appear among the sculptors' names, those of the artists who carved the
most important stalls of the cathedrals, and other works of art of a
similar kind, but the names of those who made cabinets have never yet
been published. I have been fortunate enough to be able to collect the
following from unpublished documents which exist at the Library of the
Acad. de San Fernando at Madrid. They worked in the 16th and 17th
century.
Aguayo, Urban de, wood carver 1623
Carpintero, Francisco, wood carver 1630
Garcia, Marcos, wood carver of his Majesty 1637-42
Gomez, Juan, carver in wood 1598
Gorostiza, Juan de, carver in wood 1627
Higares, Nicolas de, carver in wood 1625
Hispano, Francisco, carver in ivory 1618
Hoz, Martin de la, carver in wood 1624
Lara, Benardino, de, carver in wood 1612
Lozano, Pedro 1622
Marcos, Juan, carver in wood 1636
Martinez, Andrés, carver in wood 1622
Martinez, Dionisio, carver in wood 1621-25
Martinez, Gabriel, carver in wood 1623
Murga, Tomas de, carver of his royal Highness 1614
Osoz, Martin de, wood carver 1623
Parezano, Alonso, wood carver of his Majesty 1623
Pelegrin, Joan, wood carver 1614
Peña, Jeronimo de la, wood carver 1622
Quero, Melchor de, carver in wood 1586
Radis, Francisco, master maker of cabinets in
ebony and ivory 1617
Riofrio, Martin de, wood carver 1612
Riofrio, Tomas de, wood carver 1626
Rodriguez, Bernardo de, wood carver 1624
Rodriguez, Domingo, wood carver 1633
Roxo, Domingo, wood carver 1630
Sanchez, Matias, wood carver 1565
Santana, Juan de, wood carver 1617
Sierra, Francisco de, wood carver 1634
Spano, Jeronimo, wood carver 1617
Torres, Juan de, wood carver 1658
Velasco, Lucas de, master in painting and
gilding cabinets 1633
Zorrilla, Domingo 1642
Large arm-chairs of a quadrangular form, with arms, back and seat of
leather or embroidered stuffs, were used to furnish rooms at the same
time as these cabinets; tables, and frames inlaid with ivory,
tortoise-shell, ebony, bronze and silver, were hung on the walls;
side-boards, beds, and braziers were made of inlaid woods or silver.
Women during the 16th and 17th centuries sat on low stools on the
ground. The beds were made of rich brocades embroidered with gold,
(_vide_ Madame d'Aunoy), trimmed with point d'Espagne, and on the
splendid carpets were placed silver braziers which burnt crushed olive
stones. The walls were covered with tapestry and rich silks, and from
very early times stamped, painted or gilt leather _guadameciles_ were
used in Spain to a very great extent. These _guadameciles_ were imitated
in France and other countries in the 16th and 17th centuries; a very
large quantity of this stamped leather is to be met with in England. The
Baron Ch. Davillier has lately published an interesting notice on this
subject, from which I take the following information. ("Notes sur les
cuirs de Cordoue. Guadameciles d'Espagne," Paris, 1878.)
The word guadamecil applied to this leather comes from the village of
_Ghadames_ in Africa, celebrated from the 12th century for this
industry. It was imported by the Moors into Spain, and Cordova became
from the beginning of the Middle Ages the great centre of this
production, although other towns, such as Seville, Granada, Toledo, and
Barcelona, exported these leathers also. The chronicler Ambrosio de
Morales, in his "Las Antiguedades de las ciudades de España," Alcala,
1575, says, p. 10, "A great commerce is produced by the exportation of
skins, and many have been enriched by it, those prepared at Cordova are
so excellent, that now in Spain any goat hide prepared in any locality
is called Cordovan. Guadameciles are made of leather, and are so well
fashioned in Cordova that none can compete with them; they are exported
to the Indies and all Europe. They produce much for the town, and
beautify the principal streets, for the hides are hung out to dry after
they are painted and gilt, and it is a fine sight to see the walls
covered with such variety of colour and form."
A good collection of these guadameciles is in the South Kensington
Museum. See Nos. 471 to 485, '69, and 1651 to 1654, '71.
