INSTRUCTION ON MINIATURE RANGES, INCLUDING
RANGE AND FIELD PRACTICES
70. =General Remarks= 203
71. =Targets= 205
72. =Preliminary Training= 207
73. =Range Practices= 213
74. =Field Practices, Night Firing, and
Competitions--Lectures--Demonstrations--Individual
and Collective Field Practices= 213
APPENDIX
I. =Names of the Parts of Rifles--Short M.L.E., Mark III, and
Charger-Loading M.L.E.= 233
II. =Directions for Use of the Legret Aim-Teacher= 240
III. =Directions for Use of the Aim-Corrector= 241
IV. =Directions for Use of the Aiming-Disc= 243
V. =“Harmonizing” Rifles for Miniature Range Practices= 244
VI. =Scoring and Signalling= 245
VII. =Solano Target--Marks I. and II.= 248
VIII. =Solano Elementary and Instructional Targets= 250
INDEX 258
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
DIAGRAM SHOWING A GERMAN PLAN OF INFANTRY
ATTACK IN CLOSE FORMATIONS ix
1. WIRE GAUZE ON PULL-THROUGH 5
2 AND 3. ILLUSTRATION OF TRAJECTORY, ETC. 19
4 AND 5. DANGEROUS SPACE 26
6. CONE OF FIRE 32
7. DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING THE DISPERSION IN DEPTH
OF CONCENTRATED COLLECTIVE FIRE AT 1,500
YARDS AND ITS DISTRIBUTION IN DEPTH BY THE
USE OF COMBINED SIGHTS 36
8. THE RELATION OF GROUND TO FIRE EFFECT 39
9. THE RELATION OF GROUND TO FIRE EFFECT 40
10. DEAD GROUND 42
11. DIAGRAMS SHOWING CORRECT AND INCORRECT
ALIGNMENT OF SIGHTS 48
12. LONG-RANGE SIGHTS 49
13. FAULTS IN AIMING 50
14. TRIANGLE OF ERROR 52
15. METHOD OF PRESSING TRIGGER WITH FOREFINGER 64
16. SHOT GROUP ILLUSTRATING RESULT OF FAULTY
TRIGGER-PRESSING 65
17. SHOWING GRIP OF RIGHT HAND, AND TRIGGER
FINGER 66
18. INSTRUCTOR ILLUSTRATING CORRECT METHOD OF
PRESSING THE TRIGGER 66
19. CORRECT METHOD OF USING AIMING-DISC 66
20. STANDING POSITION--SIDE VIEW 67
21. STANDING POSITION--FRONT VIEW 67
22. PRONE POSITION--SIDE VIEW 68
23. KNEELING POSITION--SIDE VIEW 68
24. KNEELING POSITION--FRONT VIEW 68
25. SITTING POSITION 69
26. SITTING POSITION WHEN FIRING--AIMING DOWN
STEEP SLOPE 69
27. LOADING IN STANDING POSITION 70
28. FIRING IN THE OPEN. HEADS LOWERED; OBSERVER
WATCHING FRONT 71
29. FIRING ROUND COVER--CORRECT 74
30. FIRING ROUND COVER--UNNECESSARY EXPOSURE 74
31. FIRING FROM FOLD OF GROUND--SIDE VIEW 74
32. FIRING FROM FOLD OF GROUND--UNNECESSARY
EXPOSURE 75
33. FIRING FROM FOLD OF GROUND--CORRECT METHOD 75
34. FIRING OVER CONTINUOUS COVER 75
35. FIRING OVER CONTINUOUS COVER 76
36. FIRING OVER CONTINUOUS COVER 76
37. FIRING ROUND CONTINUOUS COVER: LYING POSITION--FRONT
VIEW 76
38. FIRING ROUND CONTINUOUS COVER: LYING POSITION--SIDE
VIEW 76
39. KNEELING BEHIND COVER--POSITION WHEN LOADING 77
40. KNEELING BEHIND COVER--POSITION WHEN LOADED 77
41. KNEELING BEHIND COVER--POSITION WHEN FIRING 77
42. KNEELING BEHIND COVER--POSITION WHEN FIRING 77
43. MILITARY VOCABULARY--TERMS DESCRIBING COMMON
FEATURES OF GROUND 87
44. SIMPLE RANGE CARD FOR ATTACK 99
45. SIMPLE RANGE CARD FOR DEFENCE 100
46. EXAMPLE OF A FOREGROUND RANGE SKETCH 102
47. ROUGH SKETCH OF A FIELD OF FIRE DIVIDED INTO
OVERLAPPING SECTORS BY THE USE OF DESCRIPTION
POINTS ON DEPLOYMENT IN ATTACK 108
48. DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING TACTICAL APPLICATION OF
FIRE 115
49. DESCRIPTION OF TARGETS--FINGER-BREADTH
METHOD 122
50. DESCRIPTION OF TARGETS--CLOCK-FACE METHOD 123
51. DESCRIPTION OF TARGETS--EXAMPLE OF FIELD OF
FIRE SUITABLE FOR EMPLOYMENT OF FINGER-BREADTH
AND CLOCK-FACE METHODS, COMBINED
WITH DESCRIPTION POINTS 124
52. HAND GRENADE, MARK I 196, 197
53. SOLANO TARGET, MARK I, ARRANGED FOR ELEMENTARY
PRACTICES BY EIGHT MEN FIRING SIMULTANEOUSLY,
SHOWING THE TARGETS NUMBERED 206
54. SOLANO TARGET--CLEAT FITTING WITH CORDS WHICH
OPERATE MECHANISM ATTACHED 206
55. SOLANO TARGET, MARK I, ARRANGED FOR GENERAL
INSTRUCTION OR FOR FIRING FIELD PRACTICES,
WITH SCENERY AND SCENIC ACCESSORIES (TYPE A),
AND WITH SOLANO FIGURES REPRESENTING TROOPS
AT DIFFERENT RANGES 207
56. SOLANO TARGET, MARK I, ARRANGED FOR GENERAL
INSTRUCTION OR FOR FIRING FIELD PRACTICES,
WITH SCENERY AND SCENIC ACCESSORIES (TYPE C),
AND WITH SOLANO FIGURES REPRESENTING TROOPS
AT DIFFERENT RANGES 207
57. LANDSCAPE TARGET ON FRAMES ATTACHED TO SOLANO
TARGET IN POSITION FOR FIRING 228
58. LANDSCAPE TARGET PRACTICES--ILLUSTRATION SHOWING
METHOD OF HARMONIZING RIFLES AND THE
SYSTEM OF MEASURING COLLECTIVE GROUPING OF
CONCENTRATED AND DISTRIBUTED FIRE 229
59, 60. SHORT MAGAZINE LEE-ENFIELD RIFLE 234, 235
61-63. CHARGER-LOADING LEE-ENFIELD RIFLE 237-239
64. LEGRET AIM-TEACHER 240
65. AIM-CORRECTOR 242
66. AIMING-DISC 243
67. SOLANO ELEMENTARY TARGET, NO. 1 251
68. SOLANO ELEMENTARY TARGET, NO. 2 252
69. A CIRCLE (3 INCHES DIAMETER) AND A TRIANGLE
(3 INCHES EQUILATERAL), SHOWING THAT THE TRIANGLE
AS AIMING AND SCORING DIAGRAM INDUCES
CLOSER GROUPING THAN THE CIRCLE BY ALLOWING
LESS MARGIN FOR BOTH VERTICAL AND LATERAL
ERRORS REPRESENTED BY THE DOTS 253
70. SOLANO INSTRUCTIONAL TARGET, NO. 1 254
71. SOLANO INSTRUCTIONAL TARGET, NO. 2 255
72. SOLANO INSTRUCTIONAL TARGET, NO. 3 256
DEFINITIONS OF TECHNICAL TERMS AND MILITARY VOCABULARY
I. DEFINITIONS.
=Aiming-Off.=--Altering the point of aim laterally, so as to give
deflection to the rifle-barrel without using the wind-gauge.
=Aiming Point.=--The point in any target at which aim is taken,
forming the extremity of the line of sight.
=Aiming Up and Down.=--Altering the point of aim vertically so
as to give more or less elevation to the rifle-barrel without
altering the sight.
=Angle of Descent.=--Angle at which the bullet falls to the
ground at the end of its flight (Figs. 4 and 5).
=Application.=--An elementary musketry practice, designed to
illustrate methods of correcting aim or sighting in accordance
with observation or signals from the butts.
=Approximation of Scoring Rings.=--Concentric rings marked on an
instructional target and possessing various values which afford
a simple means of comparing the shooting errors of individuals,
but having no relation to the vulnerable surfaces of the ordinary
service targets.
=Axis of the Barrel.=--The axis of the barrel is an imaginary
line following the centre of the bore from breech to muzzle (Fig.
2).
=Beaten Zone.=--Area of ground beaten by a cone of fire (Fig. 6).
=Bull’s Eye.=--A circular aiming-mark of varying size used in
elementary training for grouping practice, with the object of
eliminating all sources of error other than that of bad holding.
=Concentration of Fire.=--The directing of fire on one particular
portion of the enemy’s line. Its value lies in the demoralizing
effect it produces owing to the heavy loss it inflicts at the
point at which it is directed (Fig. 48).
=Covered Approach.=--Ground and natural or artificial cover which
screens movement towards an objective from the enemy’s view.
=Culminating Point.=--The culminating point is the greatest
height above the line of sight to which the bullet rises in its
flight; this is reached at a point a little beyond half the
distance to which the bullet travels.
=Dangerous Space.=--The dangerous space for any particular range
is the distance between the first catch and the first graze (Fig.
4).
=Dead Ground.=--Any ground on which troops cannot be struck by
missiles fired by defenders of a position owing to the formation
of the intervening ground (Fig. 10).
=Deflection.=--The inclination of the rifle-barrel laterally with
reference to the line of sight, counteracting the effect of wind,
drift, or other influence which tends to force the bullet out of
a straight path.
=Description Points.=--Ground and its natural or artificial
features used for indication of targets (Figs. 49-51).
=Distribution of Fire.=--The method of directing fire so that it
may be scattered over several objects (Fig. 48).
=Elevation.=--The inclination of the rifle-barrel vertically with
reference to the line of sight, necessitated by the downward
influence exercised on the bullet by the force of gravity.
=Error of the Day.=--A term used to include errors in shooting
due to miscalculation of atmospheric influences, such as wind,
temperature, etc.
=Error of the Rifle.=--Any error inherent in a rifle, independent
of any error due to the want of skill of the firer.
=Fire, Kinds of=--
=Collective Fire.=--The fire of several rifles combined for
a definite purpose under the orders of a fire-leader. Such
fire skilfully directed and well controlled may produce good
effect up to 1,400 yards.
=Converging Fire.=--Fire aimed at one target from different
points.
=Covering Fire.=--Fire delivered from the rear or flank by a
special body of troops to keep down the fire of the attacked
during the advance of the attacking body. It also includes
fire delivered by portions of a line with a view to assisting
the advance of the remainder (Fig. 48).
=Effective Fire.=--Fire which has the desired result upon the
target.
=Enfilade Fire.=--Fire which sweeps a line of troops or
defences from a flank (Fig. 48).
=Frontal Fire.=--Fire which is delivered directly to the
front.
=Grazing Fire.=--When the angle of the fall of the bullets
(see Trajectory) is the same as the slope of the ground and
the missiles sweep along its surface the fire is called
grazing (Fig. 9).
=Individual Fire.=--Fire opened without orders from a
fire-leader. On account of the difficulty of observation 600
yards may be taken as the limit of effective fire of this
nature against small targets.
=Indirect Fire.=--Indirect fire is fire directed by means of
auxiliary aiming-marks at an objective which is invisible to
the firer (Fig. 48).
=Masked Fire.=--Troops (guns or rifles) in a position whence
they could employ fire effectively against an enemy, but for
the fear of causing casualties to their comrades, are said to
have their fire masked by these latter troops.
=Oblique Fire.=--Fire directed on a target in a slanting
direction--_i.e._ not directly to the front (Fig. 48).
=Rapid Fire.=--Fire delivered as quickly as the nature of the
rifle admits.
=Reverse Fire.=--Fire so directed that the bullets strike the
target in rear (Fig. 48).
=Searching Fire.=--Searching is the term applied to
collective fire when the depth of its dispersion over a
beaten zone is increased by the use of combined sights (Fig.
7).
=Sweeping Fire.=--Sweeping fire is fire distributed laterally
(Fig. 48).
=Unaimed Fire.=--Unaimed fire is fire directed at a visible
objective which strikes another objective to the rear of it
(Fig. 48).
=Fire Control.=--Fire control is the duty of junior officers and
non-commissioned officers, and consists in giving ranges to and
pointing out targets to the fire-units, and seeing that their men
adjust their sights to the range given. It further consists in
regulating the volume of fire, the accurate passing of all orders
and information, and in the cavalry and infantry the collecting of
ammunition from casualties and its redistribution.
=Fire Discipline.=--The training of men so that they will instinctively
carry out all orders of fire-unit commanders, and in the absence of
orders adjust their sights and fire with due regard to the tactical
situation.
=Fire Effect.=--The effect on the target resulting from the fire aimed
at it.
=Fire Fight.=--The struggle for fire superiority.
=Fire Position.=--Positions from which fire is opened during the
advance of an attacking force; during the early stages of the advance
with a view to gaining ground, in the latter stages with a view to
gaining a superiority of fire.
