the earliest times, owing to the absence of specimens belonging to the
Roman or Visigothic period. We are safe, however, in affirming that,
during the domination of the Romans, the same models were used in Spain
as in Rome itself, the similarity between objects of other kinds which
exists, and the continual habit of the Romans of imposing their culture
on the countries which they conquered, is sufficient to justify this
idea. During the first period of the Christian era until about the 11th
century, other objects which have reached us as gold and silversmiths'
work, seem to prove that all industrial art work, including furniture
must have been Classic, Byzantine, or Oriental in form, according to the
period in which these styles predominated. The Roman or Classical style
must have lasted for a considerable time, if we judge by the texts given
by San Isidoro, in his "Etymologies," lib. xx., cap. xi. and xii. San
Isidoro lived in the 7th century of our era. We find he mentions the
words, _de lectis et sellis_, _de vehiculis_, which refer to furniture
of the Roman period; but we do not meet with any distinctive terms which
can be applied to the time in which he lived, on the contrary he
comments on phrases and alludes to the forms of objects in the same
manner as Rufus, Varrus, and other classical writers.
At the invasion of the Arabs in the beginning of the 8th century the
Byzantine element increased in its application to furniture. During the
reign of the caliphs, contemporary authors tell us that luxury of
decoration of every kind was carried to a great extent. The description
of the pulpit or _minbar_ of the mosque of Cordova will give an idea of
its richness. Al Makkari, in his "History of Mohammedan Dynasties in
Spain," says, "the length of the Mihrab was 8 cubits; its breadth, 7
cubits; the height of its dome, 13 cubits. There stood on one side a
pulpit, constructed by Alhahem, equalled by none other in the world for
workmanship and materials. It was made of ivory and exquisite woods,
such as ebony, sandal, Indian plantain, citron wood, aloe, and so forth,
at the expense of 3,575 dinars: the steps by which it was ascended were
nine in number. Another writer says it was formed of 36,000 pieces of
wood fastened together by gold and silver nails, occasionally encrusted
with precious stones, and its construction lasted for seven years; eight
artists being daily employed on it," vol. i. p. 222.
Edrisi, who lived at Cordova at the beginning of the 12th century,
describes this pulpit in the same manner. It was to be seen in the
cathedral of Cordova as late as the 16th century, when it was destroyed,
and its materials employed in the construction of an altar. An Arab
_minbar_ is in the South Kensington Museum, which came from Cairo, and
although belonging to the last centuries of the Middle Ages, it will
give an idea of this structure and its elaborate workmanship.
The oldest specimen of furniture which exists in Spain, belonging to
Christian art, is the shrine of San Millan de la Cogulla, in the
province of La Rioja, described in _Ivories_, p. 134. This casket or
shrine was made by the orders of King Sancho el Mayor, in 1033, in order
to preserve the relics of San Millan. It is of wood, covered with 22
compartments of highly interesting ivory plaques, representing episodes
from the life of the Saint. The names of the artists, _Apparitio_ and
_Rodolpho_, appear on it. In 1808 the French stripped the shrine of its
gold and silver ornaments, but, most fortunately, left the casket and
its ivory carvings behind.
Another interesting object, which is useful for illustrating furniture
in Spain in the 12th century, is the Bishop's throne in the cathedral of
Gerona. It is of white marble of one piece, covered with a simple
ornamentation in excellent taste, in a similar style, and for the same
purpose, as the throne of San Clemente in Rome. It is raised at the back
of the altar, and is ascended by thirteen steps. The Bishop sits on this
throne after the first purification, and continues there until the
Offertory, when he descends and finishes the mass at the altar; owing to
the existence of this chair, one of the most ancient rites of
Catholicism has been preserved at Gerona.
Mention must also be made of the shrine in which the remains of Queen
Urraca are kept in the cathedral of Palencia, and the Cofre del Cid in
the cathedral of Burgos, although they are more interesting for their
antiquity than their artistic merit.
During the 13th century furniture in Spain must have been similar to
that used in other countries, it was influenced by French and Italian
forms; from which, as was the case in architecture, these models were
constantly copied. Some idea of this is given in the triptych known by
the name of the Tablas Alfonsinas, which is fully described in Gold and
Silver Work. (See woodcut on p. 17.)
