says--"Malaga is also famous for its manufactures of silks of all
colours and patterns, some of which are so rich that a suit made out of
them will cost many thousands; such are the brocades with beautiful
drawings, and the names of khalifs, amirs, and other wealthy people,
woven in them." [Moham. Dynast. Vol. I. 49.] Further on the same writer
adds, "As at Malaga and Almeria, there are at Murcia several
manufactures of silken cloth called _al washiu thalathat_, [variegated,
of many colours.] It is likewise famous for the fabric of carpets called
_tantili_, which are exported to all countries of the east and west; as
also a sort of mat, of the brightest colours, with which the Murcians
cover the walls of their houses." [_ib._ p. 69.]
Arabic texts are frequently met with which allude to the manufactures of
textile fabrics of Granada, Seville, and other towns, in which their
productions are praised, and there is no doubt that they were very
remarkable; for Christian authors of the middle ages refer to them so
continually. Students who wish for a more extensive idea of this subject
must remember the quotations and information given by Francisque Michel
concerning Spanish stuffs, [Recherches sur le Comm., la Fabric. etc.,
des Etoffes, etc. Paris, 1852.] He tells us--"Nous trouverons tout
d'abord les pailles d'Almérie, ville de la côte meridionale d'Espagne,
qui jouissait d'une réputation proverbiale pour la beauté et la finesse
de ses tissus de soie, vantés dans mille endroits de nos vieilles
chansons de geste, de nos anciens poëmes" [Vol. I. p. 284]. Further on
he continues [Vol. I. p. 286], "à l'époque à laquelle appartiennent les
textes, et même auparavant, la culture et la fabrication de la soie
étaient des plus prospères à Almérie et en général dans le royaume de
Grenade. 'Du royaume de Grenade vient cire, soie, figues, etc.' ... ce
qu'il y a de bien certain, c'est que les étoffes d'Espagne étaient
célèbres dès le 9^{e} siècle. Anastase le Bibliothécaire en parle en
quatre endroits sous le nom de _spaniscum_; et en placant ce tissu à la
suite de _fundatum_ et du _stauracin_ il nous donne suffisamment à
entendre qu'il était de grand prix, et de soie comme eux. Un biographe
de Saint Ansegise, mort en 835, placé de même une couverture d'Espagne,
_stragulum_, _Hispanicum unum_, à la suite de tapis ou teintures.
"Il est malaise de déterminer la matière des étoffes qu'un écrivain
byzantin du 12^{e} siècle nous dit fabriquées en Espagne et aux colonnes
d'Hercule--tout nous permet de croire qu'elles étaient de soie de tout
ou en partie, ou du moins qu'elles étaient comptées parmi les tissus
précieux.... Saragosse produisait aussi des draps d'or--et nous trouvons
au 13^{e} siècle que le géographe Edrisi pouvait dire qu'il y avait dans
le seul territoire de Jaen 3000 villages où l'on élevait des vers de
soie. Nous savons qu'à Seville, sous la domination des Maures, elle
comptait 6000 métiers pour ces étoffes de soie. Les règlements
municipaux dont les royaumes de Grenade et de Seville ont été l'objet
suffisaient pour nous apprendre que l'industrie de la soie fut
florissante durant le moyen âge. Nous signalerons les draps d'or et de
soie que D. Pedro de Luna en 1327 apporta à l'infante Léonore, s[oe]ur
d'Alphonse XI., à l'occasion de son mariage, et nous savons qu'un
ministre de Pedro le cruel possédait à Toledo 125 coffres de drap d'or
et de soie."
Edrisi in his "Déscrip. de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne," [Leyde, 1866,]
writing in the 12th century, says p. 239: "Almérie était la ville
principale des Musulmans à l'Espagne des moravides. Elle était alors
très industrieuse, et on y comptait entre autres 800 métiers à tisser la
soie, où l'on fabriquait des étoffes connus sous le nom de _holla_, de
_debady_, de _siglaton_, d'_espahani_, de _djordjani_: des rideaux ornés
de fleurs, des étoffes ornés de clous, de petits tapis, des étoffes
connus sous les noms de _attabi_, de _mi djar_."
To complete this historical information, and especially in order to add
details as to the technical character of this manufacture, the Rev.