=Fire-Unit.=--A unit, the fire of which is controlled by one commander.
The normal cavalry and infantry fire-unit is the troop and section
respectively.
=Firing-Line.=--In extended formations the line of troops from which
the main body of fire is delivered.
=Firing-Position.=--The position, standing, kneeling, lying, etc.,
adopted for firing, according to circumstances.
=First Catch.=--The first catch is that point where the bullet has
descended sufficiently to strike the head of a man, whether mounted,
standing, kneeling, lying, etc. (Fig. 4, A).
=First Graze.=--The first graze is the point where the bullet, if not
interfered with, will first strike the ground (Fig. 4, B).
=Group, Grouping, or Diagram of Group.=--The pattern made on a vertical
target by a series of shots fired by an individual or the pattern made
on a horizontal surface by concentrated collective fire.
=Grouping.=--An elementary musketry practice designed to test and
standardize holding and the accuracy of rifles, and to expose constant
errors in aiming.
=Holding.=--The form of skill required in order to press the trigger
without disturbing the aim.
=Inclined Sights.=--A common fault in aiming-failure to keep the sights
upright.
=Line of Departure.=--The line of departure is the direction of the
bullet on leaving the muzzle--_i.e._, the prolongation of the axis of
the barrel (Fig. 2).
=Line of Fire.=--The line of fire is a line joining the muzzle of the
rifle and the target (Fig. 2).
=Line of Sight.=--The line of sight is a straight line passing through
the sights and the point aimed at (Fig. 2).
=Marking Down.=--Noting the exact position of an enemy seen to occupy
ground or cover.
=Mutual Support.=--The fire of one unit directed at the enemy to cover
and assist the movement of another unit (Fig. 48). Also individual
soldiers working in pairs to assist each other in firing.
=Observation.=--Watching the effect of fire on the target with a view
to correction or verification of sighting, either by watching for the
dust thrown up by bullets or the behaviour of the enemy.
=Permissible Error.=--Error made in estimating range which does not
render fire ineffective.
=Ranges, Terms applied to.=
+-------------+----------------+-----------------+------------------+
|Terms applied| Rifle. | Field Artillery.| Heavy Batteries. |
| to Ranges. | | | |
+-------------+----------------+-----------------+------------------+
| | Yards. | Yards. | Yards. |
| Distant | 2,800 to 2,000 | 6,500 to 5,000 | 10,000 to 6,500 |
| Long | 2,000 to 1,400 | 5,000 to 4,000 | 6,500 to 5,000 |
| Effective | 1,400 to 600 | 4,000 to 2,500 | 5,000 to 2,500 |
| Close | 600 and under | 2,500 and under | 2,500 and under |
+-------------+----------------+-----------------+------------------+
=Recruit (Musketry).=--A man who has not completed Table A (the
recruit’s course of musketry).
=Sector.=--A portion of frontage allotted to a fire-unit for the
purposes of observation and fire action.
=Snapshooting.=--Firing the most accurate possible shot in the
shortest possible time.
=Superiority of Fire.=--The means of pouring a more destructive
fire into the enemy than he can bring to bear on you. Under
ordinary conditions a necessity prior to the bayonet charge.
=Target, Crossing.=--A target moving across the front of the
firer obliquely or at right angles.
=Target, Service.=--The various targets of battle.
=Trained Soldier (Musketry).=--A man who has completed Table A
(the recruit’s course of musketry).
=Trajectory.=--The curved line a bullet or other projectile
follows in its flight. This is dependent on the explosion of the
charge which drives the bullet forward, gravity which draws the
bullet towards the earth, and the resistance of the air which
retards the velocity of the bullet (Fig. 2).
II. MILITARY VOCABULARY FOR INDICATION AND RECOGNITION OF TARGETS.
=Arable Land.=--Ground under cultivation other than pasture or
grass land.
=Brook.=--A small stream.
=Causeway.=--A made road or path, raised by artificial means
above the level of the surrounding country.
=Clearing.=--Where trees and undergrowth have been cut down in a
wood, so as to make an open space.
=Cliff.=--A high, steep rock.
=Col.=--A gap or break in a ridge of hills, often traversed by a
road, which thus avoids to a great extent the ascent and descent
otherwise necessary in passing from one side of the ridge to the
other. This term is also used to describe the narrow ridge often
seen joining a hill to a main chain of hills.
=Copse (or Coppice).=--A small wood, composed of young trees and
undergrowth for cutting.
=Crest-Line.=--Where the top of a hill or mountain appears to
meet the sky.
=Cross-Roads.=--The point where one road crosses another.
=Culvert.=--A watercourse arched over with brickwork or masonry,
generally under a road or railway.
=Cutting.=--An excavation through which a railway line runs.
=Dense Hedge.=--Growing closely together.
=Donga.=--A South African term, meaning a dry watercourse,
bordered by steep and high banks.
=Embankment.=--Earth banked up above the natural height of the
surrounding country, to preserve the level of a railway line.
=Fenced.=--Bounded by a fence, hedge, wall, etc.
=Fencing.=--A structure, enclosing a piece of land or separating
it from another piece.
=Ferry.=--A place where a river or other piece of water may be
crossed by means of a boat kept at the spot for the purpose.
=Fold in Ground.=--A slight hollow, caused by the regular lie of
the ground being broken by a rise or depression.
=Foliage.=--The leaves of trees, shrubs, etc.
=Ford.=--A shallow place in a stream where it may be crossed by
wading.
=Gorge.=--A rugged and deep ravine.
=Hollow.=--A depression in the ground.
=Junction of Roads.=--The point where two or more roads meet, but
do not cross one another.
=Knoll.=--A low hill standing by itself.
=Level Crossing.=--Where a road or path crosses a railway-line at
the same level.
=Marshland.=--Low-lying, wet land, covered usually with rushes
and rank vegetation.
=Moorland.=--Waste land covered with heath, and having a poor,
peaty soil.
=Nullah.=--An Indian term, meaning a dry watercourse bordered by
steep and high banks.
=Palings.=--Narrow pieces of wood nailed closely together upon
rails so as to form a fence.
=Pastureland.=--Grassland.
=Plantation.=--A small wood, composed of trees recently planted.
=Ploughland.=--Land which has recently been ploughed.
=Posts and Rails.=--A fence composed of posts, with one end sunk
in the ground, connected by rails.
=Quarry.=--An excavation from which stone has been extracted.
=Ravine.=--A deep hollow in a hill or mountain side.
=Ridge.=--Anything shaped like the back of an animal. For
instance, the highest part of a long range of hills or the
angular top of the roof of a building.
=Ridge and Furrow.=--Land ploughed in such a manner that the
ground lies alternately heaped up (ridge) and hollowed out
(furrow).
=River Bank, Right, Left.=--The right or left bank of a river is the
bank on the right or left of an observer facing down the stream.
=Saddle.=--A shallow, central dip in a ridge. The depression is
less marked than a col.
=Scrub.=--Stunted trees and bushes growing closely together.
=Shrub.=--A small bushy tree.
=Signal--Box or Cabin.=--A small building adjoining a
railway-line, from which a set of signals is controlled.
=Sky-Line.=--Where earth or sea appear to meet the sky.
=Slope, Concave.=--A slope is concave when the actual slope of a
hill offers no obstruction to an observer standing on the crest
from seeing the foot of the slope. In this case the upper slopes
of the hill are steeper than the lower slopes.
=Slope, Convex.=--A slope is convex when an observer standing on
the crest is unable, through the slope of the hill bulging out,
to see the foot of the slope. It is caused by the lower slopes
being of a steeper nature than the upper slopes, and is met with
especially in chalk downs.
=Slope, Forward.=--One that falls away in the direction an
observer is looking.
=Slope, Gentle.=--_This term explains itself._
=Slope, Reverse.=--One that falls away behind the spot where the
observer is standing.
=Slope, Steep.=--_This term explains itself._
=Spur.=--A ridge running out from a hill or from range of hills.
=Stream.=-- Any course of flowing water.
=Sunken Road.=--A road that has been cut below the level of the
surrounding country.
=Swamp.=--Land so saturated with wet bog as to be useless for
cultivation.
=Thicket.=--A small wood, composed of bushes and undergrowth.
=Track.=--An unmade path, which is marked by use.
=Undergrowth.=--Small trees, brambles, creepers, etc., in a wood.
=Viaduct.=--A road or railway carried by a series of arches over
a valley, river, etc.
NOTE.--_The figures at the hinges of pages refer to the_ SECTIONS.
MUSKETRY
CHAPTER I
THE CARE AND CLEANING OF ARMS[3]
Section =1=.--General Remarks.
=1. Responsibility for Care of Arms.=--Officers commanding companies
are responsible for the condition of the arms in their charge, and for
instructing their men in the use of the gauze, so that no unnecessary
wear of the bore may result through its misuse.
=2. Defects.=--Commanding officers will report in the Regimental Annual
Return any defects in the machine guns, rifles, or ammunition in their
charge which have not been remedied satisfactorily.
=3. Instruction in Care and Cleaning of Arms.=--(i) The soldier’s
training in musketry will commence with instruction, the object of
which is to give him a thorough knowledge of the different parts
of the weapon with which he is armed. Classes consisting of squads
or small numbers will be formed for this purpose under a competent
instructor. The construction of the rifle, the nature, function, and
names of its different component parts, its action in loading, firing,
unloading, and the use of the magazine, will be explained to men, both
verbally and by practical demonstration. The parts of the rifle should
be shown separately, and then assembled before the class to explain
its construction. Instructors should ascertain, by asking the class
questions on different points, that each man has thoroughly understood
what he has been taught, and possesses a practical knowledge of his
weapon. The illustrations in Appendix, I., show the various parts of
the different service rifles, and give their names.
(ii) When he has attained this knowledge, the soldier will be taught
by means of short lectures how to take care of his weapon, reduce the
wear and tear to which it is subjected in ordinary use, and guard it
from unnecessary wear and tear and damage from various causes. Finally,
the soldier must be taught both by demonstration and practice how to
clean his weapon properly without causing damage to it in doing so.
Information on these points will be found in this chapter.
Section =2=.--Wear and Fouling.
=1. Wear.=--(i) Wear in the bore of a rifle is due to three causes:
(_a_) the friction of the bullet; (_b_) the heat generated when
ammunition is fired; and (_c_) the friction of the pull-through gauze
when the bore is being cleaned. When care is used in cleaning, 5,000 to
6,000 rounds can be fired from a rifle before it becomes unserviceable.
(ii) =Undue Wear.=--Undue wear is caused by improper and unnecessary
use of the pull-through gauze, to prevent which it is most important
that the instructions for cleaning be adhered to. It may be necessary
to modify these instructions to suit local climatic conditions, or
particular rifles which are in a bad state of preservation.
(iii) When a rifle barrel is new, the interior of the bore carries a
high polish, and this is a great safeguard against rust and metallic
fouling, but as the bore becomes worn, this polish will diminish.
Efforts to restore it with wire gauze on the pull-through result in
unnecessary wear. In a well-cared-for rifle, while the brilliancy of
the polish will diminish, the lands of the bore should always be bright
and free from all stain of rust or fouling.
=2. Fouling.=--(i) Fouling is of two kinds: (_a_) _Internal_, probably
caused by the forcing of gas or harmful material into the pores of the
metal; (_b_) _Superficial_, caused by the deposit in the bore of the
solid products of combustion of the charge and of the cap composition.
The result of neglect in either case is the formation of _rust_ in
the bore, and, as a consequence, _corroded barrels_, calling for the
excessive use of wire gauze, or even more drastic treatment, thereby
causing unnecessary wear.
(ii) =Internal Fouling.=--Internal fouling can be removed
satisfactorily by the use of boiling water [Sec. 4, para. 6 (ii)]. If
for any reason this method of cleaning cannot be used, the barrel will
“sweat,” and a hard black crust of fouling will appear in the bore.
This will turn to red rust if not removed, and the rifle will then
require repeated cleaning with flannelette, and probably with gauze,
for a time, which will vary according to climatic conditions and the
state of the bore.
(iii) =Superficial Fouling.=--Superficial fouling is readily removed,
when warm, by the use of a pull-through and flannelette, but if it is
allowed to remain long in the barrel, it will become hard and will have
a corrosive effect equal to that produced by internal fouling.
3. =Nickelling.=--The appearance of nickelling, or _metallic fouling_,
should be watched for. It is caused by a portion of the cupro-nickel
of the envelope of the bullet being left on the surface of the bore,
and appears as a whitish streak on the lands, or as a slight roughness
on the edge of the grooves. If it is deposited near the muzzle or the
breech, it is visible to the eye when the bore is clean, but in the
centre of the bore it can only be detected by the use of the gauge
plug. It is a cause of inaccuracy, and if a rifle for no apparent
reason shoots badly, its presence should be looked for as a possible
explanation. The soldier will make no attempt to remove it himself, but
will hand his rifle to the armourer, or other qualified person, to be
cleaned.
Section =3=.--Materials used for Cleaning Arms.
=1. Pull-Through= (Fig. 1).--(i) A pull-through fitted with a weight,
and an oil-bottle to contain Russian petroleum, are carried in the
recess in the butt of the rifle. The pull-through is made with three
loops. The first--_i.e._, nearest the weight--is for the gauze when
used; the second for the flannelette; the third is provided merely as
a means of withdrawing the pull-through in case of a jamb. Neither
flannelette nor gauze should be placed in this loop. When signs of
wear appear, a new cord should be supplied, to avoid the risk of the
pull-through breaking in the rifle. If a breakage does occur, the rifle
must be at once taken to the armourer. No attempt should be made by the
soldier to remove the obstruction.
