties of Fire-Unit Commander.=[20]--(i) The value of a fire-unit
commander depends upon his ability _to apply the fire of his unit
at the right time and in the right volume to the right target_. In
addition to his other duties, the fire-unit commander is responsible
for:
(_a_) Indicating targets.
(_b_) Issuing orders for sighting, and, when possible,
supervising the correct adjustment of sights.
(_c_) Regulating the volume of fire, whether deliberate or rapid.
(_d_) Reporting to platoon or company officers when ammunition is
running short.
(ii) The additional duties of the fire-unit commander referred to in
the above paragraphs may be described generally as follows:
(_a_) Watching for favourable targets.
(_b_) Watching for signals from platoon or company officers.
(_c_) Observing effect of fire.
(_d_) Seizing all chances of firing for mutual support.
(_e_) Seeing that all orders are properly passed.
(_f_) Seeing to issue and redistribution of ammunition.
(_g_) Selecting halting places in attack.
(_h_) Making best use of ground and cover.
(_i_) Re-forming and telling off units as opportunity offers.
During the attack advantage will be taken of dead ground and
cover to re-form separate units which may become mixed owing to
confusion, especially in the later stages of attack.
=9. Duties of Observers.=--Men trained as observers will be employed,
as necessary, to assist fire-unit commanders in observation of fire,
in watching the enemy and neighbouring troops, and in keeping up
communication between platoons. Observers will also be trained in the
duties of ranging and control of fire, so that they can carry them out
if fire-unit commanders are incapacitated.
Section =43=.--Effect of Fire at Different Ranges on Various Formations
and Objectives.
=1. Effect of Fire at Various Ranges=--(i) =Close Range=.[21]--Owing
to the flatness of the trajectory, it should be possible to obtain the
maximum effect from rifle fire at targets within close range--given a
good field of fire and the absence of dead ground and other conditions
unfavourable to fire effect at all ranges--_provided that fire
discipline is good and that individual soldiers select their targets
and fire carefully, making due allowance for elevation by aiming down
when necessary_.
(ii) =Effective Ranges.=--Between 600 and 1,400 yards, carefully
controlled collective fire produces better results than the
uncontrolled fire of individual men, which ceases to be sufficiently
effective beyond ranges of about 600 yards to counterbalance the
expenditure of ammunition involved. At effective ranges troops
advancing steadily and rapidly suffer less than when they remain lying
down, even under moderately good cover. This is due to the moral effect
on the enemy and to the constant alteration of the range.
(iii) =Long and Distant Ranges.=--Beyond 1,400 yards the fire of even
large and well-controlled units of infantry has seldom much effect upon
the decision of the struggle for superiority of fire. Exceptional
circumstances, such as the appearance of considerable bodies of the
enemy in vulnerable formations, may, however, justify the use of
long-range fire, especially in the defence.
=2. Effect of Rifle Fire on Various Formations and Objectives=--(i)
=Infantry.=--On open ground swept by effective rifle fire an extended
line is the least vulnerable formation for infantry, and on such ground
it will usually be advisable to extend before it becomes necessary for
the advancing troops to open fire. The greater the extension of a line,
the fewer will be the casualties, but the less will be its fire effect
[see Preface, para. 8 (i)].
(ii) =Cavalry.=--The fire effect which infantry can develop against
cavalry is such that infantry which is ready to open a steady and
timely fire has nothing to fear from a cavalry charge, provided the
cavalry cannot find dead ground over which to approach. Any formation
which allows fire to be delivered quickly and accurately is suitable
for meeting cavalry. Closing an extended line to meet cavalry delays
the opening of fire, and may offer a vulnerable target to the enemy’s
artillery. Even if cavalry succeeds in riding through a firing-line,
it can inflict little loss upon it if the infantry holds its ground.
Whenever there is a possibility of being charged by cavalry, special
care must be taken to watch and guard the flanks.
(iii) =Artillery.=--Artillery coming into action, limbering up, or
in movement, is a vulnerable target against which rapid fire or even
fire at long infantry ranges is justifiable. Infantry will experience
difficulty in putting shielded artillery out of action by _direct fire_
even at close infantry ranges, but it can prevent the artillery from
moving and interfere with the service of the guns. Infantry can best
obtain decisive effect against guns with shields by means of _enfilade
or oblique fire_.
(iv) =Machine-Guns.=--Machine-gun sections with their guns on
travelling carriages are as vulnerable as artillery limbered up; but
detachments carrying the gun into action are difficult to distinguish
from infantry. Machine-guns in position _are usually concealed_, and
are a difficult target. To obtain good effect against them it is
usually necessary to employ a considerable number of rifles.
(v) =Aircraft.=--Aircraft form a very difficult target to fire
directed from the ground, and only a small proportion of their area
is vulnerable. Bullets can pass through the fabric of aeroplane wings
without doing serious damage. Indiscriminate fire at hostile aircraft
is, moreover, likely to cause casualties in neighbouring units, and
will also disclose the position of the troops to the enemy’s observer.
The strictest control must be exercised over all fire directed against
aircraft. In the case of rifle fire at _aeroplanes_, men should be
instructed to aim _six times the length of the machine in front_, and
_at the nose of the envelope in the case of airships_.
(vi) =Retiring Troops.=--Other conditions being equal, the effect of
fire in the open at all ranges is always greater when directed at
retiring troops as compared with the effect on troops advancing.
Section =44=.--Tactical Application of Rifle Fire.