At the end of the 17th and first half of the 18th century, the Baroque
or Churrigueresque architecture had such influence over furniture, that
although exaggerated examples were very common, they reached in no
country to such a pitch as they did in Spain. As specimens, the enormous
_retablos_ over the high altars made of gilt carved wood may be
mentioned, which are so frequently to be seen in Spanish churches. The
exuberance of uncouth heavy ornamentation destroys the regularity and
harmony of the general effect. Chairs and tables were made then in the
same style, and the _cornucopias_ or decorated mirrors which adorn
Spanish churches and sacristy, belong to this period. The name of
_cornucopia_ was given in allusion to the horn of abundance.
The French influence of the last century brought the same fashions for
furniture into Spain, and we also find there the styles known as Louis
XVI. and Empire. Spain follows the general rule; porcelain plaques from
the manufactories of Alcora and Retiro were let into furniture, and gilt
bronze mountings were very much used. The most important specimens of
furniture of the early present century are the splendid rooms inlaid
with metal work at the Palace, called Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez, and
those known by the name of "Piezas de maderas finas," at the Palace del
Escorial. The description given by J. Quevdo, in his "Historia del Real
Monasterio de San Lorenzo," Madrid, 1849, gives a good idea of their
importance; he says, p. 343, "This series of four small rooms were
decorated at a cost of 28,000,000 of reales (£280,000). The pavement,
friezes, windows, and doors, are made of the most delicate inlaid work
representing landscapes, vases and festoons of flowers, which look as if
they were painted with a brush. King Charles IV. helped in this work,
and they were finished in 1831 under the direction of Angel Maeso. The
splendid iron work was made by Ignacio Millan. It is of polished iron
inlaid with gold, and most exquisite in workmanship."
IVORIES.
No artistic industry in Spain has left behind so little historical
information as ivory carving. Only a very small number of examples of
this art have reached us which are of undoubted Spanish manufacture, but
a group exists among them which has been but little examined or studied;
it is worthy of the utmost attention, on account of its artistic
character, and the inferences which may be drawn from it.
We find no allusion in the works of Pliny or St. Isidoro to the
existence of the industry of ivory carving in Spain during the Roman and
Visigothic dominations. An interesting example of ivory work of the
Roman period, consisting of a consular diptych may be seen at the
cathedral of Oviedo, which, although certainly not carved in Spain, must
not be overlooked here, in order that it may be included among the
number of the carvings which have reached us of this period. The two
leaves of this diptych are complete, and in a perfect state of
preservation: they are 16 inches long by 6 inches wide; in the centres
are two medallions in relief with a bust of the consul, who is
represented in the act of throwing down with his right hand the _mappa_
or handkerchief, and holding in his left hand a sceptre. The right
angles are ornamented with masks, the rest of the surface is plain. The
two following inscriptions run along the upper part of the leaves:
FL·STRATEGIVS APION. STRATEGIVS APION V. ILL: COM. DEVV. DOMM. ET · CONS
· OR.
Flavius Strategius Apius. Strategius Apius, illustrious man, count of
the most fervent servants, and consul in ordinary.
This consul belongs to the period of Justinian, by which emperor he was
invested with this dignity in A.D. 539. We do not know how this diptych
came to Spain; it is generally supposed that it belonged originally to
the shrine of the cathedral of Toledo, from whence it was removed to
Asturias, with other relics, to be concealed there during the invasion
of the Arabs at the beginning of the 8th century. The student will find
further details in "Corpus Ins." by Hübner. "Monumentos
arquitectonicos." "Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades." Vol. i. p. 385.
From the invasion of the Arabs, which began early in the 8th century,
and on the foundation of the empire of the Caliphs of Cordova in the
year 756, an era of grandeur began for the Arabs in Spain, coinciding
with their independence from the Caliphs of Damascus, which lasted for
more than two centuries; during this time Cordova became the most
important literary and scientific centre in Europe. The direct influence
of the East and Constantinople may be traced without interruption from
this time on the culture of the Spanish Arabs. At times this culture was
transmitted by the objects of every kind which the Spaniards received
from the East, at others by the influence exercised by the artists who
established themselves on the territory of the Caliphate of Cordova. The
greater part of the industrial arts, which were imported at this time,
became naturalized in the country, and we find them developed in every
locality of the Peninsula, and although we do not possess any positive
historical information stating this fact, which distinctly bears on
ivory carvings, we are safe in affirming that the industry existed among
the Spanish Arabs in a very high state of perfection during the last
years of the Caliphate. The description and details of the most
important ivories which have reached us of this period confirms this
opinion.
