Barcelona. In a MS. by Jeronimo Paulo, who writes in 1491, a description
in Latin of the most remarkable things at Barcelona, he says, "they also
send to Rome and other places many glass vessels of different sorts and
kinds which may well compete with those of Venice." In the account of
Philip le Bel's journey to Spain on his marriage with Queen Joanna we
find the following mention of the town of Barcelona: "Et sont là faicts
les plus beauls ouvrages de voires (verres) et de cire qui soient faicts
au monde. Le Jordi (19 Janvier, 1503) Monsigneur alla au dehors de la
ville vioir ung jour où on faict voires (verres) de cristallin très
beaus." ["Collection des Voyages," Bruxelles, 1876, Vol. I., p. 257.]
Marineus Siculus, who writes early in the 16th century says, "the best
glass made in Spain is that of Barcelona," and Gaspar Barreiros in his
"Chorographia," [Coimbra, 1569,] tells us, "they made excellent glass at
Barcelona, almost equal to the Venetian." At the beginning of the 17th
century the authors, Jaime Rebullosa, in his "Descripcion del mundo,"
[Barcelona, 1603, 8vo,] and Luis Nuñez in "Hispania," [Antverpiæ, 1607,
8vo, p. 279,] continue to praise the glass made at Barcelona, and from
that period we find its merit and the vast quantity which was exported
constantly alluded to. The fame of Spanish glass must have been
justified, for in the "Viage del Cardinal Infante," by Aedo, printed in
1639, we find it stated that when the Infant Cardinal was at Barcelona,
in 1632, he went with his galleys to Mataró, four leagues from
Barcelona, to see the "glass made there which was so abundantly sold all
over the country." The Spanish translator of "La Piazza universale di
tutte le professioni," [Madrid, 1615,] adds the name of Barcelona to the
Italian author's mention of glass objects made in Venice, saying, "This
industry has reached such a degree of excellence at Murano and Barcelona
that nothing can be compared to it; there is nothing now which cannot be
made of glass and crystal, even cabinets have been made, and castles
with their towers, battlements, artillery, and fortifications." Mendez
Silva in his "Poblacion de España, [Madrid, 1654, p. 243,] repeats the
same idea when he says they made at Barcelona, "fine glass which might
compete with the Venetian." This industry continued in Cataluña to a
great extent in the last century, and was praised by the following
writers. The author of the "Atlante Español," [Vol. IV., Madrid,
1778-1795,] tells us that "they continued to make excellent glass at
Barcelona, in imitation of the Venetian, with which it might compete,"
and that this industry was carried out to a great extent at Mataró,
Cervelló, and Almatret, all three towns of Cataluña; he says that in
this last mentioned town the glass made was "so excellent, and the
number of workmen employed was so large, that an oratory had been built
in order that the workmen should hear mass there."
The constant comparisons which we find between the glass made at
Barcelona with that of Murano suggests two things--that Spanish glass
must have been of a first-rate order, and that the form of the glass
vessels was similar to those made at Venice. It is highly probable that
a great part of the specimens of glass of different kinds which are
classified as Italian in several collections, are really Spanish,
although it is extremely difficult to point out the difference. In this,
as in other branches of industry, the mania for classifying has gone too
far, and comparative studies of a more concrete order are necessary;
until these are made, the principal fact to be borne in mind in
classifying glass vessels is to compare them with objects of a similar
manufacture which have been made until very lately in Cataluña, and of
which an extremely interesting collection exists at the South Kensington
Museum, proceeding from Barcelona, Mataró and Cervelló, (Nos. 149 to
193) which will enable the amateur to see how the industry of
glass-making has continued traditionally to be preserved in that
province. See woodcut opposite representing a glass bottle, also the
central vessel in woodcut on p. 238.
Among the specimens of old Spanish glass we may consider to have
proceeded from Cataluña the following examples, forming part of the
collection acquired in 1873. Bottles, Nos. 249 to 262, cups, Nos. 336 to
339, and tumblers, Nos. 303 to 305, 312 to 314, and 328, '29. Among
these, there are some which are undoubtedly still made in the locality.