=1.= In connection with the tactical application of rifle fire,
it must be remembered that the essence of infantry tactics in the
attack consists in breaking down the enemy’s resistance by the weight
and direction of its fire, and then completing his overthrow by
assault--that is, by _bayonet charge_. Although the enemy may not await
the assault, _infantry must always be animated with the desire to close
with him as quickly as possible_. Troops under cover, unless enfiladed,
can seldom be forced to retire by fire alone, and a decision by
fire, even if possible, takes long to obtain. _To drive an enemy from
the field, assault, or the immediate threat of it, is almost always
necessary._
=2. Superiority of Fire.=--The object of fire action is to attain
superiority of fire over the enemy’s fire. Fire is said to attain
superiority when by its superior effect it beats down or silences the
enemy’s fire. Superiority of fire in the different stages of attack
enables the advance to be pushed up by degrees to ground from which the
assault can be delivered on the enemy’s position. Superiority of fire
enables the defence to check the enemy’s advance, and in active defence
to create opportunities for a general assumption of the offensive
or for local counter-attacks. _Superiority of fire is produced by
superior efficiency in_ (_a_) _fire direction and control_, (_b_) _fire
discipline_, (_c_) _use of the rifle, and_ (_d_) _ammunition supply._
=3. Opening Fire.=--When from his position it is possible to do so,
the company commander decides as to the time for opening fire, subject
to such orders as the battalion commander may issue, and regulates the
supply of ammunition. In the defence he also normally arranges for
the distribution or concentration of fire, and indicates the targets
generally to his subordinates; but in the attack these duties will
usually devolve upon the subordinate commanders with the firing-line.
=4. Decision as to Opening Fire.=--In forming a decision as to when
fire should be opened, regard must be had to the necessities of the
tactical situation. The following conditions must also be taken into
account:
(i) =Surprise.=--The early opening of fire discounts surprise, and,
whether in attack or defence, often indicates the position of troops
which would otherwise be unnoticed by the enemy. In attack it may delay
the advance unnecessarily.
(ii) =Effect of Fire at Different Ranges.=--The effect of fire at
various ranges must be taken carefully into account. This subject is
dealt with in Sec. 43, para. 1.
=5. Opening Fire in Attack.=--(i) In connection with the considerations
mentioned in para. 4 (i) and (ii) above, fire, as a general rule,
should rarely be opened by infantry in attack when satisfactory
progress can be made without it. The leading troops in particular
should save every possible round for the final struggle for superiority
of fire at close range, as the replenishment of ammunition in the
firing-line at that time will be a matter of considerable difficulty.
(ii) When progress is no longer possible, fire should be opened, either
by such parts of the firing-line as cannot advance, or by bodies of
infantry specially detailed for this purpose, to enable a further
advance to be made. Subject to these principles, fire may be opened in
attack when there is a probability of its producing good effect, or
when withholding fire might lead to heavy loss.
=6. Opening Fire in Defence.=--When infantry is acting on the
defensive, there is usually less difficulty in arranging for the supply
of ammunition. Fire may therefore be opened at longer ranges than when
attacking, if it seems probable that any advantage will be gained
thereby, especially when it is desired to prevent the enemy coming to
close quarters, and when the ranges have been ascertained beforehand.
If, however, the object is to gain decisive results, it is generally
preferable to reserve fire for closer ranges and for surprise (Practice
No. 1, p. 226).
=7. Fire and Movement.=--It is clear from the above considerations that
fire is closely related to movement. The direct object of fire in the
case of attack and counterattack is to facilitate movement, and also
to check or hinder the movements of the enemy. The direct object of
fire in defence is to check the movements of the enemy, and in the case
of active defence to create an opportunity for the assumption of the
offensive or for local counter-attacks. _Fire, therefore, is related
to movement, and its proper application with respect to movement is one
of the principal objects of training in fire control._
[Illustration: Fig. 48 Diagram illustrating the Tactical Application of
Fire.]
=8. Concentrated Fire= (Fig. 48).--Collective fire may be concentrated
or distributed. Concentrated fire produces a cone of fire favourable to
observation of results, and is more effective than distributed fire at
the point of application. Against narrow-fronted targets, such as the
head of a column or a machine-gun, or against very vulnerable targets,
or to produce an increased effect at a particular point, fire may be
concentrated with advantage.
=9. Distributed Fire.=--(i) It is usually necessary to distribute fire
so as to keep the enemy’s firing-line under fire throughout its length,
in order to disturb his aim and prevent his movements. Fire employed
to cover movements or directed on entrenchments should be distributed
carefully and systematically [see also Sec. 54, para. 3 (v)].
(ii) =Sweeping Fire= (Fig. 48).--Fire distributed _laterally_ is called
sweeping fire. Such fire is to be preferred for neutralizing an enemy’s
fire along any portion of his front.
(iii) =Searching Fire=[22] (Fig. 7).--Fire distributed in depth is
called searching fire. Such fire gives greater assurance that some
portion of the fire will be effective when the target has not been
located definitely, or when serious errors in sighting are to be
expected.
=10. Oblique and Enfilade Fire= (Fig. 48).--Both oblique and enfilade
fire have greater moral and material effect than frontal fire, for they
usually come from an unexpected direction, and the targets presented
to them are generally more vulnerable than those presented to frontal
fire. In defence, opportunities for the employment of enfilade fire
may be created by careful pre-arrangement between the commanders of
adjoining units.
=11. Converging Fire= (Fig. 48).--Converging fire is fire directed at
a target from two or more different points simultaneously. The moral
and material effect of converging fire may be very great, as it may
combine the effects of frontal, oblique, and enfilade fire at one and
the same time (Demonstration No. 3, p. 222).
=12. Mutual Support= (Fig. 48).--(i) The various portions of the
firing-line will also on occasions be able to afford each other mutual
support by fire, and all commanders must be on the alert to assist
units on their flanks in this manner when the situation requires.