(ii) =Packing the Pull-Through.=--The pull-through is packed above the
oil-bottle as follows: Hold the pull-through (loop end) between the
forefinger and thumb of the left hand, so that the end falls about 2
inches below the third finger; roll it loosely three times round the
first three fingers. Slip the coil off the fingers, and lap it tightly
with the remainder of the cord, leaving sufficient to allow the weight
to drop easily into the recess in the butt. Push the cord into the
trap, leaving the loop end uppermost, drop the weight into the recess,
and drop the trap.
=2. Use of the Pull-Through.=--(i) Remove the bolt from the rifle,
and in order to insure the gradual compression of the gauze, if used,
and of the flannelette, drop the weight through the bore _from breech
to muzzle_. The pull-through should be drawn through in one motion,
otherwise the spot where the flannelette is allowed to rest while a
fresh grip of the cord is being taken will not be properly cleaned.
Very great care must be taken not to allow the cord to rub against the
muzzle, otherwise a groove, technically known as _cord wear_, will be
cut, which in course of time will destroy the accuracy of the rifle.
[Illustration: Wire Gauze folded
Section
Wire Gauze on Pull-through
Fig. 1.]
(ii) =Flannelette.=--Only regulation flannelette is to be used. When
cleaning or drying the bore after washing out with water, a piece of
dry flannelette large enough to fit the bore tightly (about 4 inches by
2 inches) should be placed in the second loop of the pull-through. For
oiling the bore, a slightly smaller piece of oily flannelette, which
will fit the bore loosely, should be used. Care must be taken not to
use too much oil, as it will be squeezed out of the flannelette at the
entrance to the bore, and will run down into the bolt when the rifle is
placed in the rack, and may then cause miss-fires.
(iii) =Caution.=--The use of _two single pull-throughs attached to one
another_, so as to make a double one, is strictly forbidden, because
this practice has been found to produce “cord-worn” barrels.
=3.= (i) =Wire Gauze= (Fig. 1).--Wire gauze in pieces 2½ inches by 1½
inches is supplied, and should be used for the removal of hard fouling
or of rust. In attaching it to the pull-through, the following method
should be adopted: Turn the shorter sides of the gauze towards the
upper, so that the longer sides take the form of the letter S. Open the
first loop of the pull-through, and put one side of it in each loop
of the S. Then coil each half of the gauze tightly round that portion
of the cord over which it is placed till the two rolls thus formed
meet. _The gauze must be oiled thoroughly before use to prevent its
scratching the bore._
(ii) =Object of Gauze.=--The object of the gauze is mainly to scour
out the grooves, and it should therefore fit the bore tightly. When
it fails to do this, it should be unrolled partially, and packed with
paper or flannelette to increase its bulk.
(iii) =Use of Gauze.=--Grit must be removed from the gauze and
pull-through before use. Cleaning with gauze entails wear of the bore
of the rifle. Gauze should not be pulled through the barrel more often
than three or four times without sufficient cause. The surest way of
preventing the necessity for the continued use of gauze is to keep the
bore well oiled so as to prevent rust. A barrel which has become rusty
will always be more liable to rust than one which has been kept in good
condition. It will therefore require more attention and more frequent
cleaning with gauze. Similarly, a barrel in which erosion has commenced
will require more care than one of which the surface has not been
attacked, for, the eroded portion being rough, moisture is more likely
to collect on it and form rust. It is also more difficult to remove
rust thoroughly from a rough surface than from a smooth one.
=4. Oil.=--No oil other than Russian petroleum should be allowed to
remain in the bore. The function of this oil is to cover the bore with
a waterproof film, and thus prevent moisture attacking the steel and
forming rust. It must be well worked into the flannelette with the
fingers, otherwise it will be scraped off by the breech end of the
barrel. When paraffin has been used, all traces of it should be removed
thoroughly, and the bore coated with Russian petroleum, for paraffin,
though an efficient agent for removing rust, does not prevent its
formation.
=5. Caution.=--_No gritty or cutting material, such as emery powder or
bath brick, is to be used for cleaning any part of the rifle._
Section =4=.--Instructions for Cleaning Arms.
=1. To Remove the Bolt.=--Raise the knob as far as it will go, draw
back the bolt-head to the resisting shoulder, and release it from the
retaining spring. Raise the bolt-head as far as possible (in the short
rifle, Marks I, I*, II, and II*, draw back the charger guide, then turn
the bolt-head to the left), and remove the bolt.
=2. To Replace the Bolt.=--(i) See that the resisting lug and
cocking-piece are in a straight line, and the bolt-head screwed home.
Place the bolt in the body with the extractor upwards, and press it
forward until the head is clear of the resisting shoulder (in the short
rifle, Marks I, I*, II, and II*, turn the head to the right, then push
the charger guide forward as far as possible). Turn the head downwards
until it is caught by the retaining spring. Close the breech, and press
the trigger.
(ii) In some rifles, the bolt can be replaced and closed with the
bolt-head unscrewed a whole turn. It cannot, however, be closed with
the bolt-head in this position if there is a cartridge in the chamber.
The greatest care should therefore be taken to see that the bolt-head
is screwed fully home before the bolt is placed in the rifle.
=3. Daily Cleaning.=--The outside of the rifle will be cleaned daily,
and all parts of the action wiped with an oily rag. The bore of the
rifle will always be left oily, but once a week this oil will be
removed and the bore relubricated. In the case of rifles that have once
become rusty, the bore will be wiped out with flannelette and reoiled
daily, and it will, in addition, be cleaned once a week with the gauze
on the pull-through. The gauze is to be packed as already stated, so as
to fit the bore tightly.
=4. Cleaning before Firing.=--(i) The action will be wiped with an oily
rag, and all traces of oil will be removed from the bore and chamber by
the use of a pull-through _which has no gauze on it_.
(ii) =Caution.=--Neither the cartridge nor the chamber of the rifle
are on any account to be oiled before loading, nor is any other form
of lubricant to be used with a view to facilitate the extraction of
the empty case. Such a procedure greatly increases the thrust on the
bolt-head due to the explosion of the charge, and is liable to injure
the rifle.
=5. Cleaning after Firing.=--(i) Arms will be cleaned immediately after
firing. The fouling can be removed easily while it is still warm, and
before it has had time to set hard; while the less the time allowed for
the fouling to exercise its power of absorbing moisture from the air,
the less chance is there of rust forming. _If it is impossible to clean
the rifle at once, an oily rag should be pulled through the bore, and
the rifle should be cleaned at the earliest opportunity._
(ii) =After firing Blank Ammunition.=--After firing blank ammunition,
special care should be taken that the cleaning is thorough, as,
although there is no friction between bullet and bore, and so no
internal fouling or “sweating,” there is greater accumulation of
superficial fouling from blank than ball cartridge. This is due to
the fact that there is no bullet in blank ammunition to scour the
fouling left by the preceding round. The firing also is in most cases
more prolonged, and a greater interval most usually elapse before the
rifle can be cleaned thoroughly. _When blank firing precedes practice
with ball, the rifles will be cleaned carefully before ball practice
commences._
=6. Cleaning the Bore.=--(i) The following method of cleaning the bore
should be adopted. Thoroughly oil the gauze to prevent it scratching
the surface of the metal. Drop the weight of the pull-through through
the bore from the _breech_, and pull the gauze through three or four
times. Then place a tightly fitting piece of dry flannelette in
the second loop of the pull-through, and draw it through till the
bore is clean. Finally oil the bore with a loosely fitting piece of
flannelette, using enough oil to cover the bore thoroughly. _The rifle
will be cleaned in this manner for three days following that on which
it was fired._
(ii) =Use of Boiling Water.=--An effective means of cleaning the bore,
whether firing has taken place or not, is found in the use of boiling
water. Before boiling water is used superficial fouling and grease
should be removed. About 5 or 6 pints should be poured through the
bore from the breech, using a _funnel to prevent its entering the body
or magazine_. The rifle should then be dried thoroughly and the bore
oiled. Not only does the boiling water remove the fouling, but the
expansion of the metal due to the heat of the water loosens any rust
there may be, and facilitates its removal.
=7. Cleaning the Action and Exterior=--(i) =Bolt=.--Thoroughly clean
the bolt, paying particular attention to the face of the bolt-head, the
striker point, and the extractor. _If the bolt requires cleaning inside
it will be taken to the armourer._
(ii) =Magazine.=--See that the recess for the extractor spring is clear
of dirt. Take out the magazine and wipe the inside of the body and the
entrance to the chamber with an oily rag. Remove all dirt from the
slots in the charger guide and from the extractor recess in the front
of the body. Take out the magazine platform if required, and clean the
inside of the magazine with a dry rag.
(iii) =Exterior.=--Wipe the exterior of the rifle with an oily rag,
seeing that the =U= of the backsight, the hole in the aperture-sight,
the gas escape holes, and, in the short rifle, the rack on the side of
the leaf, are free from dirt. Remove any fouling which has collected on
the bayonet boss on the nose-cap. _If allowed to accumulate, this may
cause difficulty in fixing the bayonet._
(iv) =Caution.=--The instructions regarding the use of an oily rag for
cleaning the bolts and bodies will not apply _in dusty countries, where
all parts of the action will be kept dry and clean_.
=8. Cleaning ·22-inch Rifles and Aiming-Tubes.=--(i) As a foul
rifle shoots very inaccurately it is of the utmost importance,
from considerations of safety, that the barrel should be wiped out
frequently during use.
(ii) =Rod and Brush.=--The rod and brush should be inserted from the
_breech end_. Under no circumstances should they be inserted from the
muzzle, as the friction of the rod is liable to enlarge the bore and
make the muzzle bell-mouthed, thus causing inaccuracy.
Section =5=.--Instructions for Care of Arms and Ammunition.
=1. Care of Arms.=--(i) When the rifle is _not in use_, the leaf
and slide of the backsight should be lowered to avoid the risk of
damage from a blow or fall. _No non-commissioned officer or soldier
is permitted to take to pieces any portion of the action, except as
prescribed for cleaning, nor is he allowed to loosen or tighten any of
the screws, unless authorized to do so by his company commander._
(ii) =Mainspring.=--The mainspring should never be allowed to remain
compressed, except when the rifle is loaded, as the spring will thereby
be weakened. The position of the cocking-piece shows whether the
mainspring is compressed or not.
(iii) =Pull-off.=--The pull-off is the amount of pressure which is
required to release the nose of the sear from the full bent of the
cocking-piece; it should not be heavier than 6 nor lighter than 5
pounds in the short rifle, and not heavier than 7 nor lighter than 5
pounds in other rifles. Defects in the pull-off should be remedied by
the armourer only.
(iv) =Magazine.=--The magazine must not be removed from the rifle
except for cleaning purposes, and, to avoid weakening the spring,
cartridges should only be kept in it when necessary. A failure of
the spring to raise the platform can usually be overcome by tapping
the bottom of the magazine smartly with the palm of the hand. If
the failure recurs, the rifle should be taken to the armourer for
examination and repair.
(v) =Bolt.=--The bolts of rifles are not to be exchanged. Each bolt is
carefully fitted to its own rifle, so that the parts which take the
shock of the explosion have an even bearing, and the use of a wrong
bolt will affect the accuracy of the rifle. _The number stamped on the
back of the bolt lever should agree with that stamped on the right
front of the body._
(vi) =Browning.=--Care should be taken to prevent the browning being
rubbed off the rifle.
(vii) =Cover In Dusty Countries.=--In dusty countries it may be found
necessary to cover the muzzle and bolt with a cover of khaki or other
suitable material, to prevent the dust gaining access to the interior
of the rifle, but anything in the nature of a plug in the muzzle is
expressly prohibited.
(viii) =Removal of Oil.=--The oil will only be removed from the bore of
the rifle--
(_a_) Immediately before firing.
(_b_) For inspection, which, except after firing, should not as a rule
be more often than once a week.
(_c_) For parades and duties as may be ordered by the commanding
officer.
In all cases it will be replaced as soon as possible.
=2. Bayonets.=--After firing with bayonets fixed, the bayonet should be
carefully wiped before it is returned to the scabbard. All oil should
be removed from the blade before placing a bayonet in the scabbard.
=3. Care of Ammunition.=--(i) Ammunition should be kept perfectly dry
and clean, and should not be exposed to extremes of temperature.
(ii) =Miss-Fires.=--A miss-fire arises from--
(_a_) A defective cartridge.
(_b_) A defective rifle.
In case (_a_) the cartridge will be tried in another rifle, and, if
it still fails to fire, a report will be made in accordance with the
instructions contained in the King’s Regulations. In case (_b_) the
rifle will be taken to the armourer for examination.
Section =6=.--Examination of Small Arms.
=1. Instruction of Officers.=--It is necessary for all company officers
and sergeants to possess a competent technical knowledge of the
inspection, care, and preservation of small arms. Commanding officers
will therefore arrange that they shall be instructed annually by the
regimental armourer in repairing faults most likely to occur in the
field with such tools as would be available, and in the examination of
the various components as directed in the following paragraphs:
=2. Examination of M.L.M. Rifles.=--(i) The interior of the barrel for
rusts and cuts.