The most characteristic are the _arruxiadós_, or _borracha_, a vessel
spirally ribbed with several narrow spouts, used by the peasant girls of
the villages to sprinkle rose water in the festival of the patron saint
of the district; the _porrones_, a bottle with a long spout, used by the
peasantry for drinking wine; the _cantaro_, a jug, funnel shaped with
wide mouth, handle and curved spout, and the _pilas de agua bendita_, a
holy water vessel of different shapes.
[Illustration: GLASS BOTTLE.--MODERN SPANISH.]
Very few details have reached us of the famous glass works which existed
at Cadalso, in the province of Toledo; we know, however, that the glass
made there was as excellent as that made at Cataluña, and was compared
in a similar manner to the Venetian. The unknown author of "El
Crotalon," published by the Spanish Bibliophiles, from a rare MS., in
1871, writing in the time of the Emperor Charles V., mentions "the fine
glass made at Cadalso." Marineus Siculus also writes in 1517 in his "De
las Cosas Memorables de España," [Alcala de Henares, 1539, fol., Vol.
I.,] that "Glass was made in several towns of Castile, the most
important of them being Cadalso, which supplied the whole kingdom." It
would appear therefore that this glass manufactory was already
established in that locality in the 16th century, and we frequently meet
with allusions to the excellence of its productions in contemporary
authors. The town itself has continually been called "Cadalso de los
vidrios." Mendez Silva in his "Poblacion general de España," [Madrid,
1645, p. 40] says: "They make in three glass ovens fine glass of
beautiful colours and forms, which can compete with the Venetian." At
the South Kensington Museum, there are two fine specimens of glass made
at Cadalso--No. 1068, '73, a drinking vessel of white glass, the upper
part in form of the Spanish vessel called "bucaro," ribbed and streaked
with colours; the stem pineapple shape, with remains of gilding (this is
represented in the woodcut); and No. 1082, '73, a bowl of plain glass,
the lower part spirally waved, and decorated with scale pattern in gold
and coloured dots. Both these objects proceed from a nunnery in a
village near Cadalso.
[Illustration: GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM.]
Larruga says in his "Memorias," [Madrid, 1791, Vol. X., p. 53,] that
"two glass ovens existed at Cadalso, which belonged to the Marchioness
of Villena; they are worked by the inhabitants of this town. One of the
ovens has fallen into disuse from the beginning of the present (18th)
century, and the fame of the glass made there, formerly so renowned for
its clearness and variety of the objects made, has declined. In
examining the state of this industry during the reign of Charles II. we
find how much it had fallen off, for Dn. Antonio de Obando in 1692,
undertook to reestablish it, and to make glass vessels, and window
glasses as had been made there formerly. It appears that 200 dozens of
objects of different kinds were sent out from there yearly." The vase,
No. 333, '73 represented in the woodcut is an example of the coloured
glass of Cadalso.
[Illustration: GLASS VASE.--SPANISH (CADALSO), 17TH CENTURY.]
Glass ovens existed from a very early period in the central provinces
of Spain, which probably imitated from the 16th century the productions
of Cadalso. We know from papers at the Archives of the Convent, of two
of these which paid a yearly rent to the monastery of San Jeronimo de
Guisando, from 1478 to 1480. One of these glass works was situated at
the Venta del Cojo on the borders of Escalona, and the other at the
Venta de los Toros de Guisando.
It is evident that a glass manufactory existed at Toledo, from some
accounts which I have found in the Archives of the Cathedral, in which
Bartolomé Lopez, vidriero, is mentioned in 1546--Pedro Fernandez in
1590, and Tomas Nuñez in 1660; as furnishing glass vessels, principally
lamps for the cathedral. Tomas Nuñez is also paid for "three crosses of
crystalline glass." In a letter written in 1690 to Count Gondomar, the
celebrated ambassador to James I., (Archives of the Palace at Madrid), I
find a glass manufactory mentioned which existed at Cebreros in the
province of Segovia. The writer says, "Your lordship knows we have a
glass oven here; this week we have made the glass called crystalline, of
which I send in a basket sixteen specimens for my lady Dna. Costanza."