Covering fire in mutual support should consist of heavy bursts of rapid
fire, sustained during the forward movement, and directed at the enemy
to the front of the advancing unit, as well as to the front of the unit
firing (Practice No. 1, p. 226).
(ii) Mutual support in the firing-line will as a rule, however,
be more automatic than deliberately arranged, and in no case must
its employment be allowed to induce hesitation in the advance. The
paramount duty of all leaders in the firing-line is to get their troops
forward, and if every leader is imbued with a determination to close
with the enemy, he will be unconsciously assisting his neighbour also,
for as a rule _the best method of supporting a neighbouring unit is to
advance_.
=13. Covering Fire= (Fig. 48).--(i) When the ground permits, it is
generally necessary to detail special detachments of infantry to
provide covering fire for the leading troops. These detachments will
usually be detailed by battalion commanders from local reserves in the
original distribution for the attack, but any commander, at any stage
of the fight, may detail troops from those under his command to assist
his advance. No fire-unit commander, however, is justified, on his
own initiative, in withdrawing from the advance or ceasing to seek an
opportunity to advance in order to constitute his command a detachment
for providing covering fire (Demonstration No. 6, p. 223).
(ii) In undulating or mountainous country it may be possible for
detachments employed to provide covering fire to cover the advance
from positions in rear, but in flat country it may be dangerous or
impossible for infantry or machine-guns to fire over the heads of their
own troops, and opportunities for providing covering fire should be
sought on the flanks.
(iii) Troops detailed to provide covering fire for the advance must
take care to select as targets _those bodies of the enemy whose fire
is chiefly checking the advance_. Great difficulty will often be
experienced in discovering which these bodies are, and all ranks must
be on the alert to notice any indication which may help to discover
them.
(iv) As soon as their fire ceases to be effective in aiding the advance
of the firing-line, it is the duty of troops detailed to provide
covering fire _at once to join in the advance_, unless definite orders
to the contrary have been received.
=14. Volume of Fire.=--In deciding on the volume of fire to be directed
against the enemy at any particular time, a commander should consider
chiefly the tactical situation, the target presented, the effect it is
desired to produce, the range, and the state of the ammunition-supply.
=15. Rates of Fire.=--_The rate of fire will always be regulated
carefully according to tactical requirements._
(i) =Slow Desultory Fire= may disturb the enemy’s aim, but it is
opposed to principles of surprise.
(ii) =Deliberate Fire.=--The rate of deliberate fire should not exceed
six rounds a minute.
(iii) =Rate when Working in Pairs.=--Soldiers working in pairs for
observation and mutual support (Sec. 47, para. 4) may _each_ fire about
three rounds a minute.
(iv) =Rapid Collective Fire.=--In rapid collective fire the rate will
vary according to the visibility of the aiming-mark, the range, and the
standard of training a man has reached. With a distinct aiming-mark
within about 1,000 yards a well-trained man should be able to fire
from twelve to fifteen rounds per minute without serious loss of
accuracy.
=16. Use of Rapid Fire.=--(i) _Rapid fire should be considered as a
reserve of power to be used when the occasion demands it._ It must
never be used except when occasion most fully justifies it, otherwise
serious waste of ammunition will result. _Rapid fire must combine
accuracy with rapidity, and never degenerate into a wild expenditure
of ammunition at the fastest possible rate._ If rapid fire is ordered,
_each man will fire at his own best rate for combining rapidity with
accuracy_.
(ii) Rapid fire may be employed generally when it is necessary to beat
down the enemy’s fire quickly; when covering the withdrawal of other
troops; when pursuing an enemy with fire; when meeting cavalry attacks;
and when good targets are exposed. In attack, rapid fire is employed
by all troops as final preparation for the assault. In defence, it is
employed to beat off an enemy in the act of assaulting (Practices Nos.
5 and 6, p. 228).
=17. Short Bursts of Fire.=--(i) The effect of surprise by a sudden
burst of accurate fire from an unexpected quarter is very great.
Short bursts of rapid fire, followed by pauses, favour observation
of results, and give time for the adjustment of sights. They also
facilitate the control of fire in critical situations.
(ii) The duration of such bursts must be strictly controlled, and
limited to the requirements of the occasion, for if rapid-fire is
continued for any length of time, it excites and exhausts the troops,
and leads to waste of ammunition. In order to insure control and
facilitate the passing of orders, the number of rounds to be fired may
be named, as, for instance, _ten rounds fire, or rapid fire_.
=18. Surprise.=--A sudden effective fire is known to have a
particularly demoralizing effect on the enemy; it is often
advantageous, therefore, to seek for surprise effects of this sort by
temporarily withholding fire.
=19. Unsteady Firing.=--Wild, unsteady fire causes little or no loss,
and tends to encourage the enemy by inducing a belief in his mind that
his opponent is shaken. It is therefore worse than useless against good
troops. _If firing tends to become wild, it should be stopped, and only
resumed under strict control and detailed orders._
Section =45=.--Description and Recognition of Targets.
=1. Importance of Good Description.=--(i) Owing to the difficulty of
discerning service targets beyond close range with the naked eye,
collective fire cannot be effective unless the objective is described
by the fire-unit commander in such a way that every individual of his
unit can immediately recognize the target or point of aim indicated,
and unless men are also trained to recognize targets and to bring
fire to bear upon them immediately they are indicated. These three
conditions--good indication of targets, immediate recognition of
targets, and instant opening of accurate fire--are essential if full
effect is to be obtained from fire, especially when directed at
fleeting targets, such as troops in movement.