At the South Kensington Museum there is a cylindrical box No. 217-'65
with rounded cover. I copy Mr. Maskell's description of this object, of
which a woodcut is given. (Vide "Ivories, Ancient and Mediæval, in the
South Kensington Museum," London, 1872.)
"This beautiful box is carved throughout, except the bottom of it, with
interlacing narrow bands forming quatrefoils, in which on the cover are
four eagles. These have spread wings and stand erect; well designed and
most delicately executed. A small knob serves to lift the lid.
[Illustration: IVORY BOX. MOORISH. 10TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM.]
"Round the side, each quatrefoil is filled with a star having a leaf
ornament. The same decoration is repeated in the spaces between the
larger quatrefoils on the cover.
[Illustration: Arabic]
"The whole is carved in pierced work, except a band which forms the
upper upright portion of the box, round the side of the lid. This band
has an Arabic inscription:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"A favour of God to the servant of God, Al Hakem al Mostanser Billah,
commander of the faithful." He was a Caliph who reigned at Cordova, A.D.
961-976."
Another very interesting oblong box is preserved in the same Museum, No.
301-'66. The cover and sides are carved with scroll foliated ornament:
the hinges and clasp are of chased silver inlaid with niello. Round the
sides, immediately below the lid is the following Arabic inscription in
Cufic characters:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"In the name of God. This (box) was ordered to be made by Seidat Allah,
the wife of Abdo-r-rahman, prince of the believers. God be merciful and
satisfied with him."
[Illustration: IVORY BOX. MOORISH. 10TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM.]
This inscription must allude to Abd er Rahman III. the first Caliph of
Cordova who bore the title of Emir, el Mumenin. The formula "God be
merciful," &c., denotes that he was dead when it was written. He died
A.D. 961. (See woodcut.)
Another casket, undoubtedly the most important in size which is known of
this period, proceeds from Sanguesa, in the province of Navarre, and is
now preserved in the treasury of the cathedral of Pamplona.
This splendid box, hitherto undescribed, is 15 inches long, by 9-1/4
wide. A woodcut is given opposite. It is completely covered with
carvings in relief, within circular cusped medallions, with figures in
the centres representing different subjects: men seated, hawking, or
struggling with wild beasts, and numerous single figures of lions,
stags, and other animals. The intermediate spaces contain an
ornamentation of leaves and flowers which is accommodated to the
geometrical style of Saracenic art. Round the upper part of this box
appears an Arabic inscription in fine Cufic characters.
[Illustration: Arabic]
"In the name of God. The blessing of God, the complete felicity, the
happiness, the fulfilment of the hope of good works, and the adjourning
the fatal period (of death), be with the Hagib Seifo daula (sword of the
State), Abdelmalek ben Almansur. This (box) was made by the orders (of
the said Hagib), under the inspection or direction of his chief eunuch,
Nomayr ben Mohammad Alaumeri, his slave in the year of 395," [A.D.
1005].
In the centre medallion, on the opposite side to the lock, is
represented the standing figure of a man who is attacked by two lions.
He holds on his arm a shield, upon which is engraved an inscription,
with the following religious formula: "There is no God but God," or a
similar one, for the characters are very illegible and confused. In the
centre of this shield may be read [Illustration: Arabic], "made by
Hair," undoubtedly one of the artists who made the box. Another artist's
name may be read with difficulty in a similar inscription which appears
on one of the medallions on the left side: it is written on the thigh of
a stag, which is attacked by a lion [Illustration: Arabic], "it was made
by Obeidat." Three other inscriptions of a similar character appear in
other parts of this box, which probably give the names of other
artists, but I have been unable to decipher them.
[Illustration: MOORISH CASKET. 11TH CENTURY. CATHEDRAL OF PAMPLONA.]
Among other artistic objects in the shrine of the cathedral of Braga, in
Portugal, there is an ivory box of the same period, and the inscription,
which runs round the cover, mentions the same persons:
"There is no God but God, and Mahomad is his prophet. In the name of
God, a blessing, prosperity and fortune for the Hagib Seifo, d. daula,
for this work, which he ordered to be made by the hands of"--here the
inscription has been broken off--"his principal eunuch." (Vide 'Artes e
Letras,' No. 6, 3rd series, p. 94, Lisbon, 1874.)