Larruga tells us in his "Memorias," [Madrid, 1792, Vol. XVI., p. 222,]
"That in 1680 a glass manufactory was established at San Martin de
Valdeiglesias, where glass in the Venetian style was made--the glass was
excellent. This manufactory was under the direction of Diodonet Lambot a
native of Namur. He was succeeded by Santiago Bandoleto, who was by no
means as skilful. Glass ovens were also established at the Torre de
Estevan, Hambroz, under the direction of Guillermo Torcada." At
Recuenco, in the province of Cuenca, glass works existed at the
beginning of the 16th century; but in 1722 Don Fernando Lopez de Aragon
established a manufactory on a large scale. The glass made there was
used by the king and the greater part of the rich people at Madrid. In
1739 two other glass works existed there, which continued their
operations during the rest of the century. In the same province several
glass ovens existed towards the middle of the last century. The
principal ones were established in the villages of Arbetota, Vindel and
Armallones; only coarse specimens were made there, but at an earlier
period their productions had been, Larruga tells us in the nineteenth
volume of his "Memorias," very important. The glass works which we find
mentioned in the "Atlante Español," [Madrid, 1795,] were also of a very
inferior quality; they were established at the end of the last century
at Busot, in the province of Alicante, Hinojares and Carolina, province
of Jaen. The "Correo de España," [Vol. I. Madrid, 1771,] mentions an
important glass manufactory which existed at Andorra near Alcañiz, and
one where glass of an inferior quality was made at Cabra, in the
province of Cordova. Cabanilles, "Historia y descripcion del reino de
Valencia," Barcelona, mentions the existence from a very early period of
glass works at Olleria, a village of the kingdom of Valencia.
The only mention which I have found in which Seville appears as a centre
of this industry, is an interesting allusion to the village of Cala,
which was represented in a festival which was given to Philip II. in
1578, "with a crystal glass in its hand, and several others at its feet,
because a famous glass oven existed there." ["Recibimiento que hizo
Sevilla al Rey Don Phelipe." Por Juan de Mallara, Sevilla, 1570, p. 89.]
In the 17th century, during the reign of Philip IV., the glass made at
Valdemaqueda in the province of Avila was very celebrated. In a royal
schedule, dated 1680, which states the price at which things were sold
at Madrid, "the glass made at Barcelona, Valdemaqueda, and Villafranca"
are mentioned. We find the glass of Valdemaqueda was sold for a higher
price than that made at the other localities.
The principal value of these extracts is to prove that the industry of
glass-making existed in these localities; none of the authors mentions
the principal characteristics by which the vessels made may be
classified. Those made at Almeria and Barcelona are more easily known,
for they have kept until very recently their general character; while at
Cadalso and other localities of the centre of Spain, the tradition of
the Italian models has quite disappeared. In one fact every author
agrees, namely, that the glass made in those provinces closely resembled
the Venetian, and was completely different to the system followed by the
Arabs. It is, therefore, highly probable, as I have already stated, that
a large number of objects of glass of different kinds, which have been
hitherto considered Italian, were made in Spain.
[Illustration: VASE OF GREEN GLASS, WITH BLACK HANDLES AND
RIBS.--SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY.]
The following observations may serve as a guide in the difficult task of
classifying this group. The specimens of glass vessels most generally
met with in the neighbourhood of Cadalso are:--
Objects of white transparent glass, sweetmeat dishes ornamented with
ribs, buttons, and reticulated rims with touches of gold.
Objects of clear greenish glass of a paler hue than is made in the
province of Almeria, decorated with blue, or some opaque colour (see
woodcut); in some instances part of the object is decorated with a rough
crackled surface.