(ii) Bad description of targets or delay in opening fire due to this
or other causes will lead to loss of fire effect, which may prove
disastrous in critical phases of action. For example, bad description
at the best will result in recognition of the target by some instead
of all the men in an unit, as well as in delay in opening fire, which
in the case of fleeting targets will render fire partly or wholly
ineffective. Bad description may result in part or the whole of an
unit mistaking another aiming-point near it for the target described,
with total loss of fire effect due to firing at the wrong target. It
may result in part or the whole of an unit becoming confused and not
firing at all. It is clear, therefore, that good description and quick
recognition of targets is essential for fire effect at longer ranges,
and that these duties form a vitally important part of the training of
fire-unit commanders and men.
=2. Need of System in describing Targets.=--As service targets,
such as a fold in the ground or a patch of open ground, will often
be without any definite feature to distinguish them from similar
aiming-points near them, or to locate their position exactly, and as
targets generally will be difficult to describe on ground devoid of
prominent or well-marked features, it is necessary to adopt a system of
description which will enable fire-unit commanders to indicate the most
difficult aiming-points to their men clearly by some consistent method.
=3. Description Points.=--A good system of indicating targets is
by description-points, consisting of natural or other features of
the ground in the frontage allotted to an unit. If targets cannot
be indicated sufficiently accurately by description-points alone,
supplementary methods, known respectively as the Finger-breadth and
Clock-face methods, may be used in connection with description-points,
as described in paras. 7 and 8. As a rule the former of these
supplementary methods only will be employed, and both will seldom be
employed together in combination with description-points.
=4. Selecting Description-Points.=--(i) Company officers will select
description-points when occupying a position or at the conclusion of
movement. The number of description-points necessary will depend on the
nature of the ground, and whether it has much or little detail in the
shape of prominent natural and other features; but points should be
selected so as to facilitate the indication of targets in all parts of
the field of fire.
(ii) _The most prominent objects should be chosen._ They should be
in the distance or middle of the field of fire, and as far off as
possible. No two points, if it can be avoided, should be similar--as,
for instance, two church spires or clumps of trees. The points should
be at least two hands’ breadth apart. Each point should be named, and
the name by which it is to be known should be communicated to fire-unit
commanders and the men of their units.
(iii) There will usually be more time for selecting description-points
in defence than in attack. For example, Fig. 46 illustrates a field of
fire in front of a defensive position, in which almost every feature
of ground has been named and the range of all prominent objects taken.
Such preparation will be impossible, and to a great extent unnecessary,
in attack, when time for even a short preliminary reconnaissance may
not always be available. _Company, platoon, and section commanders
should therefore be trained to select a few good description-points
as quickly as possible, and indicate them by suitable names to their
commands._
=5. Points of Military Importance.=--In addition to the
description-points, when there is time, any points in the field of
fire which are of military importance--such as a road, a bridge (Fig.
50), or the forward edge of dead ground--at which fire may suddenly
have to be directed, should also be named and indicated to fire-unit
commanders. This should be done, if possible, whenever such points are
difficult to describe and cannot be indicated quickly.
=6. Rules for describing Targets.=--(i) Targets must be indicated by
short, accurate, clearly understood, descriptions of their nature,
features, and exact position.
(ii) Field-glasses may be used to discern targets before indicating
them. _But aiming-points must always be described as they are seen with
the naked eye, and not as seen through field-glasses, otherwise the
men, being without glasses, may fail to recognize them._
(iii) In both attack and defence _the front should always be pointed
out_, so that if a general direction, such as _half right_, is used to
indicate a target, men will look in the proper direction with regard to
the front. This is necessary, because the formation of the ground, the
line of cover, and the siting of trenches does not always permit of men
facing directly to the front.
(iv) As a general rule the finger-breadth and clock-face methods of
describing targets will only be used when they will _shorten and
simplify_ the description, as well as make it more accurate.
(v) Only one system of indicating targets should be employed in a
battalion, and, if possible, in an army, so that the men may recognize
targets described by commanders of other fire-units should they become
separated from their own in action.
(vi) When possible, targets will always be described and their range
given _before the occasion for firing arises_, so that men may adjust
their sights and be ready to open fire without further orders as soon
as the target appears.
=7. Finger-Breadth Method= (Fig. 49).--(i) This method may be employed
to indicate roughly the approximate distance of an objective from a
description-point. Only one hand should be used, even if more than one
hand’s breadth is required to indicate the distance. The arm must be
held out perfectly straight from the shoulder in front of the face,
with the fingers vertical. If, however, the object is immediately
_above_ or _below_ the description-point, the fingers should be
horizontal. In measuring distances, one eye should be closed, and both
the description-point and the objective kept in view.
(ii) =Instruction in the Finger-Breadth Method.=--Results obtained by
this method are necessarily inaccurate, because the hands and fingers
vary in size and in distance from the eye with each individual. It is,
however, a useful guide for measuring approximate distances. After the
first few lessons in the use of this method, measurements should first
be judged, and then the fingers should be used to check them. It will
be found that when men have been thoroughly trained in this method they
will seldom have to use their fingers for measurements at all except in
very doubtful cases.
[Illustration: =Fig. 49.=--DESCRIPTION OF TARGETS--FINGER-BREADTH
METHOD.
(“Section Fire” Landscape Target, Panel No. 2.)]
[Illustration: =Fig. 50.=--DESCRIPTION OF TARGETS--CLOCK-FACE METHOD.
(“Section Fire” Landscape Target, Panel No. 1.)]
