way as Morel at Seville. The splendid _reja_ at the Capilla Mayor with
the fine gilt bronze pulpits, the bas-reliefs of the doors of Lions,
1564, the font, and railing surrounding the altar of the Virgin in the
coro were all made by him. The pulpits, made as it is asserted out of
the bronze sepulchre of Dn. Alvaro de Luna are octagonal, six of their
sides are admirably decorated with bas-reliefs of exquisite work
divided by pilasters and terminated by a finely designed frieze. The
door of Lions is covered in a similar manner with bronze plates
ornamented in the finest renaissance style; the knockers are models in
their way. In the opposite door del Reloj, these reliefs have been
copied in 1713 by the silversmiths Zurreño y Dominguez.
Notwithstanding the great merit of these works, the stands for the choir
books are even finer and more exquisite in detail. They are made of gilt
bronze and represent subjects from the life of St. Ildefonso, the
Prophet David and the Apocalypse. They were modelled and designed by
Juan Navarro in 1562, and carved by Nicolas de Vergara and his son some
years afterwards.
Two artists, natives of Aragon, were very famous during the same century
for their bronze work. One of these, Celma, made the pulpits of the
cathedral of Santiago, which are finely ornamented with busts between
the columns, and bas-reliefs representing subjects of the lives of the
saints, and a fine design of leaves and flowers. In one of the
inscriptions may be read: "_Joannes Baptista Celma, Aragonentis patria
pingendi artifex salutis anno 1563. Compostellæ faciebat._" The other
artist was Cela, the author of the fine reja del coro of the church of
the Pilar at Saragossa, dated 1574-79.
Two gilt metal Monstrances of Spanish work of the 16th century are in
the South Kensington Museum. No. 4310, 57, represents an architectural
shrine, decorated with strap and cartouche-work, columns, and arcades in
the renaissance style; it is dated 1537. See woodcut on next page. The
other, No. 190, 66, has an ornamented stem, with knob, on which stands a
triangular shrine with kneeling angels; above is a smaller shrine
surmounted by a crucifix.
[Illustration: SPANISH MONSTRANCE, DATED 1537. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.]
Objects of bronze work of the 17th century which are not by Fanelli,
Tacca, or other foreigners, are less numerous; most of them show signs
of the decline of art at this period. The chiselled and openworked altar
frontal, at the burial-place of the kings of Spain at the Escorial, is
a very fine work of its kind. The shrine of the Sagrario de la Santa
Forma, also at the Escorial, is an excellent piece of workmanship--both
these objects were made by lay brothers of the convent. Friar Eugenio de
la Cruz and Friar Juan de la Concepcion, silversmiths, worked during the
reign of Philip IV. at chiselling these and other objects of bronze.
The exaggerations and bad taste, which were so common in every branch of
artistic industry, were as prominent in bronzes--the bas-reliefs of this
metal which ornament the back of the high altar of the cathedral of
Toledo, at the "Transparente," are generally mentioned as models of bad
taste. They are by Narciso Thomé; the architecture, painting, statues
and carvings in marble, jasper and bronze are by the same person, as
appears in the inscription which he placed there at its termination in
1734.
On the accession of King Charles III. from Naples in 1759, these defects
were corrected, in part owing to the classical influence which became so
general in Europe, and continued to the early part of the present
century. The silver manufactory of Martinez founded in Madrid under his
auspices, has already been mentioned in treating of silver work. Objects
of bronze of all kinds were made there in this classic style, and at the
porcelain manufactory of Buen Retiro, where splendid tables were made of
pietre dure, mounted in bronze. The most important objects there
produced may be seen at the chapel of the royal palace of Madrid, and
the palaces of Aranjuez and the Escurial.
ARMS.