Both these caskets were made for Hadjeb Abd el Melik, a minister of
Hischem the second.
It is necessary to add to them an ivory diptych, preserved at the
Provincial Museum of Burgos, which, as we find by the following
inscription, was also made for Abder Rahman III, (A.D. 912-961).
[Illustration: Arabic]
"This was ordered to be made by the Iman servant of God Abder Rahman,
prince of believers."
Two other boxes of the same artistic character, belonging to a private
collection, must also be mentioned. They are both cylindrical, and are
terminated by a spherical cover. They measure 7-1/2 inches high, by
4-5/8 wide, and are covered with a profuse and splendid ornamentation of
figures and animals. Round the lid of one them is a band, with the
following inscription in fine Cufic character:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"The blessing of God and his favours, joy, and prosperity, for
Almogueira, son of the Prince of the faithful, whom may God have
forgiven. It was made in the year 357 [A.D. 967]."
Almogueira was the son of the Caliph of Cordova, Abder Rahman III.
On the other may be read in similar characters--
[Illustration: Arabic]
("In the name of God, clement and merciful, blessing")--this part of the
inscription is missing--"and prosperity and happiness for Riyadh ben
Aflah, captain of the superior guard. It was made in the year 359" [A.D.
969].
The style of the objects which we have hitherto described is undoubtedly
Oriental, and we must seek in Persia the origin of this industry. There
is, however, every probability that these seven ivory boxes were made in
Spain by Spanish Arabs, or artists who had settled there from the East.
On all these carvings the names of Spanish historical persons appear,
and it is hardly possible that they were ordered in remote countries,
especially as some of these objects are small and comparatively
unimportant. It must also be borne in mind that we find in contemporary
authors many details on the luxury and magnificence of this period of
the Spanish Arabs, and the great height which the arts and industries
had reached at that time.
The ivory carvings which I have described present all the
characteristics of the Oriental school, which was copied by European
Christian sculptors during the 11th and 12th centuries. We find in
Christian productions of this period, too constantly to require any
further comment, the same geometrical traceries, flowers, leaves,
animals, and birds. The subjects represented on monuments of Christian
art have been erroneously interpreted by modern ecclesiologists who have
endeavoured to demonstrate the symbolism of these figures in a purely
Christian sense with only the unsatisfactory result of checking and
leading astray art students of the Middle Ages. It is of the utmost
importance to go to the primitive sources from which this art is derived
in order to illustrate this important theory. The Oriental school of
sculpture was soon transmitted, either through the influence of the
Spanish Arabs, or by other means, to Christian artists. As an
interesting example of this may be mentioned the shrine which King Dn.
Sancho ordered to be made, A.D. 1033, in which to deposit the bones of
San Millan, still preserved in San Millan de la Cogulla, in the province
of La Rioja, Spain. This fine shrine is 4 feet 6 inches long, by 2 feet
3-1/2 inches high. It is of wood, and covered with gold plates and
inlaid stones and crystals. Between this metal work are placed 22
plaques of ivory carved with subjects representing passages from the
life of the saint, and single figures of the princes, monks, and
benefactors who helped to defray the expense of this work of art. Among
them there are two small figures with the names of Apparitio
Scholastico, Ramirus Rex. These have been generally supposed to be the
artists' names. A sculptor is also represented carving a shield, and
near him is one of his workmen. Underneath these figures ran formerly an
inscription, of which the first part only remains, containing the name
of the artist--"(Magis) tro et Rodolpho filio."
Two other interesting specimens remain of Spanish Moresque art of the
11th century. One is a casket at the South Kensington Museum, No. 10,
66, which Mr. Maskell describes as "richly carved in deep relief with
foliage and animals in scrolls interlacing one another, and forming
larger and smaller circles. The top and each side is a single plaque of
ivory; the sloping lid at the front and back has two panels. On the two
are two animals, like does; a large bird stands on the back of each,
attacking it with his beak. The sloping sides have, in the large
circles, men on horseback, and animals fighting. The intermediate spaces
are completely filled with foliage, and smaller beasts. Similar
subjects are repeated in the circles on the panels forming the lower
sides of the casket, and among them are two groups of men and women
sitting; one blowing a horn, another playing on a guitar, another
holding a cup in one hand and a flower in the other." There is no
inscription on this casket, but in one of the medallions on the lid
there is a bust which is carried on the back of a horse, and which is
probably a representation of the prince for whom the casket was made.