Daniel Rock's interesting introduction to "Textile Fabrics, a
Descriptive Catalogue, London, 1870," must be consulted; although,
notwithstanding the learned author's remarks, it is extremely difficult,
in my opinion, to classify textile fabrics proceeding from Syria,
Sicily, or the Spanish Arabs, as all, whether imitations or originals,
are similar in manufacture.
M. Michel and Dr. Rock enter into numerous details concerning the
ancient names of stuffs, and in order further to illustrate this subject
I venture to propose a different etymology than the one given by these
writers of the word Samit, Samitum, or Xamet, which, although slightly
different in orthography, is met with everywhere in Europe. My opinion
is that it means stuff made at Damascus, for the word Sham
[Illustration: Arabic writing] is applied to the name of this town as
well as to that of Syria, and the appellative Shami and Shamit
[Illustration: Arabic writing] appears in the lexicon to express what
comes from Damascus or Syria.
The oldest specimen which I know of Spanish Arab textile fabric, is a
woollen fragment of very fine quality embroidered in colours, which is
at the Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid. It is about 1-1/2 yards
long, by 18 inches wide. In medallions embroidered in silks are
represented seated figures which appear to be a king, a lady, lions,
birds, and quadrupeds. In two borders occurs the following inscription,
repeated in cufic characters: "In the name of God, clement and merciful:
The blessing of God and happiness for the caliph Iman Abdallah Hixem,
favoured of God, prince of believers."
[Illustration: Arabic]
Hixem reigned from A.D. 979 until the first years of the 11th century.
This fragment was found inside a small casket on the altar of a church
in the town of San Esteban de Gormaz, province of Soria, where it was
probably taken as a war trophy: it may be classified as a stuff called
_tiraz_ [Illustration: Arabic], the skirt of a robe. An oriental author
tells us that among the customs which contribute to give splendour to
sovereignty is that of putting the name, or some other sign belonging to
kings on the stuffs of their robes; that these inscriptions are woven
into the material with gold or coloured thread of a different hue to the
ground, and that royal robes were always made of _tiraz._ The caliphs of
Cordova had a place set apart in their palaces where this stuff was
kept: this custom lasted until the 11th century when it disappeared, and
was re-established in the 13th century with the kings of Granada. (Moh.
Dyn. vol. i., pp. 356 and 397; Mus. Esp. de Ant. vol. vi. pp. 464 and
465.)
Another most important object, although less ancient than the former
one, is an Arabian banner which is traditionally believed to have been
taken from the Almohades at the battle of Las Navas, A.D. 1212. This
banner, which is preserved at the monastery of Las Huelgas of Burgos, is
ten feet high by seven feet three inches wide. It is made of a crimson
stuff, covered with an ornamentation woven and embroidered in gold and
colours. In the centre is a large circle, placed within a square, which
is enlarged in parallel bands. The four largest bands, which are also
the last, are covered with inscriptions in blue African characters. The
upper part of this banner is prolonged with several bands, one of which
has inscriptions of a similar kind to those already mentioned; other
borders contain several sentences in small African letters. The lower
part is also prolonged and is terminated by eight points cut in a
semicircle, inside which there are discs with illegible inscriptions.
Three violet coloured lions, similar in form to those which appear on
the arms of Leon, may be seen on three of the sides of the square. In
the large circle in the centre of this banner, appears eight times
repeated the word "The Empire," [Illustration: Arabic]. This inscription
is embroidered or woven in Cufic characters, in a similar style to those
at the Alhambra; it is a strange circumstance that the letters appear on
the wrong side, as if this was the back of the stuff; the word which
seems to be required to complete this sentence, "God," is also wanting.
The large inscriptions in blue of the five bands reproduce Suras of the
Koran, and pious sentences in one of the small ones on the upper part.
S^{r.} Fernandez, who has published an article on this banner in Mus.
Esp. [vol. vi., p. 469], thinks he finds a date which corresponds with
the year A.D. 1140. I am not, however, satisfied with his interpretation
of the inscription contained in the large centre circle, or the date he
gives; for comparing the ornamentation of this specimen with other
textiles, and the designs used in Moorish architecture, it appears to me
that it must be considered as belonging to the 14th century. This may be
easily accounted for by some historical mistake in the tradition
respecting it at the convent of Las Huelgas. It is highly probable that
King Alfonso XI. may have given this banner to the convent, and have
been mistaken for King Alfonso VIII.; the conqueror of the battle of Las
Navas.
The specimens of Spanish moresco stuffs in the Kensington Museum, will
be found numbered 51, 121, 124, 125, 152, 160, 180, 241, 244. (V. Dr.