(ii) (_a_) The backsight leaf for firmness of joint; that it is not
bent; that the slide moves smoothly and fits firmly on the leaf; that
the =V= is not deformed; and that the lines on the slide are clearly
marked.
(_b_) The foresight; that the barleycorn is not deformed.
(iii) The aperture and dial sights; that they are not bent, and work
smoothly.
(iv) The bolt cover; for security on the bolt and clearance of the body.
(v) The cocking-piece; for firmness on the striker, that the bents are
in good condition, and that the sear nose bears properly.
(vi) The sear; for height of the nose, which should just clear the
bottom of the resisting lug on the bolt.
(vii) The butt; that the stock-bolt is properly screwed up.
_Note_.--In arms marked “2” on the right of the butt, and at the socket
of the fore-end, the latter must be removed before attempting to turn
the stock-bolt. In screwing it home the precautions prescribed in
sub-para. xvii will be carefully observed.
(viii) The cocking-piece and striker; that they fly forward freely on
pressing the trigger.
(ix) The striker-point; that it is the correct shape and projects
sufficiently through the face of the bolt-head.
(x) The magazine; that it is not dented, and that the platform works
freely.
=3. Examination of M.L.E. Rifles.=--The same as for rifles M.L.M., with
the following addition:
(xi) Safety-catch; that the bolt of the safety-catch engages in the
slots in the extension at the end of the bolt.
=M.L.E. Charger-Loading Rifles.=--The same as (i), (iii), (v), (vi),
(vii), (viii), (ix), (x), and (xi), with the following additions:
(xii) (_a_) The backsight leaf, for firmness of the joint; that it is
not bent; that the slide moves freely; that the clamping screw engages
properly; that the windgauge fits firmly; and that the =U= is not
deformed.
(_b_) The foresight; that the blade is not deformed.
=4. Examination of Short, M.L.E., Marks I and I* and Converted Marks II
and II* Rifles.=--The same as (i), (iii), (v), (vi), (viii), (ix), and
(x), M.L.M. Rifles, with the following additions:
(xiii) (_a_) The backsight leaf, for firmness of the joint; that it
is not bent; that the fine adjustment and windgauge fit firmly; that
the slides move smoothly; that the catches engage in the racks on both
sides of the leaf; and that the =V= is not deformed.
(_b_) The foresight; that the barleycorn is not deformed.
(xiv) The bolt; that the striker is not too free on the cocking-piece,
and that it is not screwed too far into the latter; also that the
striker keeper nut-screw (or the striker keeper-screw if fitted) is not
broken, and that the nut is in its proper position.
(xv) The bolt-head; that the charger guide is not too loose on the
bolt-head; that it works smoothly; and that the top screw is intact.
(xvi) The safety-catch and locking-bolt; that the safety-catch engages
in the camway of the bolt and locks it; that it does not move too
easily; and that the cocking-piece is withdrawn slightly to the rear
when the locking-bolt is applied, whether it is at “full cock” or the
“fired” position.
(xvii) The butt; that it is not loose. If the stock-bolt requires
screwing up to tighten the butt, the fore-end must first be removed.
On reassembling, great care will be taken that the square end of
the stock-bolt which protrudes through the socket of the body is in
the correct vertical position, so that it may enter the keeper-plate
properly when the fore-end is replaced. On replacing the fore-end,
see that the fore-end stud and spring, where fitted, are in proper
position; the front guard and inner band-screws must be tightened
carefully.
=5. Examination of Short, M.L.E., Mark III, and Converted Mark IV
Rifles.=--The same as (i), (iii), (vi), (viii), (ix), (x), (xiv),
(xvi), and (xvii), with the following additions:
(xviii) (_a_) The backsight leaf, for firmness of the joint; that it
is not bent; that the windgauge fits firmly; that the slide moves
smoothly, that the thumb-piece and fine adjustment worm work freely and
engage in the rack on the side of the leaf; and that the =U= is not
deformed.
(_b_) The foresight; that the blade is not deformed.
=6. Drill Purpose Rifles.=--These instructions apply also to _Drill
Purpose rifles._ As these are used for the instruction of recruits in
aiming, particular attention should be paid to the state of the sights.
Section =7=.--Inspection of Arms on Parade.
=1. For Inspection=--=Port Arms=.--Cant the rifle, muzzle leading,
with the right hand smartly across the body, guard to the left and
downwards, the barrel crossing opposite the point of the left shoulder,
and meet it at the same time with the left hand close behind the
backsight, thumb and fingers round the rifle, the left wrist to be
opposite the left breast, both elbows close to the body.
Turn the safety-catch completely over to the front with the thumb or
forefinger of the right hand (with Lee-Enfield or Lee-Metford rifle,
lower the safety-catch with the thumb of the right hand). Pull out the
cut-off if closed, first pressing it downwards with the thumb, then
seize the knob with the forefinger and thumb of the right hand, turn
it sharply upwards, and draw back the bolt to its full extent, then
grasp the butt with the right hand immediately behind the bolt, thumb
pointing to the muzzle.
_Note._--A squad, before being inspected, will receive the command
_Rear Rank, One Pace Step Back--March_.
=2. To Ease Springs and come to the Order=--=Ease Springs=.--From the
position described above, work the bolt rapidly backwards and forwards
until all cartridges are removed from the magazine and chamber,[4]
allowing them to fall to the ground, then close the breech (with
Lee-Enfield or Lee-Metford rifle, the cut-off should first be closed),
press the trigger, close the cut-off by placing the right hand over the
bolt, and, pressing the cut-off inwards, turn the safety-catch over to
the rear, and return the hand to the small.
_Or, if the Magazine is Charged_--
=Lock-Bolt.=--Close the breech (with Lee-Enfield or Lee-Metford rifle,
the cut-off should first be closed), then turn the safety-catch
over to the rear (with Lee-Enfield or Lee-Metford rifle raise the
safety-catch), and return the hand to the small.
=Order Arms--One.=--Holding the rifle firmly in the left hand, seize it
with the right hand at the band (with Lee-Enfield or Lee-Metford rifle,
at the lower band).
=Two.=--As in the second motion of the _order_ from the _slope_.
=Three.=--As in the third motion of the _order_ from the _slope_.
=3. Instructions for Inspecting Arms.=--(i) When arms are inspected at
the _port_ only, as in inspecting a platoon on parade, the officer or
non-commissioned officer will see that the exterior of the rifle is
clean and free from rust; that the magazine and action are clean and in
good order; that the sights are at zero; and that no parts are loose
or damaged. He will here and there examine the bore of a rifle to see
that it has been cleaned and oiled, and is free from obstructions.
(ii) Each soldier, when the officer has passed the file next to him,
will, without further word of command, _Ease Springs_, _Order Arms_,
and _Stand at Ease_. When the inspection is completed, the squad will
be closed on the squad commander’s command _Close Ranks--March_, when
the rear rank will take one pace forward.
=4. To Examine Arms=--=Examine--Arms=.--Both ranks, being at the
_port_, will come to the position for loading (Sec. 27, para. 1 (1)),
with the muzzle so inclined as to enable the officer to look through
the barrel, the thumb-nail of the right hand being placed in front of
the bolt to reflect light into the barrel.
The soldier, when the officer has passed the next file to him, will act
as detailed in para. 3 (ii) above.
_Notes._--(i) If it is necessary to examine arms, the men, when in the
position of _for inspection, port arms_, will be cautioned to remain
at the _port_. Ranks will be closed, as in para. 3 (ii), when the
examination has been completed.
(ii) In ordering arms from the examine, the first motion is to seize
the rifle with the right hand between the backsight and the band, at
the same time bringing the left foot back to the right. With the second
motion the rifle will be brought to the order, the left hand being cut
away to the side.
CHAPTER II
THE THEORY AND PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF RIFLE FIRE
Section =8=.--General Information.
=1. Need of Theoretical Knowledge.=--A knowledge of the theory of rifle
fire is of great importance in enabling the best use to be made of the
powerful and accurate weapon with which the soldier is armed. The next
step in the soldier’s musketry training after he has been instructed
in the construction, care, and cleaning of his rifle will therefore
be devoted to teaching him the theory and application of rifle fire.
This instruction will consist of lectures, important points being
illustrated by the aid of diagrams or drawings made with chalk on a
blackboard, and by practical demonstrations when possible.
=2. Difference between Peace and War Conditions.=--(i) It is, however,
of the utmost importance that the soldier should be taught from the
first to apply his theoretical knowledge correctly. _The soldier must
be made to realize clearly that the moral conditions under which fire
is delivered in war are very different from those of peace._ Therefore
deductions made as to the effect of fire from the theory of musketry
applied under peace conditions, when firing takes place on open level
ground under good conditions of light and atmosphere at visible targets
at known distances with weapons in good condition in the total absence
of any strain of excitement or fatigue and of the enemy’s fire, must
not be applied to conclusions as to the effect of fire delivered under
war conditions.
[Illustration:
BM = _Axis of barrel_
MF = _Line of departure_
MS = _Line of fire_
LOS = _Line of sight_
MTS = _Trajectory_
=Fig. 2.= ILLUSTRATION OF TRAJECTORY ETC.]
[Illustration:
AG = _Horizontal plane_
CMF = _Axis of barrel_
BMO = _Line of sight_
ML = ” ” _departure_
BMC = _Angle of tangent
elevation--T_
OMP = _Angle of sight--S_
FMP = _Angle of quadrant
elevation--QE_
LMP = _Angle of departure--D_
LMF = ” ” _jump--J_
MHO = _Trajectory_
=Fig. 3.= ILLUSTRATION OF TRAJECTORY ETC.]
(ii) For under war conditions targets beyond close range are usually
invisible or indistinct, and frequently in motion; distances are
uncertain and difficult to judge; firing takes place under all
conditions of light and atmosphere over every variety of ground, under
the strain of excitement and fatigue in the face of artillery and rifle
fire, with weapons which rapidly become imperfect owing to heavy wear.
Accordingly, the theory of rifle fire is considered in this book in
relation to practical service conditions.
=3. Technical Terms.=--The different technical terms used in this
chapter in explaining the theory and application of rifle fire will
be found among the Definitions (p. xxii). Some of these terms are
illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3. In addition, the following technical
terms may conveniently be quoted in this paragraph:
(i) =Individual Fire.=--Individual fire is fire opened by individual
soldiers without orders from a fire-unit commander. When men fire
individually, each one selects his target, estimates the range, and
regulates his fire according to his own judgment.
(ii) =Collective Fire.=--Collective fire is the fire of a number of
men combined for a definite purpose under the orders of a fire-unit
commander, who indicates targets, gives ranges, and controls fire as to
rate, etc.
_Note._--Collective fire is necessarily controlled fire. _Individual
fire will also be controlled if circumstances permit._
=4. Rifling.=--A gun-barrel is said to be rifled when it has spiral
grooves cut down the bore. Rifling a barrel enables an elongated bullet
to be used instead of the round “ball” of former days. The advantage
of this form of bullet is that it has great weight in proportion to
the surface directly opposed to the air. It has therefore great power
of overcoming the resistance of the air, and thus maintaining its
velocity and penetrating force[5] over greater distances than would
otherwise be possible. Moreover, when the charge is fired, the bullet
is forced into and follows the spiral grooves up the barrel, the effect
of which causes it to leave the muzzle rotating or spinning on its
longer axis. This spin tends to keep its point foremost, and therefore
to ensure accuracy of flight.
=5. Forces Acting on the Bullet.=--Three forces act on the bullet:
(_a_) The explosion of the charge, (_b_) gravity, and (_c_) the
resistance of the air. The explosion of the charge drives the bullet
forward. Gravity--the natural attraction which draws all unsupported
bodies towards the centre of the earth with ever-increasing
velocity--acts on the bullet immediately it leaves the muzzle. The
resistance of the air causes the velocity of the bullet to decrease
rapidly during its flight.
=6. Trajectory.=--The combined effect of these forces causes the bullet
to travel in a curved line called the _trajectory_, the curvature of
which becomes more pronounced the longer the bullet is exposed to their
action. Thus, a Mark VI bullet leaving the muzzle of a service rifle
at the rate of about 2,060 feet per second falls about 4½ inches below
the line of departure in the first 100 yards. This drop is increased to
about 20 inches at 200 yards. With Mark VII ammunition, giving a muzzle
velocity of 2,440 feet per second, the drops at the above distances are
about 3 inches and 13 inches respectively. Imaginary not actual curves
of trajectories are shown in Figs. 6 and 8.
=7. Method of Explaining Trajectory.=[6]--(i) In explaining the
trajectory to recruits it is not sufficient merely to show or draw a
diagram representing a trajectory distorted in respect of height and
range. When possible the actual path of the bullet through the air at
various short ranges--say 400 and 800 yards--should be shown by means
of discs raised on poles at every 100 yards, or some similar device.
(ii) It must be explained to the soldier that the further an object
has to travel and the longer it is suspended in the air, the higher it
must be thrown to counteract the force of gravity, because the greater
the distance it travels and the longer it remains in the air the longer
will the object be affected by the force of gravity. Consequently the
longer the range the higher will the curve of the trajectory take the
bullet in its flight, and the steeper will be the angle at which it
will fall to the earth.
(iii) On the other hand, the shorter the distance an object is thrown,
and the swifter its flight through the air, the less will it be
influenced by the force of gravity during its flight, and the lower or
flatter will its trajectory be in consequence. Thus, with the backsight
adjusted for the distances in question, a Mark VI bullet does not rise
above the height of a man on foot at 500 yards range, or above the
height of a mounted man at 600 yards range. With Mark VII ammunition,
the bullet does not rise above these heights at 600 and 700 yards range
respectively.