Those who have a taste for the study of prehistorical monuments in
Spain, will find a very extensive collection of arms and other utensils
of this period at the Muséo Arqueologico, Madrid, which have been found
in different localities of the country. They chiefly consist of
hatchets, knives, and lance and arrow points made of flint, and are
similar in form to those which have been discovered in the north and
centre of Europe. There are therefore, constant analogies between the
implements used by the primitive Iberians, and those of other European
races of the prehistoric period.
The arms and weapons of the following age, known as the age of bronze,
are less common in Spain, although a few specimens exist in the Muséo of
Madrid, and the "Academia de la Historia." They chiefly consist of
swords, daggers, and lance and arrow points. The hilts are formed of the
same material as the blade in some instances, in others they consist of
a blade fitting into a wooden or ivory handle. The blades are cut on
both sides; they are straight, and finished off in a point; in the
centre runs a thick rim made for the purpose of strengthening the blade,
and that it should not bend. One of these specimens measures 30 inches
long. The daggers are about one-third smaller, with the same rim in the
centre; the bronze hilt is nailed to the blade, and the lance and arrow
points are of the same kind. These weapons are similar in style to the
numerous examples found in other countries, especially England. The
hatchets are also the same, their manner of being fixed on to their
handles and their size and weight being identical with the English ones.
One of the few specimens which varies from this general rule, is a
dagger, with a cylindrical horn-like hilt, belonging to S^{r}. Villaamil:
it was found at Galicia with other interesting arms. (Consult Muséo
Español de Antiguedades, iv. 63.)
The probable antiquity of these weapons always remains a matter of
doubt; this is especially the case with stone implements. When on their
discovery the geological structure of the soil has been studied, some
evidence exists on which to ground an opinion; but this is very seldom
the case in Spain, and Messrs. Prado, Villanova, Botella, and
MacPherson, are among the few and most trustworthy geologists who have
investigated this subject. With reference to bronze implements, Spanish
authors have a tendency to attribute them to prehistoric times. I see no
reason to justify this opinion, and it appears to me that when this
subject has been studied in a more satisfactory manner, it will appear
that these arms were used during the Roman domination at the same time
as the iron ones.
In reaching the Iron period, already within historical times, we find
that the Spanish people, when once under the Roman rule, used the well
known arms and utensils which will be found reproduced in all elementary
books on archæology. In this, as in every other sphere, the Romans
imposed their civilization on the races they conquered. Some important
exceptions, however, exist to this general rule. The Spanish swords must
have been excellent in quality, since the Romans adopted them after the
Carthaginian war: they were however, never able to imitate the manner in
which they were tempered. Suidas says: _Romani patriis gladiis depositis
Hannibalico bello Hispaniensium assumpserunt ... sed ferri boni atem et
fabrica solertiam imitari non potuerunt._ The locality where the best
swords were made in Spain was Bilbilis (Calatayud, province of Aragon),
the birthplace of the poet Martial, who, when praising the waters of the
river Jalon and the excellence of its quality for tempering metals,
says, _Salone qui ferrum gelat._ These swords were wide, and cut on both
edges; their points were sharp, and all of them had in the centre signs
of a central groove running down its length. Several specimens may be
seen at the Museo Arqueologico, Madrid, which are 15 or 19 inches long.
The Spaniards used also swords of another form, which were known by the
name of _falcata_, from falx, sickle; the blade was curved, and it has
been supposed to be the genuine Spanish model. The blade was widened in
proportion from the hilt to the point, which was very sharp: it cut like
a sickle in the interior curve, and only a small part was sharpened in
the opposite side. The best specimen, which exists in the Madrid Museum,
is 22-1/2 inches long. The weapons made at Toledo must have been very
famous during the Roman period: Gracio Falisco, a poet of the time of
Julius Cæsar, says, in mentioning them: _Ima toletano præcingant ilia
cultro_; the sword manufactory there attained afterwards great
importance.