Objects of opaque glass with different colours, vases, glasses, cups and
saucers, of thin milk-white texture with blue spots, or imitations in
the Japanese style of different colours. Vases for holding flowers, and
other objects, of dark blue glass, milk-white cups, glass and other
objects ornamented with lines of red or blue of a thicker paste than the
preceding ones.
Although these objects are copied from Venetian models, they are coarser
in every detail, they are heavier and thicker, and the delicate and
elegant ornamentation which we find on Italian specimens is almost
always wanting, we seldom find examples of the beautiful _millefiori_
chalcedony or tortoise-shell paste, and the outline of these objects is
symmetrical and Oriental in style.
* * * * *
The royal glass manufactory at La Granja de San Ildefonso, was founded
on the remains of an important one which had been established some years
before, under the protection of Philip the 5th, at the Nuevo Bastan, in
the province of Madrid.
Towards the years 1712 to 1718, this king commissioned D^{n}. Tomas del
Burgo and D^{n}. Juan B. Pomerague to establish glass-works at the Bastan;
twenty foreign workmen were brought over with this purpose, with their
families, and the necessary implements. These gentlemen did not carry
out the undertaking to the king's satisfaction, and in 1720 his majesty
gave D^{n}. Juan de Goyeneche special privileges that he might "make every
kind of glass manufacture up to the height of twenty inches, and have
these glasses worked and polished, embroidered and covered with metal;
to make looking-glass and similar decorations, and every kind of glass
vessels, and white glass for window-panes, and every sort of glass
vessel of different kinds and forms which have been invented in the
present time, or likely to be invented in this art." In order to carry
this out, the king allowed them to have as many foreign masters and
workmen as they might require, with the sole condition that a fourth
part of the workmen employed should be Spaniards. It was prohibited that
any industry of a similar kind should be established in Spain for thirty
years, or that glass made abroad should be imported into the country.
After a long series of annoyances of every kind, Goyeneche succeeded in
meeting with the king's approbation, but as fuel was very scarce at the
Bastan, he removed the glass works to Villanueva de Alcorcon, in the
province of Cuenca. From the ruins of this glass manufactory, Larruga
says in his "Memorias," [vol. xiii., p. 274], "was founded the splendid
glass manufactory of San Ildefonso."
Ventura Sit, a native of Catalonia, constructed an oven there, which
worked from 1728 to 1736 with great success. Queen Doña Isabel
encouraged Sit, and the king ordered him to make some glasses which
might serve for mirrors. Those he made at first were small, but Sit
began by making them 30 inches long and ended by making them as large as
145 inches. The machine for polishing them was invented by a Catalan
called Pedro Fronvila.
The section of glass vessels of a superior quality began to work in
1771. Glasses, bottles, and objects of all kinds were made there under
the direction of a glass worker called Eder, a Swede, and Sivert, a
Frenchman. Another section where the same quality of glass was made was
directed by Don Segismundo Brun, a native of Hanover, but who had been
brought up from a very early age at La Granja. It was this artist who
invented gilded glass _a feu_. A large number of foreign artists worked
at this manufacture; they impressed their special style on the objects
they made, which were similar to those of the same kind manufactured in
France, England, and Germany.
From the time of Ventura Sit, towards the year 1734, the manufactory of
glass at La Granja belonged to the crown, and continued under the
protection of the Spanish kings, who spared no expense to obtain its
development. Early in the present century this industry began to decay.
Towards 1828 it passed into private hands, and continued to work until
1849. The manufactory is now closed, although there is some talk of
reviving this industry.
[Illustration: GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM.]
The glass objects made at La Granja possess a very marked French style,
which renders them liable to be mistaken for French and German
productions of a similar kind. The greater part of the objects which
were made were of white clear transparent glass, richly cut and
engraved, or ornamented with gold (see woodcut). The cut glass is
generally engraved with inscriptions, views, flowers, and devices, and
until very lately has been made there in a rougher style. Coloured and
enamelled glass has also been made there, but not to so great an
extent. Glass for window panes and mirrors were ordered for the Royal
palaces. Lustres of all kinds of white and coloured glass were also made
there in the Venetian style, richly ornamented with coloured flowers. A
small chandelier of this kind is in the South Kensington Museum (No.