Rock's Catalogue.)
The artistic industry of silk manufactures which was initiated in Spain
by the Arabs, continued to flourish during the Middle Ages and a great
part of the Renaissance. Malaga and Almeria were important centres, but
later on this industry was chiefly centred at Granada. The silk fabrics
made at Seville, Toledo, Murcia and Valencia were much esteemed. The
Moorish style of ornamentation in embroideries and stuffs must soon have
fallen into disuse. Owing to the materials of similar kinds imported
from Italy, France, Flanders, and other countries, these manufactures
were imitated to a great extent, as may be gathered by the immense
number of specimens which are still to be met with in Spanish churches.
The cathedral of Toledo is quite a museum of objects of this kind, but
all the textiles there are woven in the European manner.
The Moorish style in stuffs was preserved at Granada longer than in any
other town in Spain. In 1502, ten years after its conquest by the
Christians, we find it stated in the "Voyage of Philip le Beau," the
father of the Emperor Charles V.: "Grenade est fort marchande,
principallement de soyes, car les marchans y achattent la pluspart des
soyes que l'on maine en Italie, pour faires les draps de soyes. Le lieu
où on les vendt est nommé le Sacquatin. Auprès de ce lieu est une place
appellée l'Allecasserie, où on vendt les draps de soyes ouvrés à la
Moresque, qui sont moult beaus pour la multitude des couleurs et la
diversité des ouvrages, et en font une grande marchandise." ["Collect.
de Voyages, par M. Gachard, Bruxelles," 1870, i. 205.] Navagiero, who
visited Spain twenty years after, tells us in his "Viaggio fatto in
Spagna" [Vinegia 1563, p. 21]: "One enters a place called Alcaiceria
which is enclosed within two doors, and full of alleys where the Moors
sell silks and embroideries of every kind" [p. 29]: "All sorts of cloths
of silks are made there; the silks made at Granada are much esteemed all
over Spain; they are not so good as those which come from Italy. There
are several looms, but they do not yet know how to work them well; they
make good taffetas, sarcenet, and silk serges. The velvets are not bad,
but those that are made at Valencia are better in quality."
Dr. Rock considers the following specimens in the Kensington Museum to
have been made at Granada: Nos. 26, 27, 60, 65, 73, 128, 161, 166.
Larruga tells us in his "Memorias" [vol. vii. 205], that the silk
manufactures established at Toledo consumed in 1480 about 450,000 pounds
of silk: they decreased about forty years afterwards. In the ordinances
issued from that town in 1494, which were confirmed by the Emperor
Charles V. we find that the following stuffs were made at Toledo:
"Stuffs of gold and silver which are made in the same manner as satin.
"Satins woven with gold.
"Satins brocaded with silk and gold or silver flowers.
"Silver serges with double filigree.
"Silver and gold materials, which are made like _gorgoran_ or serge.
"Silver and gold stuffs which are made like taffetas, spring silver with
silk flowers.
"Embroidered stuffs.
"Embroidered stuffs called silver serge, or _berguilla_.
"_Lama_, cloth of silver, shaded with silver watering.
"Plain silk stuffs woven with silver or gold called _restaño_.
"Silk stuffs woven with gold or silver called _relampagos_.
"Serges woven with gold and silver for church vestments.
"Plain filigree serges.
"_Velillo_ of silver.
"Satin woven with gold and silver.
"Brocades of different kinds.
"Church vestments.
"Silver _primaveras_.
"Serges for church vestments."
("Ord. Ant. de Toledo," Tol. 1858, p. 223).
Until the middle of the 17th century, Larruga tells us in vol. vii. p.
208 of his "Memorias," the silk manufacture of Toledo was one of those
most highly esteemed in Spain; from this time it was superseded by the
manufactures of Seville, Granada, Valencia, and others. These cheapened
their productions; but Toledo insisted on keeping to the old Spanish
yard and weight in every kind of stuffs. In 1651 fifty looms belonged to
this manufacture, although most of them were established in the suburbs.
In this year there was a great decrease in the price of the coin, and
the Genoese introduced a large quantity of silk stuffs, so much so that
only twenty looms could be kept working at Toledo. After this, in 1663,
2061 looms existed there.
The silk manufacture of Toledo continued to lose its importance in
consequence of the vast importations of foreign silks, but the
traditions of this industry have never disappeared from the city.