The principal novelty which we find in Spain in this industry consists
in the combination of the Christian and Moorish styles applied to
furniture. A very remarkable specimen exists at the Academia de la
Historia, consisting of a reliquary, triptych or armoire of very large
dimensions, formerly in the church of the Monasterio of Piedra in
Aragon. It is 13 feet wide and 8 feet high. When the two doors are
closed six compartments appear on each, surrounded by a border headed by
a wide cornice. This cornice is divided in sixteen spaces formed by
arches adorned with stalactite ornamentation in the Moorish style;
inside each span is painted the figure of a saint. In the twelve
compartments which form the doors there are subjects from the life of
Our Lord, beginning with the Annunciation, and ending with the Descent
from the Cross painted in excellent taste. The border which surrounds
these doors is formed of a beautiful geometrical ornamentation, in the
purest Oriental style; in the upper and lower part appears the following
inscription in Gothic characters, which gives us the date in which this
object was made.
Tabernaculum hoc vocabitur aula Dei quia vere Dominis est in loco isto.
Fuit autem constructum ad honorem et reverentiam sacratissimi corporis
Domini nostri Ihu Xpi et pasionis ejusdem nec non ad honorem == et
reverentiam sanctissime genitricis ejusdem et totius celestis curie et
sanctorum ... at fuit ... depictum anno MCCCXC. anima ordinatoris
requiescat ... sinu salvatoris. Amen.
When this triptych is opened several compartments appear, formed by
cusped Gothic arches, placed within others, in the form of a mitre
divided by pinnacles. The ornamentation which fills the vacant space
between the arches, and the seven banderoles in the lower part are in
pure Gothic style, without a reminiscence of Moorish art. In the central
banderole appears the name of _Dopnus Martinus Poncii Abbas_, the abbot
of the monastery where this reliquary was made, and the person by whom
the expense was probably borne. The inside of the doors is divided into
two horizontal zones, which include half the total size. The upper zone
is covered with geometrical tracery, similar to the outer borders. The
lower one is divided into four compartments for each leaf of the door,
eight within two, which are formed by cusped Gothic arches; within these
spaces are painted standing figures of angels holding musical
instruments in their hands and nimbi round their heads. The details and
forms of the instruments and delicate ornamentation of the costumes and
carpets, constitute one of the most beautiful details of this triptych.
These details and several of the architectural lines of the Gothic part
of this ornamentation denote an Italian influence, probably Sicilian,
for this province belonged then to the crown of Aragon. This triptych
is richly gilt, and painted inside and out, and is one of the finest and
most remarkable specimens of the kind which exist in any country. A
plate may be seen in "Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades," vol. vi., p. 307.
A very interesting specimen of this combination of styles is a recess or
cupboard of the 14th century, which is at the Kensington Museum, No.
1764, 71, [see woodcut]. It is 5 feet 4 inches high, by 8 feet wide; and
is composed of an outer arch, with the tympani ornamented with fine
arabesques in relief, made of stucco,--representing vine tendrils,
leaves, and flowers, similar to those which appear in the Cosa de Mesa
and other Moorish houses at Toledo. The arch is surrounded by two Latin
inscriptions in Gothic characters, of which only the following words are
legible + Autem transies per medium ilorum.... mente +. The first of
these is from St. Luke, iv., v. 30, a passage often quoted by
alchemists.
This arch serves as a portal to the cupboard, which is about a foot
deep, and is divided into two compartments with two rows of shelves.
Each of these is supported by a series of Moorish arches, the tympani of
which are ornamented with tracery, or an ornamentation of leaves in a
geometrical and Oriental manner. On the rim of the upper part is
repeated the following inscription in African characters:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"Felicity and Fortune."
On the lower shelf are the following words in Spanish in Gothic
characters: + Dios: te: salve: estrella: de: la: mannana: medicina: de:
los: peccadores: reina + "Hail! morning star; medicine of sinners;
queen."
[Illustration: "BOTICA DE LOS TEMPLARIOS." FROM TOLEDO. SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM.]
This "Alhacena," or cupboard, existed formerly in the court of an old
house at Toledo, known by the name of "Casa de la Parra," and is
constantly called "Botica de los Templarios," the Templars' dispensary,
probably because the Templars occupied the parish of St. Michael, in
which the house stands, and because the word "medicine" is mentioned in
the inscription.