I must end by mentioning the _funda_, or slings, and leaden plummets
(_glandes_), which were thrown so dexterously by the slingers of the
Balearic Islands. The slingers of this province are mentioned with great
praise by ancient authors. (V. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Antiquities. _Funda._)
During the Visigothic domination, some modifications must have been
introduced in the form and number of the arms used, probably owing to
the tradition of the Gothic race, and the Byzantine or Oriental
influences, which they accept in every sphere; but the names and
explanation of these weapons, given by San Isidoro in his "Etimologies,"
lib. xviii., indicate that the Roman system was adopted as a general
rule. The chief modification which may be established for the Visigoths,
and the greater part of the European races, is that from their time the
breast-plates and metallic pieces, which served as a protection for the
legs and arms, fell into disuse, and were substituted by coats of mail
or chain armour. This is deduced from San Isidoro's not describing
these metallic plates; although he gives numerous details on different
sorts of coats of mail, including those made of coarse stuffs woven in
Silisia. At this time, the use of planks or boards to protect the body
was abandoned, and did not prove acceptable until the end of the 13th
century, when they again became very generally adopted in Spain.
During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Spanish Christians continued to
use the same weapons as in other European states. The history of Spanish
arms, in like manner with its artistic history and civilization, is
similar to that of other nations; it frequently occurs that objects of
this kind are classified with those of other countries, the only
exceptions to this general rule being those which result from the
Moorish conquest and influence.
The Arabs, after they took possession of Spain at the beginning of the
8th century, imported, with their arts and industries, special arms and
weapons, the greater part of which were copied from Persian models;
their swords, helmets, and shields deserve special attention; in other
weapons the difference is not so great; and, indeed, in the two first it
is chiefly confined to their decoration.
None of the arms made by the Moors have been so justly celebrated, or so
delicately worked as their swords. An Arabic author, El Camus, says the
Arabs had as many as 1000 names to designate swords. In the first years
of the Hegira, their historians praise the swords made at Yemen, and in
India; later on, those of Syria; Damascus was, however, the great centre
where arms of all kinds were made. Several interesting Arabic
manuscripts are known on this subject, such as the _Treatise on steel
blades_ in the library of Gotha, that on _Different kinds of arms, with
the properties of lances, swords, and horses_, in the Library of Leyden,
and numerous articles by Oriental scholars, which have appeared in the
"Journal Asiatique," and other reviews. The manufacture in Syria decayed
in the 15th century; other centres gained in importance, specially those
in Egypt, Morocco, and Spain, which had rivalled the East in this
industry during the Middle Ages.
The Arabs introduced their forms and manner of decorating arms when they
invaded the Peninsula; it is, however, highly probable that the
traditions still existed at Bilbilis and Toledo of the manner of
tempering steel. It is known that Abd-er Rahman II. (A.D. 822-852)
reformed the manufacture of arms at Toledo, and that in A.D. 965, Al
Hakem II. sent a rich present of specimens made in the locality to Don
Sancho, King of Leon. Notwithstanding the high reputation of the
industries of Cordova, the great centre and court of the Spanish Arabs
during the earlier period of their domination, "it never became famous
for its working steel," as Fernandez Gonzalez tells us in his study on
Spanish moresque swords, from which much of this information has been
derived. (V. Mus. Esp. de Antiguedades, V. I. and V.). Almeria, Murcia,
Seville, and Granada were greatly distinguished in this manufacture
during the domination of the Arabs in Spain.
We know that Almeria, during the 12th and 13th centuries, "was also
famous for the fabrication of all sorts of vases and utensils of iron,
copper, or glass." (Mohamadan Dynasties in Spain, by Al-Makkari, vol. i.
p. 51.) Abou Said, in writing in the 13th century of Murcia, says,
"Objects are made there of latteen and ron, consisting of knives and
scissors, with an ornamentation in gold. Other similar utensils, proper
for the outfit of a bride, or a soldier, in such large quantities, that
the mere thought of it confuses the imagination."