=8. Firing at Close Range without Altering Sights.=--_It is therefore
evident that effective fire can be maintained within close range
without alteration of the backsight._ Apart from the flatness of the
trajectory at close range, and the consequent inclusion of distances
within close range in dangerous space (Sec. 9), there will seldom
be opportunities for altering sights at close range on service, and
necessary allowances for elevation must be made by aiming up and down
(Sec. 21).
=9. Elevation.=--In order to allow for the fall of the bullet, owing to
the force of gravity, it is necessary to direct,the line of departure
as much above the object to be hit, as the bullet will fall below it at
any given distance if the axis of the barrel of the rifle is pointed
at the mark. This raising of the barrel to allow for the curve of the
trajectory is termed _giving elevation_. The target must of necessity
be kept in view. The rifle is therefore provided with sights, which
permit the firer to give the elevation required whilst keeping his eye
fixed on the mark.
=10. The Sighting of Rifles.=--(i) In the sighting of rifles a _mean
graduation for each range has been adopted_, and a high general
standard of accuracy for all practical purposes is thus obtained. Each
rifle is carefully tested before issue, but it must be understood that
_no two rifles behave in an exactly similar manner_, and that even if
compensation could be made for every error in the sighting of the rifle
before issue, the wear of parts and the loosening or tightening of
screws, etc., would bring about faults from time to time which would
affect the shooting of each rifle differently.
=11. Need of Knowledge of Each Weapon.=--_It is therefore necessary
that every man should study the shooting of his own rifle_, and make
himself acquainted with any incorrectness of the graduations marked on
the backsight, in order that he may be in a position to give his rifle
the correct elevation for the estimated or ascertained range of the
target. _At longer ranges the backsight elevation may be regarded as
the best possible guide to errors under all conditions, or any error
may be ascertained by using a long-range sighting target._[7]
=12. Jump.=--Owing to the shock of discharge, a vibratory or wavy
motion is set up in the barrel, which slightly affects the line of
departure of the bullet as it leaves the muzzle, and which is known as
“jump.” The causes and extent of jump are dealt with in the textbook of
_Small Arms_. The effect of jump is allowed for in the sighting of the
rifle, _and will not be taken into account by the soldier in aiming_.
=13. Drift.=--Drift is the term used to express the _lateral deviation_
of the bullet after it has left the barrel. This is due to the
direction of the rifling, which causes the bullet to rotate from right
over to the left in its flight, so that the point works over slightly
to the left, owing to gyroscopic action. The consequent increased
air-pressure on the right side of the bullet forces it to the left as
it flies. _The deflection due to drift at distances within 1,000 yards
is negligible, and need not be taken into account by the soldier in
individual firing._ Beyond 1,000 yards up to the limit of effective
rifle fire at about 1,400 yards, drift will carry the bullet about 7
feet to the left. This deflection, if necessary, will be taken into
account by fire-unit commanders in directing concentrated fire at
narrow-fronted targets at longer ranges.
=14. Effect of Fixing the Bayonet.=--(i) When the bayonet is fixed to
the muzzle of the rifle, its weight checks the jump, and in consequence
slightly affects the position of the muzzle at the moment of the
departure of the shot, and the primary direction given to the bullet.
(ii) =Short Magazine Lee-Enfield Rifle.=--With Mark VI ammunition, the
accuracy of the short magazine Lee-Enfield rifle is not appreciably
affected by fixing the bayonet. With Mark VII ammunition, the soldier
will aim down slightly in firing with fixed bayonet at ranges up to 600
yards.
(iii) =Lee-Metford or Charger-Loading Lee-Enfield Rifles.=--With Mark
VII ammunition, fixing bayonets has a negligible effect. When firing
Mark VI ammunition from the Lee-Metford or Charger-loading Lee-Enfield
rifles with fixed bayonets at ranges up to 600 yards, the soldier
should aim up very slightly, taking care, however, in doing so to aim
low in all cases, and to aim at the ground-line in firing at troops
advancing towards him.
=15. Effect of Resting the Rifle.=--For practical purposes, the
shooting of the rifle is not affected by resting the muzzle or any
portion of the stock lightly on earth or other substance.
=16. Effect of Oily Barrel.=--The first round fired from an oily barrel
is liable to follow an erratic course, the rifle throwing sometimes
high, sometimes low, and at other times to the right or left. A dry
rag should therefore be passed through the bore before practice is
commenced.
Section =9=.--Dangerous Space--Ricochets--Firing Up and Down Hill.
=1.= Dangerous space may broadly be defined as the whole ground covered
by the trajectory of a bullet from the point where it could first come
in contact with the top of an object fired at to the point where it
falls to the earth (Figs. 4 and 5, and Figs. 6 and 8).
=2. Extent of Dangerous Space.=--The extent of dangerous space depends
upon the following factors:
(i) =Range.=--Dangerous space decreases as the range increases, the
reduction being due to the steeper angle at which the bullet descends
at longer ranges (compare Figs. 4 and 5).
(ii) =Firer’s Position.=--The position of the firer and the consequent
height of his rifle above the ground will affect dangerous space. _The
nearer the rifle is to the ground when it is fired, the greater will be
the extent of dangerous space._
(iii) =Height of Object.=--As a rule the higher the object fired at is,
the greater will be the extent of dangerous space.
(iv) =Trajectory.=--The flatter the trajectory--the closer the bullet
keeps to the ground in its flight--the greater as a rule will be the
extent of dangerous space.
(v) =Conformation of Ground.=--The more nearly the slope of the ground
conforms to the curve of the trajectory and to the fall of the bullet,
the greater will be the extent of dangerous space (see Fig. 8).
=3. Example of Conditions affecting Dangerous Space.=--The following
example illustrates the method by which the soldier may be made to
realize the importance of this question, and the principle which
underlies its influence upon the effect of fire: If he is firing in the
_lying position_ with Mark VI ammunition, and aims at the ground-line
of a prone figure at 500 yards range, the dangerous space of his fire
will be _about 50 yards_. If, however, _he stands_ to fire at the same
target, the dangerous space will be reduced to _about 40 yards_.
[Illustration: =Figs. 4 and 5.=--DANGEROUS SPACE.
_Note._--The angles of descent are imaginary, and not accurate for any
distance.]
=4. Ricochets.=--Bullets which rebound after striking the ground or
any other obstacle, and continue their flight, are said to ricochet.
Ricochets may occur from any surface, and bullets may ricochet two
or even three times before their flight is finally arrested. At long
range, they are less likely to ricochet from soft ground than from
hard, smooth surfaces.
=5. Firing Up and Down Hill.=--(i) When a shot is fired at a target
placed on the same level as the firer, the forces acting on the bullet
cause it to travel in its greatest curve, and the greatest elevation
for any given distance must therefore be given to the rifle. If a
shot is fired perpendicularly upwards or downwards, no elevation is
required, for the bullet will travel in an approximately straight line
until its impetus is exhausted. Hence it follows that, when shooting up
or down hill, less elevation is necessary than when the object is on
the same level.
(ii) _For practical purposes, the effect of firing up and down all
moderate slopes will be negligible, and may be disregarded by the
soldier in taking aim on service._ Within close range, in firing up and
down steep slopes, or slopes at an angle of 10 degrees and over, the
decreased elevation necessary will usually be small, and may be allowed
for by aiming down slightly. The correct elevation to be used in firing
up or down hill at longer ranges in various circumstances is a matter
for the judgment of fire-unit commanders, and can best be ascertained
by careful observation of fire, when possible.
Section =10=.--Effects of Barometric Pressure, Temperature, Wind, and
Light.
=1. Barometric Pressure and Temperature.=--Rifles are sighted for the
following conditions: Barometric pressure, 30 inches (sea-level);
thermometer, 60° F.; still air; a horizontal line of sight.
=2.= The rise and fall of barometric pressure and temperature affect
the flight of the bullet and elevation by changing the density of the
atmosphere, and so increasing or decreasing its resistance to the
bullet. For practical purposes, the soldier may disregard the effects
of barometric pressure and temperature as negligible. In operations
conducted at considerable heights above sea-level, orders as to
allowance for barometric pressure will, if necessary, be issued by the
Staff.
=3. Effect of Wind=--(i) =Head Wind, or Wind from the Front.=--A head
wind, or wind from the front, retards the bullet, and necessitates
_more elevation_.
(ii) =Rear Wind.=--A rear wind lessens the resistance of the air, and
necessitates _less elevation_.
(iii) =Side Wind.=--A side wind, or wind blowing _at right angles_
from either side across the front, acts on the greater surface of the
bullet, and has, consequently, more influence on its flight than a wind
blowing from the front or rear.
(iv) =Oblique Winds.=--Oblique winds, or winds blowing from any
intermediate direction between a right angle and a front or rear wind,
have the same effect in varying degree as side winds. Oblique winds, in
addition, affect the bullet to some extent in the same way as head and
rear winds.
=4. Allowance for Head and Rear Winds.=--No fixed rules can be laid
down regarding the degree to which elevation should be increased or
decreased at different ranges for head and rear winds. For practical
purposes, the effect of these winds may be disregarded at ranges under
1,000 yards. At longer ranges, fire-unit commanders will use their
judgment in directing fire, whether they will allow for strong head and
rear winds by increasing or decreasing elevation, and to what extent.
=5. Allowance for Side and Oblique Winds= (see also Sec. 20,
_Aiming-Off_).--(i) No fixed rules can be laid down as to the degree
of allowance to be made by aiming-off for side and oblique winds of
varying direction and velocity. Owing to the increased time during
which the bullet is exposed to the effect of wind, and owing to the
height attained in its flight, the allowance for wind at long ranges
must be out of all proportion greater to that necessary at close range.
(ii) At close range, whether fire is distributed along the dense line
of an infantry attack or concentrated on narrow-fronted attacking
columns, the effect of side wind will cause little, if any, loss of
fire effect. Individual soldiers, however, in taking the deliberate aim
necessary for fire effect, should aim off for side winds of different
velocity (see Sec. 20, para. 3).
(iii) In directing fire beyond close range, fire-unit commanders must
use their judgment in allowing for deflection due to side and oblique
winds by including directions for aiming-off in fire orders. The extent
of the allowance will in every case depend upon a variety of factors,
including the direction and velocity of the wind and the distance of
the target. Neglect to make due allowance for strong winds at longer
ranges may lead to loss of fire effect, more particularly in the
case of concentrated fire aimed at narrow-fronted targets, such as a
machine-gun.
=6. Effect of Light.=--In bad light, the foresight is less distinctly
seen than in good light, and more of it is unconsciously taken into
the line of sight. For practical purposes, the effect of light may be
disregarded in firing at all ranges.
Section =11=.--Need for Collective Fire.
=1.= (i) Only exceptional targets and very favourable atmospheric
conditions will justify soldiers in opening individual fire at
distances beyond about 600 yards. Collective fire is necessary to
give reasonable assurance of fire effect beyond about 600 yards up to
about 1,400 yards, which is usually the limit of effective rifle fire.
_Beyond 1,400 yards, the fire of even large and well-controlled units
of infantry has seldom much effect upon the decision of the struggle
for superiority of fire._
(ii) Collective concentrated fire is also used to form a cone of
fire for observation of fire, when results can be noted by the dust
raised by the strike of bullets on the ground or by the effect of
fire upon the enemy. It must be clearly impressed upon the mind of the
soldier at this stage that, _however skilful individual men may be as
marksmen, the greatest effect is produced by their fire only when it is
efficiently directed and controlled_.
=2.= (i) The soldier must also be made to understand clearly why effect
cannot be obtained from individual fire in battle beyond close range,
and why collective fire is necessary for fire effect at all ranges
beyond close range. The answer to this question may be stated simply
and very broadly as follows: In effect, for various reasons, the
individual marksman cannot as a rule see his target clearly or at all
with the naked eye beyond close range on service, and he can neither
aim at it with accuracy nor be certain of its exact range. Moreover,
the effect of inaccurate firing, whether due to excitement, fatigue, or
other causes, increases with distance.
(ii) Clearly, therefore, the soldier cannot obtain reasonable assurance
of fire effect by individual fire beyond close range. Accordingly,
fire-unit commanders equipped with field-glasses discern and indicate
targets to him. They give him ranges after they have been ascertained
by the use of range-finding instruments, or by observation of fire,
when possible, and they direct the fire of a number of individual
soldiers in a volume which, whether distributed or concentrated, is
sufficient to compensate for individual errors, and so obtain fire
effect as described in Secs. 12 and 13, and in Chapter VI.
=3.= The principal reasons which militate against the assurance of
fire effect, by individual fire, beyond close range may be summed up
as follows: The effects of fatigue and excitement on the firer; the
effects of atmosphere, heat, and light; errors due to imperfections in
the rifle and ammunition; uncertainty in estimating longer ranges; the
difficulty of discerning and aiming at small, moving, and indistinct
or invisible targets; and the steepness of the angle of descent of the
bullet, which becomes rapidly accentuated, and so decreases dangerous
space as range increases.