In order to increase the list of these objects, which are unfortunately
so rare, it is necessary to mention the organ case, decorated with fine
Moorish tracery, in the chapel founded by Diego de Anaya, Archbishop of
Seville in 1374, in the cloister of the cathedral of Salamanca.
Another specimen of furniture of interest of the 14th century is the
shrine or casket containing the remains of San Isidoro, existing in the
parish church of San Andres at Madrid. This casket is 7 feet 5 inches
long; the cover is formed of two plain surfaces, forming a roof, which
leaves a triangular pediment at each end. The shrine is made of wood,
covered outside with a coat of painting in distemper, and is decorated
with a series of painted compartments simulating pointed tricuspid
arches let into others which are mitre-shaped; in the interior spaces
are painted a series of representations of the life of the saint. This
object is extremely interesting: it is evidently of Spanish workmanship,
although it has great resemblance with the Italian _cassoni_ of the same
period. See vol. iv. "Mus. Esp." p. 593, and "Monumentos
Arquitectonicos"--livraison 67.
The most important period of artistic furniture in Spain must be looked
for in the 15th and 16th centuries: we find in this time works decorated
with sculptured figures and most delicate and exquisite ornamentation.
Nothing gives a better idea of this than the choir seats of Spanish
cathedrals. The cathedrals in Spain are different to those of France and
the north of Europe owing to the circumstance that the choir, or _coro_,
is placed in the middle of the central nave, in the traditional form of
the primitive basilicas, such as San Clemente at Rome, with the
difference however, that towards the last centuries of the Middle Ages
the _pluteus_ or walls that surround it, which are elevated about one
yard from the floor, were turned into an enclosure or wall four or five
yards in height. A space is therefore set apart in the middle of the
church, which, although spoiling the general effect of the nave,
becomes, as is the case in most Spanish cathedrals, a museum of artistic
objects of all kinds. The side facing the presbytery or high altar is
enclosed by a _reja_. [See Iron and Bronze work.] In the three remaining
sides stalls are placed against the wall, forming two rows, one near the
floor, and the other raised about a yard from the lower ones. The
general system adopted is a row of stalls separated from each other by
the arms; the backs of the lower ones serving as stands for the books
which are used by those who sit in the upper range. The subsellæ are
prolonged and form canopies, pinnacles, crest-work, and other varied
ornamentation resting on columns. They are usually made of walnut wood,
and there is not a single vacant space which is left uncovered with
figures or ornamentation in relief: the effect produced by the whole is
admirable. The number of seats varies according to the size of the
choir, or importance of the church.
It is probable that the earliest wood carvers who worked in Spain came
from Flanders or Holland, if we judge by the decided Germanic character
of the figures and ornamentation, and frequent mention made of foreign
masters; but this industry very soon took root in Spain, and Spanish
artists soon equalled or excelled their masters. The most important
choir stalls carved in the Gothic style in Spain belong only to the last
years of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century; those in the
Renaissance style come immediately afterwards, and include the whole
16th century.
One of the finest is that of Leon, it is in the purest German-Gothic
style, and may be considered as a masterpiece in its way: the large
figures are as delicately carved as the small ones. The representations
of the "Last Judgment" and "Tree of Jesse" are as beautiful as can be
imagined. The choir at Zamora is also in the German style; the large
figures which ornament it are splendid in effect. These stalls are fully
described in "The Ecclesiologist," in the following manner: "The stalls,
though not remarkably early, are very fine. The bishops, as usual, at
the centre of the west nave; then three dignitaries on each side; then
at each extremity of the west end a door into the nave; then on the
north and south sides respectively twenty stalls with subsellæ, which
also are returned. All the panelling is very fine: but that at the back
of the subsellæ I will give at full, because the types of, and legends
concerning Our Lord are so remarkably well chosen, that they may be
useful as giving ideas to our own church builders, and might be
introduced with great advantage in stained glass." "Ecclesiologist,"
vol. xiv., p. 363.