998, '73), the only example I have seen of a lustre of latticinio glass.
In the collection of old Spanish glass at the Museum will be found a
sufficient variety of specimens of this manufacture to give an idea of
the different styles made at La Granja. A fac-simile of one of the
engraved mirrors and a fine cut glass will be found in "Museo Español de
Antiguedades, vol. IX."
Besides glass vessels and objects of a similar kind, painted glass
windows have been made in Spain from a very early time, of which most
important specimens exist at Toledo, Leon, and other Spanish cathedrals.
The proceedings employed in this industry are too well known to require
repetition in this volume. The industry was undoubtedly imported by
foreign workmen from France and the north of Europe, and as was the case
with other industries it took root in the country, and a large number of
Spanish artists followed and took part in this industry.
* * * * *
In order to convey an idea of the height of this industry in Spain, I
give a list of the painters who worked on glass which I have collected
from the following works, to which I refer the student who may wish for
further details on the subject. Cean Bermudez, "Dicc. Hist. de los mas
ilustres Profesores de las Bellas Artes en España. Madrid, 1800."
Villanueva, "Viage á las Iglesias de España." Piferrer, "Recuerdos y
Bellezas. Mallorca." "Documentos Ineditos." Zarco del Valle.
GLASS PAINTERS IN SPAIN.
Years in which
they worked Artists. Residence.
1682. Alcalde, Francisco Burgos.
1504. Aleman, Cristoval Toledo.
1458. Aleman, Pedro Toledo.
1645. Alonso, Francisco Burgos.
1544. Arce, Juan de Burgos.
1581. Arce Burgos.
1613. Argete, Luis de Leon.
1424. Aragan, Maestro Joan Leon.
Arfian, Antonio Sevilla.
Arteaga, Matias Sevilla.
1516. Ayala, Francisco Palencia.
1605. Babel, Jorge Madrid.
1442. Baldovin, Maestro Leon.
1519. Bernal, Juan Sevilla.
1533. Borgoña, Jorge Palencia.
1439. Bonifacio, Pedro Toledo.
1562. Bruges, Carlos Cuenca.
1602. Campo, Diego del Madrid.
1522. Campa, Juan Toledo.
1674. Chilberri, Pierres de Segovia.
1509. Cuesta, Juan de Toledo.
1513. Cordova, Gonzalo de Toledo.
1538. Cotin, Gaspar de Burgos.
1459. Cristoval, El Maestro Toledo.
1566 to } Dangles, Sebastian Mallorca.