The same author, when speaking of the swords of Seville, says, "The
steel which is made at Seville is most excellent; it would take too much
time to enumerate the delicate objects of every kind which are made in
this town." These industries must have continued in the hands of the
Moors after the town was conquered by Spaniards in the 13th century. In
the following century we find in the will of King D^{n}. Pedro, "I also
endow my son with my Castilian sword, which I had made here in Seville,
ornamented with stones and gold."
No specimens of Hispaño moresque swords exist previous to the 15th
century. We possess some highly interesting examples of this period,
all, or the most part, of which were made at Granada, the last centre of
civilization of the Spanish Arabs. The most important are the sword,
dagger, and double-handed sword and knife, which, with the authentic
costume, belonging to Boabdil, the last king of Granada, are now in the
possession of the Marquis of Villaseca, at Madrid. These objects were
gained by an ancestor of the marquis, who took Boabdil prisoner in 1482
at the battle of Lucena. In compliance with the chivalrous practice of
the time, the arms of the conquered king went to the conqueror, and have
been kept as heirlooms since that time.
The sword of Villaseca is 39 inches long, this includes 12 inches of the
hilt. (See woodcut.) "The steel blade," says S^{r}. Fernandez, in his
article, vol. v. p. 395, "is of a later date, and appears to have been
added to the sword after the older one had disappeared. It is a Toledo
blade, marked with the letter S, similar to the one used by Alonso
Sahagun the elder, and with a hollow line in the centre."
I am of opinion, however, that it may be the original blade, for the
other sword, which still exists at Granada, of the same kind, has
likewise a blade marked T, Toledo. This coincidence appears to suggest
that those made there were preferred, and in both instances they exactly
fit the sheath, which is the original one.
[Illustration: Arabic]
[Illustration: Arabic]
The hilt of this fine sword is formed of solid gold, enamelled in blue,
white, and red. This decoration runs along the pommel and cross bars.
The axle is made of ivory carved with the utmost skill. Two octagons are
on each side, with the following inscription in semi-Cufic letters: (may
you) "obtain your object." On the other side: "in saving his life."
[Illustration: SWORD OF BOABDIL. VILLASECA COLLECTION, MADRID.]
Four shields surround in the upper part this axle, which contains the
following inscription in rather illegible characters:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"In the name of God, power belongs to him, there is no other divinity
but he, happiness proceeds from God alone."
In the lower part in similar shields we read:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"Miracles belong to God, for certainly the ignorant do not know God at
first, for it is their habit to err."
On the pommel is the following inscription:
[Illustration: Arabic]
Say, "He alone is God, Eternal God, who neither created, nor was
engendered."
Under the pommel, on green enamel, appear the following letters:
[Illustration: Arabic]
Say, "The only God, Eternal, not ..."
[Illustration: Arabic]
On the other side: "was neither created, nor engendered, and has no
equal."
On a band which appears under the axle, on enamel, are the following
letters:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"God is clement and merciful," and on the other side:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"God is gifted with the best memory."
The learned archaeologist and orientalist, D^{n} Pascual de Gayangos, is
of opinion that this sword was worn hanging round the neck, between the
shoulder blades. A small bag, _tahali_, probably hung also from the
leather girdle, which still exists in the collection of Villaseca.
The _montante_, or double-handed sword, has an iron cylindrical hilt
inlaid with ivory. On it appears the motto of the kings of Granada:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"God alone is the conqueror."
The blade, part of which is wanting, is marked with the crescent.
The dagger is superior in artistic merit. The hilt is made of iron,
ornamented with ivory delicately engraved in arabesques. The blade is
damascened in gold, with inscriptions on one side, repeating:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"Health, permanent glory, and lasting happiness [belong to God"].
On the opposite side:
[Illustration: Arabic]
"It was made by Reduan."
The scabbard of this dagger is most beautiful, its chapes are made of
silver enamelled in green, and the remainder is of crimson velvet
embroidered in gold, from which hangs a fine tassel of silk and gold
thread. A small eating knife is fitted into this same scabbard, which
possesses no artistic interest.