The stalls at the cathedral and church of Sto. Tomas of Avila, and
cathedral of Burgos are also very fine. The _coro_ at Barcelona is
extremely picturesque; at the backs of the stalls are placed the coats
of arms of the knights of the Golden Fleece, in a similar manner to
those of St. George's Chapel at Windsor; among these we find the arms of
Henry the VIIIth. In 1519 the Emperor Charles V. held at Barcelona a
chapter of this Order, the only one which has ever been held in Spain.
It would take too much space to enumerate the choir seats in Spain
worthy of notice; those at Toledo rank as the most important, as
including the last period of the Gothic and best Renaissance styles.
This _coro_ contains 45 stalls in the lower, and 71 in the upper part.
Mr. Street fully describes the lower part in his "Gothic Architecture in
Spain," p. 252, and says: "The lower range of stalls, fifty in number,
are the work of Maestro Rodrigo, circa A.D. 1495; and the upper range
were executed, half by Berruguete and half by Felipe de Borgoña, A.D.
1543. The old stall ends are picturesque in outline, very large, and
covered with tracery, panels and carvings with monkeys and other animals
sitting on them. The upper range of stalls is raised by four steps, so
that between the elbows of the lower stalls and the desk above them, are
spaces filled in with a magnificent series of bas reliefs, illustrating
the various incidents of the conquest of Granada. They were executed
whilst the subjects depicted were fresh in the minds of the people, and
are full of picturesque vigour and character. The names of the
fortresses are inscribed on the walls; in some we have the siege, in
others the surrender of the keys; in others the Catholic monarchs,
accompanied by Cardinal Ximenes riding in triumph through the gates."
The upper stalls, although considered by Mr. Street "heavy dull
Paganism," are among the most important artistic works existing in
Spain. Their sculptures and ornamentation reproduce the Renaissance
Italian style in its finest period. Columns of red jasper are combined
with the walnut-wood carvings, and the termination of the upper part
which rests on the wall is of white marble carved by the same artists.
Choir stalls, sharing the fate of other architectural works, followed
the general path of decay after the 16th century. Those stalls at the
cathedral of Malaga, which were carved in the 17th century by José
Michael, Pedro de Mena, and Luis Ortiz, are worthy of mention: the
figures in high relief at the back are very fine. This falling off of
artistic feeling is particularly observable at the cathedral of Cordova;
the stalls there, which were carved by Pedro Duque Cornejo in the 18th
century, are admirable in richness of ornamentation, but the whole
decoration is in the worst possible taste. The fine lecterns which are
placed in the centres of the choirs are often good examples of carving.
An admirable model of this style exists at the cathedral of Zamora.
In treating of furniture of other kinds, the silver chair or throne of
D^{n.} Martin de Aragon must figure in the first instance. It is
described in "Gold and Silver Work," p. 19. In these and other objects
which are not Oriental in style, constant reminiscences are observable
of the similarity of ideas and forms with Italian or French objects. The
large chests or _cassoni_ of different sizes which are constantly met
with in museums, or in private collections, are similar to objects of
the same kind which abound in Italy. Some are covered with fine Gothic
or Renaissance carvings in the same taste as the choir stalls, and are
ornamented also with good iron-work. Some of them were made in the
province of Cataluña of inlaid ivory, imitating in a coarse manner
Florentine and Milanese work. These objects were of the end of the 15th
and beginning of the 16th century. An excellent example exists at the
cathedral of Toledo, near the Puerta de los Leones, consisting of an
iron coffer covered with carved and repoussé work.
A fine cupboard of walnut wood may be seen at the same cathedral which
is unrivalled for its beauty. It is composed of an architectural order
with six pilasters, forming five vacant spaces completely covered with
medallions, groups of children, flowers, and a multitude of subjects of
ornamentation in reliefs, terminating with a frieze crowned with
candelabra and salient points. This piece of furniture was made in
1549-1551, by the sculptor, Pedro Pardo, for holding vestments of the
clergy. In 1780 a reproduction was made by Gregorio Lopez Durango: the
original and the copy face each other in the room which is passed on
entering the Sala Capitular. As Spanish carved wood work of the
beginning of the 16th century may be mentioned the specimens at the
Kensington Museum, Nos. 245 and 246-64, of two panels with armorial
shields.