=4.= The soldier must be made to realize that the results of errors
of marksmanship due to these various causes _increase in extent as
the range increases_, and that they reach their maximum at longer
ranges; that is to say, targets become smaller and more difficult to
see and to aim at, their range becomes harder to estimate, and the
accuracy of fire for other reasons stated becomes less as the range
increases. _Therefore, the effect of individual fire decreases as the
range increases._ It is easily possible for instructors in the course
of lectures on this point to make it sufficiently clear to men that,
under service conditions at longer ranges, effect must be obtained from
collective fire rather than from individual fire, for all the above
reasons. In some degree this important principle of the science of
modern warfare can be demonstrated by firing at service targets on full
distance and also on miniature ranges (see Chapter X).
Section =12.=--Dispersion of Individual and Collective Fire.
=1. Shot Groups.=--Owing to errors on the part of the firer, and also
to imperfections in the rifle and ammunition, it is found that a series
of shots, even when fired by an individual under perfect conditions at
a large, stationary, distinct target at a known and close range, do
not all strike the point aimed at, but they form a group of shot-marks
about this point, the density of which varies mainly with the skill of
the firer.
=2. Cone of Fire= (Fig. 6).--It is evident that the trajectories of
these shots will not coincide, but will together form a figure termed
“the cone of fire.” It is also clear that, when aim is well directed,
the bullets of a cone of fire should always strike an object so long as
the shot group formed by it is either _smaller or of the same size_ as
the object aimed at. But when the shot group is spread over a larger
surface than the size of the object, shots must necessarily miss the
mark in proportion as the size of the grouping exceeds that of the
object aimed at.
[Illustration: =Fig. 6.= CONE OF FIRE
A--B shows the dangerous space due to height of objective.
_Note:-The Dangerous Space will vary with height of objective.
The curve of the Trajectory is imaginary and not accurate for any
distance._]
=3. Dispersion of Individual Fire.=--It is clear, therefore, that
the dispersion of individual fire explained in para. I will of
itself, apart from the various factors mentioned in Sec. II, militate
against the assurance of fire effect by individual fire at longer
ranges, because the dispersion of fire will become greater as the
target decreases in size, owing to distance, and the shot group will
consequently be spread over a much larger surface than that of a
long-range service target, even if stationary and visible to the naked
eye.
=4. Dispersion of Collective Fire.=--When a body of soldiers fires
with the same elevation at the same object, the dispersion of shots
is accentuated by the varying skill and eyesight of the men, with the
result that the cone formed will be of larger dimensions than in the
case of individual fire. The dimensions of the cone of fire will again
be further increased if the firers are from any cause, such as fatigue
or excitement, unsteady; if the rifles are in bad condition or the
target indistinctly seen--factors which are all incidental to firing
under the conditions of active service.
=5. The Beaten Zone.=--(i) The area of ground beaten by a cone of fire
is termed the “beaten zone.” It is regarded as a plane surface. Fig. 6
illustrates this zone together with the additional space which would
have to be taken into account in reckoning the dangerous space of the
cone of fire in consequence of the height of the objective.
(ii) =Depth of Beaten Zone.=--The depth of the beaten zone at short
ranges need not be considered on account of the flatness of the
trajectory, which insures that practically its whole extent from the
firers to the target is swept by bullets. The depth of the beaten
zone at various ranges with the Mark VI and Mark VII ammunition is as
follows:
+-------------+-----------------------+
| Distance. | Depth of Beaten Zone. |
| +-----------+-----------+
| | Mark VI. | Mark VII. |
+-------------+-----------+-----------+
| 500 yards | 220 yards | 300 yards |
| 1,000 ” | 120 ” | 180 ” |
| 1,500 ” | 100 ” | 120 ” |
+-------------+-----------+-----------+
(iii) It will be seen that up to 1,500 yards--when the ground is
parallel to the line of sight--the depth of the beaten zone decreases
with the range, on account of the increased angle of descent of the
bullets. This shrinkage of the beaten zone does not of itself increase
fire effect by the closer grouping of bullets, owing to the increased
steepness of the angle of descent, which decreases dangerous space.
(iv) Beyond 1,500 yards it will be found that the depth of the beaten
zone tends to increase in consequence of the influence of atmospheric
conditions on the flight of the bullet, the increased effects of errors
in aiming, and faults in the rifle and ammunition--all of which combine
to increase the dispersion of fire. This increased dispersion does not
of itself increase fire effect owing again to the greatly increased
steepness of the angle of descent at longer ranges, which results in a
correspondingly great decrease in dangerous space.
(v) =Lateral Dispersion.=--On the other hand, owing to faults in
aiming, comparative invisibility of the target, inaccuracies in
the rifle and ammunition, and atmospheric influences, the _lateral
dispersion_ of a cone of fire _increases as the range becomes greater_.
With Mark VI ammunition, the dispersion of the best 75 per cent. of
shots fired may be taken as 7 feet by 220 yards at 500 yards, 14 feet
by 120 yards at 1,000 yards, and 22 feet by 100 yards at 1,500 yards.
=6. Nucleus of Cone of Fire.=--It is found that the bullets in a cone
of fire _are not dispersed evenly over the surface of the beaten zone_.
It is found that they are grouped in such a way _that the majority of
the bullets fall in the general direction of the line of fire, that the
density of the grouping decreases progressively from the centre to the
extreme limits of the beaten zone, and that the bullets are collected
most thickly near the point for which the sights were set_. This dense
grouping is usually termed the nucleus of the cone of fire, and is
regarded for purposes of comparison as including the best 50 shots per
cent.
=7. Zone of Effective Fire.=--The area of ground beaten by the best 75
shots per cent. fired is termed the zone of effective fire, for it has
been found by experiment that _useful results in battle can only be
looked for when the target is within these limits_.
Section =13=.--Searching.
=1. Definition of Searching.=--Searching is the term applied to
collective fire when the depth of its dispersion over a beaten zone is
increased by the use of combined sights as described in para. 4 of this
section.
=2. When Collective Fire is Effective.=--As already stated, collective
fire will not as a rule produce results commensurate with the amount
of ammunition expended, or fulfil the purpose for which it is used
unless the target is included within the area beaten by 75 per cent.
of the bullets directed upon it--that is to say, unless it lies in the
zone of effective fire (Fig. 7, C). [Illustration:
A B C D
Nucleus Error Target
on exceeding half included Combined
Target depth of in Sights
Effective Zone Effective Zone
=Fig. 7.= DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING THE DISPERSION IN DEPTH OF
CONCENTRATED COLLECTIVE FIRE AT 1,500 YARDS AND ITS DISTRIBUTION
IN DEPTH BY THE USE OF COMBINED SIGHTS.]
=3. When Collective Fire is not Effective.=--If an error in sighting is
made which would result in the nucleus of the cone of fire striking at
a distance short of or beyond the target which is equal to _half the
depth measurement of the zone of effective fire_, the target will not
be included in this zone, and the _fire will be ineffective_ (Fig. 7,
B).
=4. When combined Sights are to be Used.=--(i) Under service
conditions it may be assumed that _even if the range is measured with
the range-finder, the probability of error in ranging and judging
atmospheric influences, known as the error of the day, is such that,
at distances beyond 1,000 yards, collective fire concentrated on any
target with one sighting will probably be ineffective_.
(ii) To give a satisfactory degree of assurance of fire effect, it
is advisable in such cases, _unless sighting can be corrected by
observation of results_, to distribute fire in depth by using two
elevations differing by 100 yards. One of these elevations would be 50
yards _over_ and the other 50 yards _under_ the sighting believed to be
correct.
(iii) There will thus be two cones of fire and two beaten zones
overlapping between the nucleus of each cone of fire, and an even
distribution of fire will be obtained over a zone about 150 yards deep
(Fig. 7, D). Thus, if one sighting had been used, as shown in Fig. 7,
B, the fire would have been ineffective, though the grouping of bullets
in the zone of effective fire would have been more dense, because the
error in sighting would have had the result described in para. 3 above.
By using combined sights fire becomes effective, because though the
grouping of bullets is less dense fire is _distributed in depth_ so as
to avoid the result described in para. 3.
(iv) _Ordinarily fire should be closely concentrated with a view to
observation of results, but if observation has failed, or if the
situation calls for immediate application of effective fire, combined
sights should be used at ranges beyond 1,000 yards._ Combined sights
may sometimes be used to increase assurance of effect when the enemy’s
position is ill-defined, but should never be used if observation of
results can be obtained. _Combined sights should not be employed by
bodies of less than two platoons._
Section =14=.--The Relation of Ground to Fire Effect.
=1.= So important is the influence exercised on fire effect by the
shape of the ground in relation to the grouping of bullets, that
it is essential for all officers and non-commissioned officers to
understand thoroughly how the probability of fire effect is increased
or diminished by the inclination of ground with reference to the
trajectory.
=2.= In attack, such knowledge will assist them in _adopting formations
and directing the fire of their men to the best advantage_. In defence,
it will aid them _to select the best positions for fire action_, and
will enable them to take steps to minimize the inherent disadvantages
of these positions. In the following examples only _plane surfaces,
without undulations or accidents, are considered_.
=3. Level Ground.=--As already stated, on level ground the zone beaten
by collective rifle fire varies considerably with the range. The extent
of this zone is further influenced by the _inclination of the ground to
the line of sight_.
=4. Rising Ground.=--(i) The more steeply the ground rises with
reference to the line of sight, the greater will be the decrease in
the extent of the beaten zone. For example, when firing with Mark VI
ammunition at ground rising 2, 5, and 10 degrees, the depth of the
beaten zone at 1,500 yards range is decreased roughly by quarter, half,
and two-thirds respectively (Fig. 8). Since the grouping of the
bullets becomes closer as the upward slope of the ground increases,
the effect of errors in estimation of range will be more serious, and
as the bullets will fall at a steep angle the dangerous space will be
proportionately reduced.
[Illustration:
_The Beaten zone is greatest on slope A-D, the Trajectory being
practically parallel to the surface of the ground._
=Fig. 8.= THE RELATION OF GROUND TO FIRE EFFECT.]
[Illustration: =Fig. 9.= THE RELATION OF GROUND TO FIRE EFFECT.]
(ii) =Formations, Supports, and Reserves.=--As a general rule,
therefore, on ground which rises with reference to the line of sight,
_troops should be drawn up in shallow formations, but supports and
reserves may be nearer the firing-line than is normally advisable_.
=5. Falling Ground.=--(i) When the ground beaten by bullets falls
in respect of the line of sight, _the depth of the beaten zone is
augmented in proportion as the downward slope increases, until it
reaches its greatest magnitude when the angle of the fall of the
bullets is the same as the slope of the ground_; or, in other words,
when the trajectory is practically parallel to the ground surface
(Fig. 8, Depth of Zone, A--D). In these circumstances the fire becomes
_grazing_ (Fig. 9), _and the extent of the dangerous space is nearly
identical with the beaten zone_.
(ii) _At close ranges_, therefore, where the trajectories are flat, the
depth of the beaten zone will be much increased if the ground behind
the target _falls at a gentle slope_ (Fig. 9, A). _At long ranges_, on
the other hand, a greater area will be beaten when ground falls more
steeply (Fig. 9, C).
(iii) For example, at 1,500 yards range the depth of the beaten zone
is roughly increased by three-fifths when the bullets strike ground
falling at 2 degrees. On ground falling at 5 degrees, which is nearly
parallel to the trajectory at this range, the depth beaten is about ten
times greater than on level ground.
(iv) It is clear, therefore, that falling ground _far behind the
objective will at times be swept by unaimed fire_, and it follows that
in such circumstances supports should either be under cover or, if
there is no cover, in shallow columns on narrow frontages with the
object of reducing target surface as much as possible.
=6. Crest Line.=--(i) When the objective is a crest line the depth of
the beaten zone is greatest, and part of the fire is grazing, when the
ground beyond the crest is parallel, or nearly so, to the trajectory
of the bullets (Fig. 9, A and B). At close ranges, in this case, there
will be behind the crest-line a _defiladed zone, or space not swept by
fire_ (Fig. 9, C), greater or less according to the distance from which
fire is delivered, the inclination of the line of sight, the extent of
the hill top, and the inclination of the reverse slope.
(ii) =Position of Supports and Reserve.=--It appears, therefore, _that
when the firing-line is placed on the crest of a razor-backed hill_,
with steep reverse slopes (Fig. 9, C), supports and reserves will at
all ranges be but little exposed to unaimed fire when posted in its
vicinity. In other cases, when the crest of a hill is occupied, the
vulnerability of supports and reserves will be least if, when the enemy
is at long range, they are withdrawn from, and as he approached closed
on, the firing-line (Fig. 9, C).
=7. Dead Ground= (Fig. 10).--Dead ground is ground on which, owing to
its conformation or to the existence of natural or artificial cover,
fire cannot be brought to bear from a given locality. The term is thus
a relative one, for though an area of ground may be dead in relation
to one locality it may be possible to bring fire to bear upon it from
another locality, in relation to which it will not therefore be dead.
[Illustration: =Fig. 10.=--DEAD GROUND.]
CHAPTER III
INSTRUCTION IN AIMING
Section =15=.--General Remarks.
=1. Principles of Instruction.=--The instruction of recruits in
aiming and firing should be carried out on a systematic method. The
progression of training must in every case lead by gradual steps
from simple to more difficult stages. Instructors must necessarily
teach by explanation to some extent, but they must limit explanation
to short and very clear statements, and rely chiefly upon practical
demonstration for training their men. With regard to results they
must aim at insuring _accuracy_ in every stage of training before
they permit men to attempt _rapidity_. Any sacrifice of accuracy for
rapidity must be guarded against carefully and corrected at once. Short
daily lectures, followed by questions to test the knowledge of men,
should form part of the scheme of instruction.