=8. Clock-Face Method= (Fig. 50).--This method may be used to
indicate the position of the target described in relation to
a description-point. In employing it, the clock-face must be
imagined as hanging vertically, with its centre directly over
the description-point. Thus, an objective vertically above the
description-point would be described as being at twelve o’clock, while
objectives to the right and left on the same horizontal plane as the
description-point would be respectively at three and nine o’clock,
and an objective directly below the description-point would be at six
o’clock. _The direction, right or left, should always be given, as well
as the hour, to avoid possible mistakes._
=9. Examples of Description of Targets=--(i)
=Description-Points=.--Fig. 49 shows a field of fire with plenty of
detail, and serves to illustrate the method of indicating targets by
the use of description-points alone, and by the use of these points
in combination with the finger-breadth method. If the landscape in
this figure is taken as representing a sector, the following features
might be as description-points: (_a_) Right edge of wood on hill; (_b_)
tallest poplar half right; (_c_) white house on left. The fire-unit
commander would inform his unit that they would be named and referred
to respectively as _Wood_, _Poplar_, _House_, in using them to direct
fire.
(ii) =Indication by Description-Points.=--Examples of indicating
targets by these description-points alone are as follows:
(_a_) _At 1,000--at centre of hedge running from left of
poplar.--Ten rounds. Rapid fire._
(_b_) _At 1,400--brown field to right of house--at right half of
hedge running along top.--Fire._
(iii) =Indication by Description-Points and Finger-Breadths.=--Examples
of indicating targets by description-points combined with the
finger-breadth method are as follows:
(_a_) _At 800--at foot of big tree two fingers left of
poplar.--Five rounds. Fire._
(_b_) _At 900--at fold of ground one finger below house.--Five
Rounds. Rapid fire._
For the purpose of illustration the finger-breadths are shown drawn on
the landscape.
(iv) =Indication by Description-Points and Clock-Face.=--Fig.
50 illustrates the method of indicating targets by the use of
description-points combined with the clock-face method. The point
of river bend right bank might be indicated and named: _Bend_: This
description-point would be imagined as the centre of a clock-face,
which, for the purpose of illustration, is shown drawn on the landscape.
(v) The following example illustrates the method of indicating targets
by this arrangement:
(_a_) _At 1,400--at junction of three hedgerows--bend--right--two
o’clock.--Ten rounds. Fire._
(_b_) _At 1,000--at spit of land--bend--left--between eight and
nine o’clock.--Fire._
(vi) =Indication by Description-Points, Finger-Breadths, and
Clock-Face.=--Fig. 51 shows a sector consisting of a field of fire with
very little detail, in which targets might have to be indicated by
the use of description-points, combined with both the finger-breadth
and clock-face methods, which rarely have to be used together in
combination with description-points.
The small tree in centre of hedge, the right end of the hedge, and the
left end of the hedge, or the small tree to the left, may be taken
as description-points, named respectively _hedge right_,--_hedge
left_,--_centre tree_, and _left tree_. This will be an exception to
the general rule that no two points should consist of features of a
similar nature, but it is justified, as there is no danger of men
confusing these similar features in the case illustrated.
[Illustration: =Fig. 51.=--DESCRIPTION OF TARGETS--EXAMPLE OF FIELD OF
FIRE SUITABLE FOR EMPLOYMENT OF FINGER-BREADTH AND CLOCK-FACE METHODS,
COMBINED WITH DESCRIPTION POINTS.
(“Section Fire” Landscape Target, Panel No. 3.)]
Folds and ridges of ground could then be indicated in the manner of
the following examples: _At 900--at fold of ground--centre tree--six
o’clock--one-finger._ This would mean that fire will be directed
at a fold of ground one finger-breadth directly below the centre
tree. Another example of this method is: _At 800--at ridge--left
tree--right--three o’clock--one finger._
=10. Instruction in Description of Targets.=--Training in description
of targets should be carried out under practical conditions, according
to the rules laid down in the preceding paragraphs. Training should
be carried out on as great a variety of ground as possible under all
conditions of light and atmosphere and at all ranges beyond close
range. Instruction in the description as well as recognition of targets
will form part of the field training, as well as of the advanced
musketry training of both fire-unit commanders and men.
=11.= _In commencing an exercise, a front should always be pointed
out._ At first the aiming-points to be described should be simple,
and should consist of targets easily indicated with the aid of
description-points alone. Subsequently more difficult targets may
be indicated, which will necessitate the employment of either the
finger-breadth or clock-face methods of description.
=12.= Fire-unit commanders may be trained in classes with a number of
rifles on aiming-rests in the following manner: The instructor will
indicate various aiming-points in different parts of a sector of ground
to each member of the class in turn, not verbally, but by aiming a
rifle at it, while the class are turned about, with their backs to the
instructor. The instructor will next move his rifle from aim at the
target and order the class to turn about, when the fire-unit commander
will describe the target in his own words, using description-points
alone, or combining their use with the finger-breadth or clock-face
methods, as may, in his opinion, be necessary. The class will then aim
their rifles at the target which they recognize from his description.
_If they do not recognize any target from his description, they will
not aim their rifles._
=13.= The instructor will next note the target at which each rifle has
been aimed, and criticize faults both of description and recognition,
pointing out those which caused errors or confusion. _Absolute accuracy
of aim must be insisted upon, and faults in aiming at targets correctly
recognized must be pointed out._
=14. Indication of Targets in Strange Country.=--As the nature of
the ground and its features will vary greatly in different kinds
of country, fire-unit commanders and men should be trained in the
description and recognition of targets, both before and during military
operations in unfamiliar country.