Larruga, who enters into this subject at great length in the seventh and
eighth volumes of his "Memorias," mentions the silk manufacture of D^{n}.
Miguel Gregorio Molero, "who made from the year 1714, under his
direction and that of Christoval de Morales, his father-in-law, a large
quantity of silk fabrics of wide and narrow materials of every kind, and
stuffs woven with silver and gold." It is an interesting fact that the
manufactory of Molero continues to work in the present day, and gold and
silver stuffs are made there for ecclesiastical purposes similar in
design and manufacture to the early established one of 1714; specimens
exist at the South Kensington Museum of the silks made at Toledo by
Molero.
Towards the middle of the 18th century the most important centre of
artistic silks existed at Talavera, where it was established on a very
large scale by King Fernando VI. and supported by the state. It was
founded in 1748 under the superintendence of a Frenchman called Jean
Roulière, who was educated at Lyon, a great mechanician, who entered the
manufactory with a yearly salary of £450, and 4 per cent. of the sale.
Fine church vestments were made there, and the richest stuffs woven
with silver and gold for decorating apartments and furniture, of which a
vast quantity remain in the palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, the Escorial
and La Granja. In 1762 the Spanish government handed over this
manufactory to the firm of Uztariz and Company; it remained in their
hands until 1780, and at this period it continued to be worked for five
years by the state; in 1785 it passed to the superintendence of the
Tribunal of Commerce entitled Cinco Gremios Mayores de Madrid. The
French invasion of 1808 and general decay of the country contributed
towards the extinction of this industry.
In a similar manner to the silk manufactures established at Toledo,
silks of all kinds were made at Seville, Granada, Murcia, and other
provinces, to a very great extent during the 16th and 17th centuries.
This industry continues in the present day, and specimens exist at the
South Kensington Museum, made in 1874, which recall the ancient style of
these stuffs.
EMBROIDERIES.
It is probable that the history of embroidery in Spain followed the same
steps as that of gold and silver stuffs, owing to the great similarity
which exists between these industries, as may be seen by the banner
called de las Navas, which is composed of both these materials.
Ornamentation in the Oriental style must have fallen sooner into disuse
than in woven fabrics owing to the fashion of introducing figures in
ecclesiastical vestments, which much before the Renaissance period
became so general in Europe. The first mention which I find of the
existence of this artistic industry appears in the Ordenanzas de
Sevilla, 1433; it refers to regulating this industry, and preventing
certain frauds, by which we may infer its existence from an earlier
period. Similar dispositions appear in one of the Ordinances of Toledo,
dated 1496, and as sumptuary laws were continually issued we have
constant references to the existence of this industry: [consult
"Sempere, Hist. del Lujo," vol. ii. 8vo]. These legal prohibitions did
not, however, reach church vestments; after the aggrandizement of the
monarchy by the conquest of the New World such enormous sums were spent
on these objects, that notwithstanding the ravages of time, wars,
disturbances of all kinds, and vandalisms and neglect, the cathedrals of
Toledo and Seville, and many other churches, are museums of this style
of art.
The art of embroidery was imported by Italians and Germans early in the
16th century, in the same manner as wood carving, metal work, and other
industries. The comparative study of embroideries of different kinds
which are preserved in churches and museums in other countries confirms
this theory; some have been made in the north and others in the south,
while their historical origin may be traced to Italy. In Spain itself
this comparison may be made, and the Germanic influence is most
apparent. At the cathedral of Burgos there is a fine series of
ecclesiastical vestments which Bishop Alonso de Cartagena gave to the
cathedral on his return from the council of Bâle, 1431-43. Another
series of most important specimens is at Toledo, a present to Cardinal
Mendoza by the German emperor Frederic in 1489. In both these instances
we find that the embroidery is identical with what was made in Spain at
this period, until they changed the Gothic for the Italian Renaissance
style.