=2. Progression of Instruction in Aiming and Firing.=--The progressive
stages of instruction in aiming and firing are set out in a definite
order in this and the following chapter which deal respectively with
these subjects. Instructors, however, are not bound to follow this
order, and may modify it at their discretion.
=3. Concurrent Instruction in Aiming and Firing.=--Aiming instruction
should proceed simultaneously with firing instruction and muscle
exercises to develop speed and facility in handling the rifle and
steadiness in firing it. The following scheme of concurrent instruction
in aiming and firing is suggested for the guidance of instructors, who
may modify it at their discretion:
AIMING FIRING
A. A.
1. Aiming at bull’s-eye target 1. Correct position for firing
with the foresight and standing.
backsight.
2. Explanation of trajectory 2. Practice in loading
and and the need for elevation by unloading in standing position.
sighting.
3. Laying an aim with Legret 3. Adjustment of sights and
Aim-Teacher.[8] standard tests of same.
4. Rules of aiming. 4. Trigger-pressing and
adjustment of sights with
rifle rested.
5. Common faults in aiming
and their results.
6. Aiming at bull’s-eye target
from a rest.
7. Test of aim by triangle of
error.
8. Aiming at figure targets
and at ground.
B. B.
9. Aiming practice (_a_) at 5. Practice in assuming the
bull’s-eye and (_b_) figure targets different firing positions with
with (i) rifle rested, (ii) rifle standard tests of same.
unsupported.[9]
10. Test of aim by aiming-disc. 6. Practice in combining
aiming with trigger-pressing.
11. Aiming and trigger-pressing 7. Practice in muscle exercises
combined, practised with in the standing and lying
eye-disc or aim-corrector. firing positions.
12. Practice in firing at
bull’s-eye target on miniature
range and 30-yards range.
C. C.
13. Explain influence of side 8. Practice kneeling and
wind. sitting firing positions, and
taking cover in these positions.
14. Explain aiming-off for
wind, and wind table for 500
yards. Apply tests in aiming-off
for wind.
15. Explain aiming-off for
movement. Practise same on
miniature range and check
with aim-corrector.
D. D.
16. When accuracy in deliberate 9. Practise firing over and
firing at elementary and round cover in various firing
service targets is assured, explain positions at elementary and
the nature and practical service targets.
value in warfare of snapshooting
and rapid firing.
17. Practise gradually quickening
the aim with aiming-disc,
and on miniature and 30-yard
ranges. Apply grouping and
application tests.
E.
18. When the recruit has shown proficiency in grouping, deliberate
firing, and snapshooting, on the miniature, 30-yard, and open range,
explain and practise adjusting long-range sights.
19. Practise aiming from a rest at figure targets and ground.
20. Practise snapshooting and rapid fire at figure targets and ground
on miniature, 30-yard, and open range.
21. Practise aiming-off for movement at figure targets on miniature
range.
_Note._--(1) Ample time should be devoted to trigger-pressing and
declaring the point of aim on discharge. This instruction may
conveniently be given indoors.
(2) The aiming position should not be taught until aiming has been
taught.
(3) Aiming and trigger-pressing should not be combined until
trigger-pressing has been taught.
(4) The test for trigger-pressing should not be applied until after the
lying position has been taught.
(5) The miniature range may be used when assurance of reasonable
proficiency has been ascertained by means of the aiming discs.
(6) The 30-yards range with service ammunition may be used when the
results on the miniature range are satisfactory.
(7) Grouping on the open range may be commenced when the recruit is
able to make good groups on the 30-yards range.
=4. Selecting Rifles for Recruits.=--(i) Before the instruction of
recruits in aiming and firing commences they must be fitted with
rifles having long, normal, or short butts, according to the build and
preference of the men. The choice should be made after tests carried
out in the standing and lying positions, and should be based on the
readiness with which the firer brings his rifle up to the firing
position, and aligns his sights without letting his nose and mouth come
into close proximity to the thumb and fingers of the right hand.
(ii) The principal consideration is _the distance of the nose from the
shoulder_, and it is as a rule the broad-shouldered and long-necked men
that require the long butts. A bad trigger release, due to incorrect
holding of the small of the butt, will often result from the use of
too short a butt. _The butt selected should be the shortest which can
be used comfortably when firing, both standing and lying down, in the
correct positions._ These rules for fitting rifles of course apply also
to non-commissioned officers.
=5. Sights.=--Special care must be taken that _the sights of any
rifle used in aiming instruction are in perfect order_. Instructors
must inspect the sights frequently to insure that they are _correctly
adjusted_ in accordance with his orders.
=6. Appliances for Aiming and Firing Instruction.=--(i) The following
appliances will be needed by instructors:
(_a_) Diagrams showing position of sights correctly and
incorrectly aligned.
(_b_) The Legret aim-teacher.
(_c_) Aim-corrector.
(_d_) Aiming-disc.
(_e_) Aiming-rest.
(_f_) Firing-rest.
(_g_) Charger and dummy cartridges.
(_h_) Measuring rings [see Sec. 49, para. 6 (xi)].
=Note.=--_The method of using the aim-teacher, aim-corrector, and
aiming disc, and grouping gauges is described in the Appendix. Aiming-
and firing-rests are described in “Musketry Regulations,” Part II._
(ii) =Aiming Marks.=--(i) The aiming marks to be used in aiming
instruction will consist of elementary bull’s-eye targets for the early
stage of instruction, and of a variety of figure targets similar to
those used for firing practices for later stages.
(ii) When the habit of accuracy has been acquired in aiming at
elementary targets, service targets will only be used and care will be
taken that there is no falling off in accuracy owing to the shape and
comparative invisibility of these targets. A list of figures for use on
miniature ranges will be found in the Appendix, VII, para. 5.
Section =16=.--Aiming Instruction.
=1. Rules for Aiming.=--The instructor will explain the following
rules, and demonstrate the results to be anticipated from common errors
in aiming:
(i) The backsight must be kept upright.
(ii) The left or right eye, according to the shoulder from which the
man shoots, must be closed.[10]
(iii) Aim must be taken by aligning the sights on the centre of the
lowest part of the mark, the top of the foresight being in the centre
of, and in line with, the shoulders of the =U= or =V= of the backsight
(Fig. 11).
[Illustration: =Fig. 11.=--DIAGRAMS SHOWING CORRECT AND INCORRECT
ALIGNMENT OF SIGHTS.]
_Note._--The low point of aim is essential in firing at service
targets, as it facilitates a clear view of marks which are usually
difficult to discern, and also because service targets are frequently
in movement towards the firer, thus necessitating aiming down to alter
elevation owing to their decreasing distance.
=2. Method of Instruction.=--(i) When these principles have been
mastered, the instructor will loosen the sling of the rifle, adjust the
sights for any given range, and aim from a rest at the target, taking
care that _his eye is immediately above the butt-plate_. It will be
convenient to use a sandbag aiming-rest to steady the head during the
aiming.
(ii) Having aimed, he will make each recruit observe the correct method
of aligning the sights on a mark. Each recruit in turn will then be
made to align the sights on a mark, after which the instructor will
verify his aim, point out errors, and explain how they would have
affected the accuracy of the shot, and how they are to be avoided. For
example, Fig. 11 shows incorrect sighting, the rifle being inclined
to the right, aimed to the right, and aimed too low, the top of the
foresight being well below and to one side of, instead of in the centre
of and in line with, the shoulders of the =U= of the backsight. The
obvious result of these errors would be to fire low to the right of the
mark.
[Illustration: =Fig. 12.=--LONG-RANGE SIGHTS.]
(iii) The instructor should also make recruits verify their comrades’
aim under his supervision as above described, and point out any errors
which may have been made. _Extreme accuracy of aim must be insisted on
even during the first lesson._
(iv) =Long-Range Sights.=--In aiming with the long-range sights a
similar procedure to that which is described above will be pursued, but
the eye will be placed _about 1 inch behind the small of the butt_, and
the top of the head of the dial sight will be seen in the centre of the
aperture (Fig. 12). _Unless special care is taken, lateral error will
be made in centring the head of the dial sight._
Section =17=.--Common Faults in Aiming.
=1. Taking too much or too little Foresight into the U or V of the
Backsight.=--(i) It should be explained that a fine or half sight will
cause the bullet to strike with Mark VI ammunition about 5 inches and
3 inches lower respectively, and with Mark VII 7 inches and 4 inches
lower respectively per 100 yards of range, than when the correct sight
is taken.
(ii) The following method will be found useful to guide the soldier
in taking the correct amount of foresight: Lay the edge of a piece
of paper on the upper edge of the backsight cap, when the sight will
appear as shown in one of the subjoined diagrams. A piece of cardboard
laid on the cap and held in place by an elastic band will answer the
same purpose.
[Illustration:
Incorrect: Incorrect: Correct
Too much Too little
foresight. foresight.
=Fig. 13.=--FAULTS IN AIMING.]
=2. Inaccurate Centring of the Foresight in the Notch of the
Backsight.=--The soldier should understand that this inaccuracy will
deflect the muzzle of the rifle to the side on which the line of aim is
taken. For example, if aim be taken over the right edge of the notch
the direction of the line of fire will be to the right of the line of
sight.
=3. Inclining the Backsight to one Side.=--In this case the bullet will
strike low and to the side towards which the sights are inclined. The
resulting error will be considerable at long ranges.
=4. Fixing the Eyes on the Foresight and not on the Object.=--(i) If
the eye is focussed on the foresight, the firer _will retain only
a blurred image of the target_. This may not affect the result of
his shooting at the distinct stationary bull’s-eye target, but when
firing at troops in neutral-tinted uniforms, whether stationary or in
movement, or at natural features of ground, _it is essential for fire
effect that the eye should be focussed not on the foresight, but on the
target, which must be watched closely while firing_.[11]
(ii) Unless service targets are closely watched while aiming, the firer
will be apt to lose them altogether, or see them as a blurred image
at the moment of firing, with consequent loss of fire effect. For
this reason it is of great importance that recruits should, from the
earliest stage of their training, be taught to aim at service targets
_with the eye focussed on the target_, and not on the foresight.
If early stages of instruction were confined to the aiming at the
bull’s-eye target, the fault of focussing the eye on the foresight
in aiming might be contracted owing to the distinct nature of this
mark, which makes it possible to aim at it with the eye fixed on the
foresight. (See Appendix, VII., para. 2.)
Section =18=.--Triangle of Error.
=1.= The following method of recording a triangle of error will be
employed to test proficiency in aiming, and to demonstrate the errors
which will arise from inaccuracies.
=2.= The rifle will be placed on an aiming-rest, and pointed at a sheet
of blank white paper, fixed to any convenient object at a distance of
about 10 yards from the muzzle. A second aiming-rest should be used to
steady the head in aiming.
=3.= A marker will hold an aiming-disc flat on the paper, the front
facing the instructor. The instructor will align the sights on it
correctly, and its position on the paper will then be marked by a dot
made with a pencil passed through the hole in its centre.
=4.= Each man in succession will then be called up and ordered to look
along the sights, but without touching the rifle, and when he has
satisfied himself as to the correctness of the aim, the disc will be
removed. It will then be replaced on the paper as before, and moved at
his direction until the lower edge of the bull’s-eye is brought into
the line of sight, when its position will be marked as before. This
operation will be repeated three times in the case of each man, and the
points thus fixed will be joined in such a way as to form a triangle.
[Illustration: B. _Horizontal_
A. _Vertical_
=Fig. 14.=--TRIANGLE OF ERROR]
=5.= The position of these points in relation to the _instructor’s aim_
will expose any constant error in aiming. If the recruit’s aim is below
that of the instructor, it shows that he has taken too full a sight; if
above, that his sighting has been too fine; if to the right, that the
foresight was on the left of a perpendicular drawn through the centre
of the notch; if to the left, _vice versa_.
=6.= The position of the points in regard _to one another_ will show
_inconsistency_. If the triangle is formed so that its greatest side
lies vertically on the paper, it proves that the soldier’s principal
fault is inconsistency in respect of _the amount of foresight taken
up into the line of sight_ (Fig. 14, A); if the greatest side of
the triangle lies horizontally it shows that his principal error is
_inaccurate centring of the foresight_ (Fig. 14, B).
=7.= If any one of the sides of the triangle exceeds ⅓ inch from the
instructor’s aim, the recruit will be noted for further instruction.
=8. Aim-Corrector.=--The aim-corrector will also be used to enable the
instructor to supervise the soldier’s methods and test his progress,
the aim being taken from an aiming or firing rest.
Section =19=.--Aiming at Service Targets, Aiming at Ground, and Marking
Down the Enemy.
=1. Aiming at Service Targets.=--From an early stage in his instruction
the soldier’s eye must be trained to discern and aim at service
targets. Elementary instruction may be carried out in barracks, on the
range, on ground in the vicinity of barracks, or on miniature ranges.
Figures should be used representing men in the various firing positions
at different distances in the open, or partly behind cover.
=2. Aiming at Ground.=--(i) Service targets will frequently consist
of ground or cover occupied by the enemy. Fire-unit commanders will
verbally indicate such targets to men, who must be trained to recognize
and fire at them. This training should be carried out concurrently with
instruction in aiming at figures and marking down the enemy--the latter
practices to some extent will also train men to aim at ground.