=15. Standard of Indication.=--A very low standard of indication is
one which results in four out of every five in the class recognizing
the target from the description given, for it must be remembered that
the class will consist of men who should have been thoroughly trained
in military vocabulary and study of ground before they commence their
instruction in recognition of targets. Fire-unit commanders, therefore,
will not be considered efficient in indicating targets until all the
members of a class are able with ease to recognize a variety of targets
described by him.
=16. Instruction in Recognition of Targets.=--Instruction in
recognition of targets may be carried out on the same method as
training in description of targets, the targets being described
verbally by the instructor, or by an efficient fire-unit commander.
Men aiming at wrong targets, or not aiming because they have failed to
recognize the target, will be asked to explain their difficulty, and
the instructor must try in each case to explain the cause of errors or
failure to recognize targets, with a view to helping men to overcome
it. Men will be trained to recognize targets by description-points
alone, as well as in combination with the finger-breadth and clock-face
methods.
=17. Instruction on Miniature Ranges.=--Training in description and
recognition of targets can be carried out on miniature ranges, as
described in Sec. 72, para. 8 (ii).
Section =46=.--Fire Orders.[23]
=1. Words of Command.=--The following words of command will be used as
may be found necessary:
_At_--(_Elevation and deflection_).
_At_--(_Object_).
_Fire or_ {On which the firer will load, adjust
_Rapid Fire_ { his sights, aim and fire, deliberately or
{ rapidly.
{On which fire will be discontinued, and
_Cease Fire_ { the firer will bring the rifle to the
{ loading position, recharge the magazine,
{ and apply the safety-catch.
{On which the safety-catch will be applied
{ and an easy position assumed.
{When rifles are not provided with
_Rest_ { safety-catches, on the command “_Rest_”
{ the cut-off will be pressed in, the bolt
{ opened and closed, and the spring
{ eased.
{On which all cartridges will be removed
_Unload_ { from the chamber and magazine, and
{ other motions performed as detailed
{ in Sec. 27, para. 4.
=2.= Words of command in fire orders will be as few as possible. _They
must be announced clearly and deliberately by fire-unit commanders,
and repeated if necessary, should they notice by the actions of their
men that they are not properly heard or understood._ If the noise of
firing, the distance due to deployment of the unit, the wind, or other
conditions prevent the hearing of orders, they must be passed from
N.C.O. to N.C.O., from observer to observer, or from man to man.
=3.= As already stated, when possible, directions as to sighting as
well as the target _will be given before the occasion for firing
arises, and fire will be opened without further orders as soon as the
target appears_. Orders for adjusting the sights should be given first,
so that there may be no necessity for the firers to remove their eyes
from the target after it is indicated, otherwise the order of the words
of command is not of material importance.
=4. Anticipatory Orders.=--Fire orders should anticipate events as far
as possible, so that lengthy orders will not be needed after the target
appears. The following is an example of an anticipatory order, which
includes the use of combined sights: _The enemy is about to advance
from that fir-wood on the hill half left. When he moves, concentrate on
the thickest part of his line--1250 and 1350._
=5.= If all ranks are kept informed of the course of events,[24] and
led to anticipate occasions for fire action, _there should be no need
for any words of command other than those which regulate movement, the
opening and closing of fire, and the rate of fire_; and even these may
be dispensed with if the firers are well trained, and combine their
efforts according to orders issued in anticipation. _The results of
observation and alterations to be made in sighting or point of aim must
be notified at once._
=6. Instruction in Fire Orders.=--Fire-unit commanders, observers, and
N.C.O.’s should be thoroughly trained in giving clear, concise fire
orders under practical conditions. They must watch to see if their
orders are understood by the actions of their men. _Men must be trained
not to put their rifles to their shoulders until they understand
the orders given and recognize the target indicated._ This rule is
essential _to prevent useless waste of ammunition in war_, and to serve
as a check in peace training, as to whether orders are given or passed
from man to man so that they are immediately understood and carried
out by the men. It will enable fire-unit commanders to know when their
orders are not heard or understood, and also enable company and platoon
commanders to supervise the training of fire-unit commanders.
=7. Passing Fire Orders from Man to Man.=--(i) Soldiers are trained in
passing short verbal messages and orders accurately and quickly as part
of their field-training, and this instruction is contained in _Drill
and Field-Training_ of this series in Sec. 8 and also in Sec. 42,
which deals with training in passing messages in whispers during night
operations. Training in passing fire orders quickly and accurately
from man to man is a vitally important part of the musketry training
of N.C.O.’s, observers, and men. Orders passed from man to man in the
firing-line must be short. They may be passed a sentence or two at a
time, or as a whole, the latter being the best and quickest method if
orders are short.
(ii) =Instruction in passing Fire Orders.=--Fire-units must be trained
thoroughly in passing fire orders, and this duty should be practised
during extended order drill, and later during manœuvre, when units are
deployed, and especially when they are firing with blank cartridge, so
as to accustom men to listening to orders and passing them while firing
and in the noise it involves. In practising passing orders from man to
man, an N.C.O. should be told off to record orders passed from man to
man as received at the end of a line to check their accuracy.
=8. Instruction on Miniature Ranges.=--Fire orders can be practised on
the miniature range as described in Sec. 74, para. 4 (iii).
Section =47=.--Fire Discipline.
=1. Importance of Fire Discipline.=--If full effect is to be obtained
from the results of fire, a high standard of fire discipline in men is
as important as skilful direction and control of fire by commanders.
=2. Qualities Necessary for Fire Discipline.=--Good fire discipline
demands the following qualities in men:
(i) Strict attention to the signals and orders of the commander,
combined with intelligent observation of the enemy.
(ii) Careful adjustment of the sight, economy of ammunition, and prompt
cessation of fire when ordered or when the target disappears.