The other example of this period is that known as the cross of Don
Fernando, at the Archæological Museum at Madrid. This cross is 20-1/2
inches by 14. On the front is a figure in high relief of Our Lord with
the inscription: IHE. NAZARENVS REX IVDEORVM. In the upper part is
represented the figure of Our Lord at the moment of his Resurrection,
and in the lower a symbolical figure of Adam; both these figures are in
high relief. Underneath may be read in two lines,--
FERDINANDVS REX.
SANCIA REGINA.
At the back of the cross appears in the centre the Lamb of God: in the
four corners the emblems of the Evangelists. Besides these purely
Christian symbols, the ground work is covered with foliage, circles
interlacing each other, figures of animals of different kinds, and men
struggling with wild beasts. The whole of the ornamentation corresponds
to the style of decoration of the moresque objects which I have already
described. King Ferdinand I. died A.D. 1065, his wife Sancha A.D. 1071;
and documents exist proving that in 1063 they gave this interesting work
of art with other artistic objects to the Church of San Isidoro of Leon,
where it remained until 1870, when it was given up by the authorities of
the church to the Museum at Madrid. The following woodcut represents the
back of the cross:--
[Illustration: BACK OF CROSS OF KING FERDINAND I. ARCHÆOLOGICAL MUSEUM.
MADRID]
These different specimens represent, in my opinion, the most
satisfactory view of the art industry of ivory carving during the 10th
and 11th centuries. Several other examples of oriental carving in ivory
still exist in Spain in the shrines of different cathedrals; others of
less artistic interest may be seen at the Archæological Museum at
Madrid. These caskets are for the most part not ornamented with carvings
in relief, but are decorated with inscriptions painted in gold and
colours. The most important are:--
A large casket at the Archæological Museum of Madrid, decorated with
painting in red and green, and a fine inscription in Cufic characters.
A similar casket at the same museum, decorated with a design painted in
green, red, and blue; an inscription in cufic letters runs round a band
in the upper part.
[Illustration: Arabic]
"Made by Mohammad Ben Assarag."
An ivory casket at the Real Academia de la Historia at Madrid, with an
ornamentation and inscription painted in the style of the former ones
and the shield of arms of the Kings of Aragon. The inscription
reproduces several Suras of the Koran, and the arms of the house of
Aragon were probably added when the casket came into the possession of
some person belonging to the family.
A casket exists at the Church of Santo Domingo de Silos (province of
Burgos), which merits a special mention on account of what has remained
to us of the inscription.
This casket is 13-1/4 inches long by 7-1/2 inches wide and high. It is
ornamented in part with foliage and flowers in the moresque style,
alternating with hunting subjects, men shooting with bows and arrows,
riding upon lions, fantastic animals and leopards mounted on the back of
bulls. The work is inferior in art to the caskets at Pamplona and South
Kensington. On a band which runs round the four sides of the lid is an
inscription in Cufic characters, of which unfortunately the two longer
sides have been destroyed, and have been substituted at a very early
period by bands of cloisonné enamel, evidently belonging to other
caskets. On the two sides an inscription remains, upon which may be read
the year Hegira 417 (A.D. 1026); the name of the artist who carved it,
Mohammad Ibn Zeiyan, and the two first letters of the town in which it
was made (probably Cuenca)
[Illustration: Arabic]
".....for its owner (may God lengthen his days.) It was made in the town
of Cu[enca] in the year 417. (A.D. 1025.) By Mohammad--ibn Zeiyan, his
servant. May God glorify him."
In the geography of Edrisi, an Oriental author who describes Spain in
the beginning of the 12th century, only two names of towns are mentioned
which agree with this inscription, Coria and Cuenca [Illustration:
Arabic]. The first of these towns was always a less important centre
than Cuenca. Edrisi praises the woollen fabrics made at Cuenca, and
there is every probability that this casket was carved there, as there
is also an ivory monstrance at the cathedral of Perpiñan, which has
likewise an inscription in Cufic characters, stating it was made for the
Hageb Ismail.
[Illustration: Arabic]
"The blessing of God. Made at the town of Cuenca, for the Hageb Ismail."