(ii) Practice in aiming at ground may be carried out on miniature
ranges, as described in Sec. 72, para. 2 (i), as well as in open
country. It must always be carried out under practical conditions, and
will include aiming at various ill-defined targets, such as a spot on
a bare hillside or a stretch of grass-land. Targets will be indicated
verbally by the instructor, and recruits will aim at them with rifles
on aiming-rests. The instructor will then criticize each man’s aim
and correct faults. Practice in aiming at ground will prove a useful
preparation for training in recognition of targets (Sec. 45) and fire
discipline (Sec. 47).
=3. Marking down the Enemy.=--(i) It is of the utmost importance that
soldiers should be trained to mark down the exact position of an enemy
seen to occupy ground or cover. This duty refers equally to individual
enemies at close range and to hostile troops at longer ranges.
Individual soldiers will mark down the enemy within close range, and
fire-unit commanders and observers at longer ranges. If the position
marked down affords concealment from view without protection from fire,
fire may be opened after the range has been ascertained or estimated.
If it affords protection from fire, the range should be ascertained
or estimated, and fire-units or individual men should remain ready to
open fire the instant the enemy exposes himself or resumes movement.
Delay in opening fire in the latter case will lead to the loss of a
favourable opportunity (see Practices, Nos. 3 and 4, pp. 217, 218).
(ii) =Method of Instruction.=--Instruction will best be carried out
on the ground or on the miniature range as described in Chapter X.
When carried out on the ground a fatigue-man will be sent out to the
front, and directed to move from cover to cover to the front of the
class which will be provided with rifles on aiming-rests. At each halt,
when the fatigue-man has taken cover, recruits will note the point on
the ground or cover which conceals him, and take aim at it. After an
arranged interval the fatigue-man will expose himself to view, and
remain stationary while the instructor criticizes each man’s aim and
corrects faults.
Section =20=.--Aiming-Off for Wind.
=1. The Wind-Gauge.=--_The use of the wind-gauge is not the normal
means of making allowance for wind under service conditions._
=2. Judging Strength and Direction of Wind.=--The soldier should be
taught to discriminate between mild, fresh, and strong winds, or winds
blowing ten, twenty, or thirty miles an hour. The strength of the
wind may be judged partly by sensation and partly by its effect on
natural objects, such as clouds, water, trees, crops, hedges, bushes,
undergrowth, dust, and smoke. The soldier may judge the direction of
the wind, as front, rear, side, or oblique, by turning his face fully
towards the wind.
=3. Wind Deflection Table for Side Winds= (=Right-Angle Winds=).--The
following figures give the approximate deflection of the bullet due
to winds of varying direction and velocity at different ranges, and
provide a rough guide for aiming-off for wind which is sufficiently
accurate for practical purposes:
+-------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| | Strength of Wind. |
| +-----------------------------------------------------+
| Range. | Mild. | Fresh. | Strong. |
| | Miles per hour, | Miles per hour, | Miles per hour, |
| | 10. | 20. | 30. |
+ ------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+
| | Deflection. | Deflection. | Deflection. |
| 500 yards | 2 feet | 4 feet | 6 feet |
| 1,000 ” | 3 yards | 6 yards | 9 yards |
| 1,500 ” | 6 ” | 12 ” | 18 ” |
| 2,000 ” | 12 ” | 24 ” | 36 ” |
+-------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+
=Note--Oblique Winds.=--For oblique winds the approximate deflection
at the above ranges may roughly be estimated as _half that of a side
wind of the same velocity_ and allowance in aiming-off may be made
accordingly.
=4. Exercises in Aiming-Off.=--(i) Having memorized the approximate
allowances for side and oblique winds of varying direction and
velocity, as stated in para. 3, the recruit will next be taught to make
allowance in aiming-off for wind at a full-length figure target on the
range, according to the strength and direction of the wind which is
actually blowing, or which may be supposed to be blowing, as given by
the instructor. In carrying out these exercises the recruit should be
taught to aim-off with reference to the breadth of a full-length figure
target, which is rather less than 2 feet wide. Thus the amount of
allowance will be measured as one breadth, two breadths, etc., to right
or left.
=5. Orders for Aiming-Off.=--Finally, the recruit must be exercised in
aiming-off at all ranges according to orders, the amount of allowance
being given as so many times the breadth of the target indicated, or
so many times the width of the intervals between targets consisting
of close formations. The amount of allowance may also be indicated
by the use of auxiliary aiming or description points (Sec. 45), as,
for instance, a tree or bush, the lateral distance of which from the
target equals approximately the required allowance. When none of these
methods of indicating allowances are possible men must be taught to
aim-off so many feet or yards to the right or left of the target, these
measurements being taken as representing the lateral distance between
the sight of the rifle and the target aimed at.
=6. Method of Indicating Errors.=--In aiming-off exercises it is
necessary to employ a fatigue-man at the target to indicate the correct
point of aim with a marking-disc _after_ each aim taken by the recruit,
which to commence with should be done with a rifle on an aiming-rest.
He will carry out the duty according to previous instructions as to
the correct point of aim for each exercise. The amount of allowance
made by the recruit will be observed by the instructor with an
aim-corrector, unless an aiming-rest is used. The recruit will be made
to note his errors, which will be criticized by the instructor.
=7. Instruction on Miniature Ranges.=--Instruction in aiming-off can
be carried out on miniature ranges, as described in Chapter X (see
Practice No. 2, p. 227).
Section =21=.--Aiming Up and Down.
=1. When to Aim Up and Down.=--The rifle will be aimed up or down to
increase or reduce elevation at all ranges when there is no time to
alter sights, as, for example, in firing at targets in movement, in
repulsing a charge at close range, in case of surprise, when very
slight alterations of elevation are seen to be necessary, as the
result of observation of fire, and to avoid frequent small changes of
sighting which lead to loss of fire effect. _Correction of sighting in
individual firing at close range is seldom possible in war. Therefore
aiming up and down is the normal means of altering elevation in firing
at targets within close range._
=2. Rules for Aiming Up and Down.=--There is no fixed rule for aiming
up and down. As a general rule aim should be directed at a point not
more than 3 feet above or below the six o’clock line, according to the
position of the target beyond or short of the zone for which the sights
are set. The degree of allowance in aiming up and down will depend on
the rate and direction of movement and the range of the target, and
will be a matter for individual judgment. _If the difference between
the range and the sighting exceeds 200 yards it will be best to alter
the sighting._
=3. Exercises in Aiming Up and Down.=--To practise aiming up and
down, under conditions approximating to those of service, the
sights should first be fixed for a given range, and then fatigue-men
or standing-figure disappearing targets disposed at various ranges
should be alternately brought into view for short periods of
time, representing troops in movement. Men should be told whether
targets represent retreating or advancing troops, and aim up or
down accordingly. Aim maybe criticized by using aiming-rests or
aim-correctors.
Section =22=.--Aiming-Off for Movement.
=1. Instruction.=--Instruction in aiming at moving targets will be
carried out during the latter portion of preliminary training. It
will consist of practice in shooting at crossing targets on 30 yards
or miniature ranges (see Chapter X). The pace of movement should be
regulated as far as possible in strict accordance with that of service
targets (see Practice No. 2, p. 217).
=2. Crossing Targets.=--This term is applied to targets moving across
the front of the firer, either at right angles from either side, or
obliquely towards or away from him to either side. Such targets are not
as a rule met with in battle except in the case of surprise, ambush,
or a sudden encounter. Crossing targets may be met with by cavalry
and infantry patrols, and by scouts during reconnaissance. _Fire will
rarely be effective at a single man moving across the front at more
than 300 yards range, or at a single horseman beyond 500 yards._
=3. Method of Aiming at Crossing Target.=--(i) When firing at crossing
targets aim will first be taken on the object. Then, following it
sideways, the aim will be carried in advance of the object, and kept in
front of it at the desired distance until the rifle has been fired. The
distance to which aim should be carried in advance of the target will
vary according to the range, rate of movement, direction of movement
and wind. For this reason no fixed rules can be laid down regarding
aiming-off in firing at crossing targets. Fire effect will depend upon
the judgment of individual men and fire-unit commanders, and on the
fruits of practical experience.
=4. Rules for Aiming-Off for Movement=--(i) =Targets crossing Front
at Right-Angles.=--The following general rules will serve as a guide
in firing at crossing targets at close range _moving at right-angles
across the firer’s front_.
(_a_) Up to 500 yards range, aim should be taken--
About 1 foot in front per 100 yards at a single man walking.
About 2 feet in front per 100 yards at a single man doubling.
About 3 feet in front per 100 yards at a single horseman trotting.
About 4 feet in front per 100 yards at a single horseman
galloping.
Thus, at 100 yards a soldier should aim about the breadth of a man in
front of an individual walking, and at 200 yards about a horse-length
in front of a single horseman trotting.
(_b_) Beyond close range aim should be taken _at the head of a body of
troops moving to a flank_.
(ii) =Targets crossing Front Obliquely.=--The general rules regarding
aiming up and down laid down in Sec. 21, para. 2, apply also to
crossing targets moving obliquely towards or away from the firer. _In
firing at such targets, allowance must be made for elevation as well
as for aiming-off._ At short range both allowances will be made by
individual men. At longer ranges men will allow for aiming up and down,
and when necessary fire-unit commanders will allow for aiming-off in
fire orders.
(iii) =Targets moving directly Towards or Away from the Firer.=--In
aiming at an object moving _directly_ towards or away from the
firer, allowance for elevation will usually be made _by aiming up or
down_--not by waiting to alter sights (Sec. 21, paras. 1 and 2).
Section =23=.--Practice in Rapid Adjustment of Sights.[12]
=1.= This instruction should be carried out concurrently with
instruction in loading in the various firing positions. Frequent small
changes of sighting lead as a rule to loss of fire effect, and may be
avoided by aiming up or down. _But when there is time the sights will
be adjusted for every alteration in the range, and aim will be taken
at the lowest part of the mark._ It is essential that men should be
trained to adjust their sights accurately and rapidly, and that this
power should become to all intents and purposes instinctive, so that
this vitally important duty on which fire effect in a large measure
depends will be carried out by the soldier with certainty in moments of
the most extreme stress and excitement.
=2. Training in Rapid Adjustment.=--Instructors will frequently test
their squads in setting their sights rapidly and accurately. They will
give orders for aiming or firing at definite targets, but without
naming the range, and require their squads to adjust their sights
before they bring the rifle to the shoulder, judging the distance
for themselves, which will help to make the careful adjustment of
sights, which is essential for fire effect, habitual to the soldier.
Adjustment of sights will also be practised under the same conditions
in connection with the movement of the firer or the target, represented
by fatigue-men.
=3. Rules for Adjusting Sights.=--(i) =To Adjust the Backsight.=--Hold
the rifle in the loading position (Sec. 27), so that the lines on the
backsight can be seen clearly. Press in the stud (or studs) on the side
of the slide with the left or right hand; move the slide until the
line is even with the place on the leaf giving the elevation for the
distance named, taking care that it is firmly fixed. _Charger-Loading
Lee-Enfield Rifle._--Loosen the clamping screw with the thumb and
forefinger of the right hand, move the slide until the top is even with
the line on the leaf giving the elevation for the distance named, and
then tighten the clamping-screw.
(ii) =To Lower the Backsight.=--Press the stud or studs inwards
with the left or right hand, and draw the slide backwards as far
as possible. _Charger-Loading Lee-Enfield Rifle._--Loosen the
clamping-screw, lower the slide to the bottom of the leaf with the
firefinger and thumb of the right hand, then tighten the clamping-screw.
(iii) =Fine Adjustment of the Backsight.=--(_a_) _S.M.L.E. Rifle, Marks
III and IV._--Press the stud on the slide with the thumb of the left
hand till the worm-wheel can be easily revolved; turn the worm-wheel
with the thumb-nail of the right hand until the required elevation
is obtained. The stud must not be pressed to such an extent that the
worm-wheel is entirely disengaged from the rack.
(_b_) _Other Marks._--Turn the fine adjustment screw with the
forefinger and thumb of the right hand until the line on the leaf is
level with the line on the fine adjustment scale giving the required
elevation.
(iv) =To Adjust the Long-Range Sights.=--Hold the rifle in the loading
position, so that the dial can be seen clearly. Move the pointer to the
place on the dial giving the elevation for the distance named, and then
raise the aperture sight.
CHAPTER IV
ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION IN FIRING
Section =24=.--Hints to Instructors.
=1.= Instructors will teach by force of example rather than by word of
mouth, and be careful to refrain from any form of comment which may
discourage young soldiers. Words of command are seldom required except
in collective firing instruction, all motions of firing being performed
independently, and each man being required to use his own judgment as
much as possible. Faults must not, however, be overlooked or allowed
to become formed habits. _The essential points of the firing positions
are to be insisted upon from the beginning, as the foundation of fire
discipline._
=2.= In the early part of training squads will not as a rule consist
of more than seven men, who will be assembled round the instructor in
a semicircle. The instructor will explain the uses of the different
firing positions and illustrate them to the squad. Recruits will
practise the motions separately until able to combine them, and _assume
each position rapidly and without constraint_.
=3=. The position of each individual will be corrected in turn. The
regulation positions may be varied if physical characteristics render
them unsuitable in any case, but awkwardness in the first stages of
instruction will not be accepted as an indication that the regulation
position requires modification. The instructor should stand about five
paces from the recruit and to his right front while correcting his
faults.