(iii) Power to endure the enemy’s fire even when no reply is possible.
(iv) A cool and intelligent use of the rifle when the commander can no
longer exercise control.
=3. Rules for Fire Discipline.=--In addition to the above qualities,
men must be trained to carry out their duties according to the
following rules:
(_a_) In collective firing no man will fire until he clearly
recognizes the target described by his commander, or without selecting
a definite target in individual firing.
(_b_) In collective firing every man will press his trigger
independently. _Bursts of independent fire are more effective than
volleys._
(_c_) As a rule fire should be delivered deliberately, but each man
must always satisfy himself that every time he presses the trigger he
will hit the object aimed at.
(_d_) If rapid fire is ordered, every man will fire at his own best
rate for combining rapidity with accuracy.
(_e_) Each man will take care to pass orders carefully and accurately.
(_f_) Each man will make the best use of ground and cover, _primarily
to increase fire effect_, and secondarily for concealment and
protection. He must remember that the most important requirement, when
firing from behind cover, is the ability of a man to use his rifle
to the best advantage, and that _his eyes must be kept on the enemy
between shots to avoid losing sight of targets_.
(_g_) _Each man must watch the front and remain alert and attentive
while awaiting orders. He must open fire smartly when ordered to do so
on such fleeting targets as troops in movement, and continue firing,
unless otherwise ordered, while they present a favourable target during
movement._
(_h_) He must, when employing individual fire on the defensive,
especially at shorter ranges, _mark down troops by noting their
position on the ground or behind cover, and open fire the moment they
expose themselves or rise up to advance_.
=4. Working in Pairs.=--Combined action is always more likely to be
successful than isolated effort, and so long as control is possible
the individual man must watch his leader and do his best to carry
out his intentions. When, however, the section is under heavy fire,
section commanders cannot always exercise direct control, and in these
circumstances men should endeavour to work in pairs, indicating
targets and estimating the range for each other, firing steadily,
observing the results of each other’s fire, and husbanding their
ammunition.
=5. Ammunition.=--If incapacitated from advancing, the soldier’s first
duty is to place his ammunition in a conspicuous place, ready to be
picked up by other men, and all ranks must seize opportunities that
offer for replenishing their ammunition in this manner.
=6. Duty of Soldier when separated from Unit Commander.=--If, when
reinforcing the firing-line, or at any other time, a soldier loses
touch with his section commander, it is his duty to place himself
under the orders of the nearest officer or non-commissioned officer,
irrespective of the company or battalion to which he may belong.
=7. Training in Fire Discipline.=--The foundation of training in
fire discipline will be laid in the general training of the soldier,
especially in the instruction which imbues him with the soldierly
spirit, and develops his character in discipline and other soldierly
qualities.[25] The recruit’s instruction in aiming and firing and fire
discipline will be carried out concurrently with his training in drill
in both close and extended order, as laid down in the directions for
the annual individual training of the soldier in _Infantry Training,
1914_, and other official textbooks. Training in fire discipline
may commence when the recruit is sufficiently instructed in aiming
and firing, and will be combined with training in extended order
drill. _Fire discipline can only be taught by constant and systematic
training._
=8. Exercises in Fire Discipline.=--These exercises should be carried
out progressively. In the preliminary stages of instruction men should
be trained in squads, as already described in para. 9, the fire orders
being simple and the targets easy to recognize. More advanced stages
of instruction in fire discipline will be combined with the soldier’s
training in extended order drill and manœuvre (see Chapters III and
VII of _Drill and Field Training_ of this series), and also during
advanced stages of musketry training. Thus training in fire discipline
can be combined with field exercises consisting of tactical schemes in
attack and defence, etc., when blank cartridge is used, and with fire
direction and collective field practices fired with ball cartridge on
field firing ranges.
=9. Preliminary Exercises.=--(i) In preliminary exercises the squad
will be drawn up in line at one or two paces interval, and on the
command from the instructor--_Sitting, Standing, or Kneeling, at_
(range); _at_ (object); _Fire_ or _Rapid fire_--will perform the
necessary motions, and continue firing until the order _Cease fire_ or
_Unload_ is given. If no orders are given as to the firing position,
the squad will assume the lying position. The standing, kneeling, and
sitting positions will only be practised under conditions suitable to
their employment.
(ii) If it is desired to change front or position, the instructor will
give the necessary commands, but without as a rule causing fire to
cease. All commands given during firing are to be passed down the line
of firers, to practise them in passing orders, the orders being taken
down at the of the line to check their accuracy.
=10.= When the squad has gained sufficient experience, the fire orders
should be combined with those for movement, as in the following
example, given to a section in fours: _Section, line that ridge--To
the left three paces extend--At 1,000--At the enemy just left of that
house on the hill, half left--Fire--Cease Fire--Advance._ In exercises
carried out with blank ammunition, _the safety-catch will be applied_,
or rifles will be _unloaded_ or _sloped_, before a movement is
undertaken. In all fire discipline exercises the rule mentioned in Sec.
46, para. 6, regarding not bringing the rifle to the shoulder if they
do not recognize targets, should be strictly observed by men for the
reasons given.
=11. Development of Individual Judgment.=--In more advanced exercises,
to develop individuality, the complete detail of commands will
occasionally be dispensed with. Thus, on a target appearing suddenly
for a limited time, the executive command _Fire_ or _Rapid Fire_ only
will be given, on which each individual will adopt the firing position
he considers most suitable to the tactical conditions, adjust his
sight, and open fire. The instructor will observe and criticize the
positions and the sighting of the rifles.