During the 16th, but more especially the 17th, century it became very
fashionable in Europe to use secretaires or cabinets to a great extent,
which, if we calculate by those that still are found in private houses
in Spain, have never been so numerous in any other country. A great
variety of every description may be seen at the South Kensington Museum.
In looking through old inventories at Madrid, the number of these
escritoires which decorated the rooms of the Palace is almost
incredible. Many of them came from Italy, Flanders, or Germany. In a
memorial drawn up by Pedro Gutierrez and presented to the King, begging
for protection for this industry, he says: "The cabinets and
escritoires, _contadores y bufetes_, which were worth 500, 600, and 700
reales when brought from Germany, are now made in Spain for 250 and 300
reales each." (Acad. de la Hist., N. 6, vol. iv. 371.) The quantity and
importance of those brought from Germany is to be inferred from an edict
promulgated by Philip III., in Valladolid in 1603, in which "cabinets of
every kind coming from Nuremberg are not allowed to enter the country,"
ib. 518.
These cabinets were made in a great variety of ways. Some were, as we
have seen, copied in Spain from foreign models, but the greater number
constituted a characteristic industry of the Peninsula. Some were
covered with wood carvings in a similar style to the large armoires in
the Sala Capitular at Toledo. Others were known by the name of
_Vargueños_, because the great centre of their manufacture is supposed
to have existed at the village of Vargas in the province of Toledo.
These cabinets are effective; their geometrical ornamentation is a
reminiscence of the Oriental style, and the iron work outside is very
striking. A good specimen may be seen at the Kensington Museum, No.
1073, '71; a woodcut of the upper portion is given on the next page.
We also meet with cabinets and armoires with glass doors covered with
tortoise-shell and gilt bronze. A splendid series of inlaid work of
tortoise-shell, ebony, mother-of-pearl and ivory is preserved at the
Sacristy of the Cartuja at Granada, made by a friar of the same convent,
Manuel Vazquez, at the beginning of the last century. Cabinets of ebony,
inlaid and covered with repoussé silver work, must have been very
generally made in Spain; silver was used to so great an extent after the
conquest of America, that a law was issued in 1574 prohibiting with the
utmost rigour the making and selling of this kind of merchandise, in
order not to increase the scarcity of silver. "No cabinets, desks,
coffers, braziers, etc., shall be manufactured of silver."
[Illustration: VARGUEÑO CABINET. SPANISH. 16TH CENTURY. SOUTH KENSINGTON
MUSEUM.]
Cabinets of inlaid ivory or different coloured woods which were
originally imported from Italy and Germany were constantly reproduced in
Spain, as will appear by the following dialogue:-- "How much has your
worship paid for this cabinet? It is worth more than 40 ducats. What
wood is it made of? The red one is made of mahogany from the Habana, and
the black one is made of ebony, and the white one of ivory. You will
find the workmanship excellent. Here you will find a finer cabinet.
Where was it made? It was brought with these chairs from Salamanca."
("Dialogos Familiares," by J. de Luna, Paris, 1669, p. 111.) Among
cabinets inlaid with bone or ivory there is a peculiar style in which
furniture brought from the Portuguese possessions in the East was
imitated in a rough way. Some also have reached us in which the drawers
are covered with embroidery in silks of different colours, exquisitely
worked. In the 17th century furniture of different kinds was covered
with embroidered silks. At the Kensington Museum there is an interesting
coffer, which came from the Convent of Loeches, and was originally the
gift of Count Duke de Olivares, Philip the IVth's minister.
The cabinets decorated with _pietre duri_, which are frequently met with
in Spain were of foreign make. Madame d'Aunoy, in describing the house
of a grandee of Spain in her "Voyage d'Espagne," p. 56, vol. ii., Lyon,
1643, says, "et de grands cabinets de pièces de rapport enrichis de
pierreries, lesquels ne sont pas faits en Espagne: des tables d'argent
d'entre eux, et des miroirs admirables tant pour leur grandeur que pour
leurs riches bordures, dont les moins belles sont d'argent. Ce que j'ai
trouvé de plus beau sont des _escaparates_; une espèce de petit cabinet
fermé d'une seule glace et rempli de tout ce qu'on se peut figurer de
plus rare." Cabinets ornamented with paintings on glass, or copper, or
enamels came from Flanders, and some rare specimens of damasquine work
were most probably Milanese manufacture.