I must mention two splendid altar frontals of foreign workmanship which
exist in Spain, one of them is at the chapel of the Disputation of
Barcelona; it represents St. George slaying the dragon. This embroidery
is in high relief, and is so perfect in every detail that it appears to
be chiselled. Another altar frontal of the same style is at the
Colegiata of Manresa, Cataluña; on this one the Crucifixion is
represented, with eighteen other subjects, taken from the Old and New
Testaments. This frontal is signed--_Geri Lapi Rachamatore Me fecit in
Florentia._
Almost all Spanish towns of importance are distinguished for their
embroidery, Toledo, Seville and Valencia are especially so; Ciudad
Rodrigo figures as an important centre of this industry during the 16th
century. We find the sentence, "obra de Ciudad Rodrigo" applied to
embroidery of gold thread, [Acad. de la Historia, MS. C. 122.] Father
Siguenza tells us in his "Hist. de la orden de San Jeronimo" that this
style of embroidery was exclusively Spanish, and probably the remains of
the Moorish influence. The principal localities where embroideries and
artistic work of every kind can be studied are the cathedrals of the
towns we have mentioned, which were great centres of artistic industries
in other times, and the monastery of the Escorial. The collection at the
cathedral of Toledo alone is sufficient to illustrate this subject.
About forty sets of splendid vestments exist at this cathedral which are
embroidered with the most exquisite taste, belonging to the 15th and
16th centuries. Each set generally includes a chasuble, dalmatic, cope,
altar frontal, covers for the gospel stands, and other smaller pieces.
The embroideries on the orphreys, which are formed of figures of saints,
are as perfect as the miniatures on illuminated MS. The _manga_, or case
which hangs round the processional cross given by Cardinal Ximenez, is
one of the most splendid specimens of this collection. As a fine
specimen of embroidery on a large scale must be mentioned the _dosel_ or
canopy called the tent of Ferdinand and Isabel, also at the cathedral of
Toledo, which is interesting as being the same which was used in the
reception of the English envoys Thomas Salvaige and Richard Nanfan who
were sent in 1488 to Spain to arrange the marriage of Prince Henry with
the Infanta D^{na.} Catalina. The ambassadors describe it in the
following manner: "After the tilting was over, the kings returned to the
palace, and took the ambassadors with them, and entered a large room:
and there they sat under a rich cloth of state of rich crimson velvet,
richly embroidered with the arms of Castile and Aragon, and covered
with the device of the king, which is a ... (blank in original), and his
motto, written at length, which is 'Tanto Monta.'" ("Memorials of King
Henry the Seventh," Gairdner, Lon. 1858, p. 348.)
The most remarkable specimen of embroidery which exists in Spain, not so
much on account of its artistic merit as for the enormous value of the
materials employed, is the mantle of the Virgin del Sagrario at Toledo.
It is completely covered with pearls and jewels forming a most effective
ornamentation. This embroidery was made in the beginning of the 17th
century, during the lifetime of Cardinal Sandoval, who presented it to
the church. S^{r.} Parro in his exhaustive volume of "Toledo en la
Mano," [vol. i., p. 574,] describes it in the following manner: "It is
made of twelve yards of silver lama, or cloth of silver, which is
entirely covered with gold and precious stones. In the centre there is a
jewel of amethysts and diamonds. Eight other jewels appear on each side
of enamelled gold, emeralds and large rubies; a variety of other jewels
are placed at intervals round the mantle, and at the lower part are the
arms of Cardinal Sandoval enamelled on gold and studded with sapphires
and rubies. The centre of this mantle is covered with flowers and
pomegranates embroidered in seed-pearls of different sizes. Round the
borders are rows of large pearls. Besides the gems which were employed
in this superb work of art, no less than 257 ounces of pearls of
different sizes, 300 ounces of gold thread, 160 ounces of small pieces
of enamelled gold, and eight ounces of emeralds were used."
A fine altar frontal of a similar kind embroidered in corals may be seen
in the same room where this mantle of the Virgin is kept at the
cathedral of Toledo.
We find in Madame de Villars' letters, [p. 39, Paris, 1823,] the
description of a similar embroidery. Writing in 1680 she says, "Ce que
j'ai vu de plus riche, de plus doré, de plus magnifique, est
l'appartement de la reine. Il y a entre autres meubles dans sa chambre,
une tapisserie, dont ce qu'on y voit de fond, est de perles. Ce ne sont
pas des personnages, on ne peut dire que l'or y soit massif, mais il
est employé d'une manière et d'une abondance extraordinaires. Il y a
quelques fleurs: ce sont des bandes de compartimens; mais il faudrait
être plus habile que je ne suis pour représenter les choses, pour vous
faire comprendre la beauté que compose le corail employé dans cet
ouvrage. Ce n'est point une matière assez précieuse pour en vanter la
quantité; mais la couleur et l'or qui paraissent dans cette broderie,
sont assurément ce qu'on aurait peine à décrire."