1573 }
1676. Danis, Juan Segovia.
1565. Diaz, Diego Escorial.
1418. Dolfin, El Maestro Toledo.
1485. Enrique, Maestro Toledo.
1566. Estaenheyl, Ulrrique Madrid.
1565. Espinosa, Francisco de Escorial.
1565. Espinosa, Hernando de Escorial.
1551. Ferrera, Rodrigo de Leon.
1526. Fernandez, Pedro Sevilla.
1557. Flandes, Arnao de Sevilla.
1494. Fontanet, Gil Barcelona.
1459. Frances, Pedro Toledo.
1571. Galceran, Il Maestro Escorial.
1518. Gelandia, Bernardino de Sevilla.
1608. Guillermo, Maestro Leon.
1571. Guasch, Juan Tarragona.
1674. Herranz, Francisco Segovia.
1520. Holanda, Alberto de Burgos.
1548. Holanda, Geraldo de Cuenca.
1535. Holanda, Nicolas de Burgos.
1509. Jacques, Juan Sevilla.
1427. Juan, Maestro Burgos.
1510. Juan, Hijo de Jacobo Sevilla.
1458. Juanico Toledo.
1428. Loys, Maestro Toledo.
1600. Ludeque, Diego de Madrid.
1569. Menandro, Vicente Sevilla.
1538. Ortega, Alonso de Toledo.
1534. Ortega, Juan de Toledo.
1458. Pablo, Fray Toledo.
1459. Pedro, Maestro Toledo.
1639. Perez, Sebastian Leon.
1559. Pesquera, Sebastian de Sevilla.
1600. Pierres, Antonio Madrid.
---- Resen, Pelegrin ----
1565. Resen, Renerio Madrid.
1500. Rolando, Alberto de Avila.
1500. Rolando, Nicolas de Avila.
1624. Ruiz, Valentin Burgos.
1625. Ruiz, Simon Burgos.
1368-- } Sacoma, Francisco Mallorca.
1369. }
1420 to } Sala, Antonio Mallorca.
1447. }
1542. Salcedo, Diego de Palencia.
1512. Santillana, Diego Palencia.
1498. Santillana, Juan de Burgos.
1392. San Amat, Juan Lerida.
1503. Troya, Vasco de Toledo.
1579. Valerio, Octavio Malaga.
1562. Valdivieso, Diego de Cuenca.
1497. Valdivieso, Juan Burgos.
1538. Vergara, Arnao de Sevilla.
1521. Vergara, Nicolas de Burgos.
1606. Vergara, Nicolas de, El Mozo Toledo.
1574. Vergara, Nicolas de, el Viejo Toledo.
1590. Vegara, Juan de Toledo.
1518. Vivan, Juan Sevilla.
1605. Volui, Gil Leon.
1509. Ximenez, Alexo Toledo.
1458. Ximeno. Toledo.
TEXTILE FABRICS.
The silence of San Isidoro on the subject of textile fabrics in Spain
would lead us to suppose that this industry only became important during
the Arab domination; the Moors probably imported this industry into
Spain from the earliest times of their conquest. A great number of
provinces were famed then for the excellence of their textile fabrics;
the most important of them, according to the testimony of Moorish and
Christian writers, was Almeria. The Cordovese historian, Ash Shakandi,
who wrote at the beginning of the 13th century, says: "Almeria is an
opulent and magnificent city, whose fame has spread far and wide; the
inhabitants are very elegant in their dress. Almeria is the greatest
mart in Andalus, Christians of all nations came to its port to buy and
sell, and they had factories established in it. From thence the
Christian merchants who came to its port travelled to other parts in the
interior of the country, where they loaded their vessels with such goods
as they wanted. Costly silken robes of the brightest colours are
manufactured in Almeria," [Moh. Dyn. in Spain, I. 52]. Almakkari adds,
[p. 51]: "But what made Almeria superior to any other city in the world
was its various manufactures of silks and other articles of dress, such
as the _dibaj_ [silken stuff of many colours], a sort of silken cloth
surpassing in quality and durability anything else manufactured in other
countries; the _tiraz_ or costly stuff on which the names of sultans,
princes, and other wealthy individuals are inscribed, and of which no
less than 800 looms existed at one time; of more inferior articles such
as the _holol_ (striped silks) and brocades, there were 1000 looms, the
same number were continually employed in weaving the stuffs called
_iskalátón_ (scarlet). There were also 1000 for weaving robes called Al
jorjáni (Georgian), and another 1000 for weaving robes called Isbahani,
from Isfahan, and a similar number for Atabi. The manufacture of damask
for curtains and turbans for the women, of gay and dazzling colours,
employed a number of hands equal to that of those engaged in the
manufacture of the above mentioned articles."
An oriental author asserts that Abd-ul-Rahman II. A.D. 825-852 was the
first sultan of his race who introduced into Spain the use of the
_tiraz_ [_ib._ Vol. II. 434]. Another explains that Atabi took the name
of a suburb of Bagdad "where were made the stuffs called _otabi_,
composed of cotton and silk of different colours." [Consult Dozy, 'Dict.
des vêtements.']