=12. Instruction on Miniature Ranges.=--Instruction in fire discipline
can be carried out on miniature ranges during the Fire Direction
Practices and Collective Field Practices contained in Sec. 74.
CHAPTER VII
GENERAL INFORMATION REGARDING RANGE AND FIELD PRACTICES
Section =48=.--Preliminary Training.
=1. Lectures.=--The instruction contained in Chapters I to VI of this
book is classified under the head of Preliminary Training, as it lays
the foundation of the soldier’s training in the use of the rifle,
and prepares him for instruction in both range and field practices.
Thus, preliminary training commences with information regarding the
construction of the rifle and directions for taking care of the
weapon and cleaning it, includes instruction in aiming, firing,
visual training, and ranging, and concludes with standard tests in
preliminary training and grouping practices on miniature and 30 yards
ranges. An extremely important part of preliminary training consists
of a systematic course of lectures given concurrently with practical
instruction. These lectures will deal with the theory of rifle fire,
important points in elementary training, and the tactical application
of fire through fire direction and control, including the use of ground
and cover, and the duties of fire-unit commanders and observers in the
firing-line [see Sec. 74, para. 5 (iii)].
=2. Recruits.=--Although it is only by practice in shooting that a high
degree of proficiency can be attained in the use of the rifle, the
ammunition allowances are necessarily limited, and are calculated on
the assumption _that firing will be preceded by a most thorough course
of preliminary instruction_. Recruits, before they begin a course of
firing, must reach a satisfactory standard in aiming, and in holding
their rifles steadily while pressing the trigger, otherwise range
practice will merely result in waste of ammunition.
3. =Trained Soldiers.=--(i) _Besides thoroughly grounding recruits
in elementary training, trained soldiers must also be kept efficient
in their preliminary instruction._ Preliminary training in musketry
exercises should therefore be continued throughout the year by trained
soldiers. Skill in judging distance, a perfect trigger release,
dexterity in the loading motions, and the habit of adjusting sights,
cannot be retained without frequent practice.
(ii) It is therefore of the utmost importance that trained soldiers
should develop by constant practice a habit of recognizing targets,
judging their distance, adjusting their sights, and firing quickly but
steadily without undue effort. It is advisable to test the ability of
trained soldiers in the standard tests of preliminary training before
they begin firing in range practices. Reconnaissance and ranging
exercises will be a necessary preliminary to successful fire direction.
Section =49=.--Tests of Preliminary Training.
=1. Objects of Tests.=--The tests of elementary training have been
devised to fulfil the following purposes:
(i) Provide instructors with a means of testing recruits to insure
that they have reached a sufficient standard before they begin range
practices.
(ii) Insure that trained soldiers have retained their efficiency.
(iii) Prevent any detail of elementary training from being overlooked.
(iv) Provide a standard to be attained by technical and other troops
who are unable to devote as much time as is desirable to elementary
training.
=2. Nature Of Tests.=--These tests are divided into _oral_,
_inspection_, and _standard_ tests. It is important that teaching
should not be confused with testing. In the former a man is instructed
by example and explanation; in the latter he is questioned, or ordered
to carry out a certain exercise without any explanation or assistance,
and either passes the qualifying standard or is relegated for further
instruction.
=3. Record of Tests.=--A record will be kept for each man of the
results of the various tests, which will be inspected periodically by
the commanding officer. Extracts from these records will furnish useful
guides as to efficiency when men are transferred to other companies or
battalions. Men, particularly recruits, should themselves keep a record
of their performances.
=4. Oral Tests.=--(i) =Care of Arms and Ammunition.=--A few questions
should be put to each man on these subjects.
(ii) =General Theoretical Knowledge.=--A few questions should be put
to each man regarding the theory of rifle fire and its practical
application.
(iii) =Description of Targets.=--Each man separately should be called
upon to describe one or two objects in a landscape, and be questioned
as to shape, colours, sizes, units of measure, etc.
5. =Inspection Tests.=--(i) =Firing Positions.=--Every man should be
inspected individually in all firing positions, and the existence of
any of the following serious faults should be noted in a book for
production at subsequent tests: (_a_) Firing from left shoulder; (_b_)
eye near cocking-piece or thumb in aiming; (_c_) want of grip with
either hand; (_d_) finger round trigger in loading position; (_e_)
excessive constraint of the limbs, body, or head in firing.
(ii) =Fire Discipline.=--Men should be tested for ability to execute
orders for fire direction and control rapidly and correctly, including
accurate adjustment of sights after each advance in attack, and after
every advance of the enemy--represented by fatigue-men--at distances
between 600 and 1,400 yards.
=6. Standard Tests.=--(i) =Regulation Aim.=--To be tested by triangle
of error. _Standard--No side of a triangle to be over one-third of an
inch, or the centre of the triangle more than one-third of an inch from
the instructor’s aim._
(ii) =Trigger-Pressing.=--Trigger-pressing will be tested by means of
the aim-corrector.
(iii) =Adjustment of Sights.=--Several distances will be named and
sights examined after three seconds [M.L.E. rifle, five seconds].
(iv) =Aiming-Off for Wind or Movement.=--Tests in aiming-off for wind.
The men will be ordered to lay their rifles on a point at some number
of feet, not exceeding 6, right or left of a fatigue-man. One foot of
error only, measured from the regulation point of aim, will be allowed.
Allowance in aiming-off for wind or movement will be tested with the
aim-corrector, the percentage of serious errors being recorded.
(v) =Rapidity of Aim.=--The time required to bring the rifle from the
loading position to the shoulder, on the command _Fire_, and to align
the sights on an aiming disc held to the eye, will be measured with a
stop or ordinary watch with a second-hand. Lying position.