The woodcut on the next page will give a good idea of the blade of a
Moorish dagger of the 15th century.
A sword of a similar kind to the one already described may be seen at
Granada at the _Administrador's_ of the Generalife. It belongs to the
marquis of Campotejar, a descendant of Sidi Jahia, a Moorish prince who
was converted to Christianity. The marquis of Vega de Armijo has an
interesting sword of the same kind, and two others exist at the Museo de
Artilleria, Madrid, which belonged to Aliatar; Boabdil's sword is at the
Royal Armoury. The Hispano Arab sword, which for centuries had been in a
saint's hand at the church of San Marcelo, Leon, is now at the Museo
Arqueologico, Madrid.
The Spanish Moors used helmets similar in form to those of the
Christians, though their manner of decoration was different; after the
importations made by the Crusaders, the similarity must every day have
been greater. The _almofar_, which appears by its name to have been
originally oriental, and which is constantly named in Spanish documents
from the poem of the Cid, was a protection for the head, of a similar
form to those used in France and other countries, consisting of a hood
made of chain armour, covering the head and leaving the face free; upon
it was placed the hood or helmet. Some helmets exist at the Royal
Armoury of Madrid of Spanish Moorish origin; among them are two very
remarkable ones, which have been attributed to Boabdil, the last king of
Granada. (Nos. 2345, 2356, of the Catalogue.) They are decorated with
gold filigree, niellos, and geometrical ornamentation in the best
oriental style, most admirably worked, and different in this respect to
the helmets used in this time. Another interesting helmet, which
belonged to this ill-fated monarch, exists in the province of Almeria.
[Illustration: MOORISH DAGGER, 15TH CENTURY.]
The _adargas_, or shields, are more varied: they were frequently adopted
by the Christians. They were generally round, with a salient point in
the centre, _ombilicus_, or a sort of iron grating made for the purpose
of entangling the adversary's sword. These shields were of wood or thick
cowhide, _vacaries_, and were decorated outside in a variety of ways,
sometimes with pierced iron plates or bands of leather, forming
arabesques; and at other times with an ornamentation of iron, and
leather embroidered with gold and silver, with rich hanging tassels and
pendants. Shields of a prolonged form were also very constantly used,
terminating in a semicircle in the upper part, and in the lower by a
sharp point or a semicircle at the top and bottom, as may be seen in the
paintings of the Sala de la Justicia at the Alhambra. A good collection
of round shields may be seen at the Armoury at Madrid: they are not
earlier in date than the 15th century, the most interesting among them
are Nos. 233, 253, 389, 595, and 607 of the Catalogue. Some of them are
exquisite in work and detail. These shields, although belonging to the
latest period of the middle ages, were used before this time, for they
appear on the ivory casket existing at the cathedral of Pamplona, [V.
Ivories, p. 130], dated A.D. 1005, and in miniatures of Spanish MSS. of
that date. One of the best examples, which may be mentioned to confirm
these indications, will be found in a MS. at the British Museum (Add.
ii., 695), which was painted during a period of twenty years in the
monastery of Silos, near Burgos, and finished and completed A.D. 1109.
Mr. Shaw, in his "Dresses and Decorations," vol. v., reproduces some of
these figures, and says: "The figures which form our plate represent
Spanish warriors of the later part of the 11th century, and are
interesting on account of their remarkable resemblance to the
Anglo-Norman soldiers on the celebrated Bayeux tapestry. This
resemblance is observable in the style of the drawing, as well as in the
costumes. It is highly probable that the military habits of this period
were borrowed from the Saracens. This supposition is strengthened by the
fact that Arabic inscriptions in Cufic letters are found among the
ornaments of the several robes still preserved which belonged to German
and Frankish barons of the 10th and 11th centuries. One peculiarity of
our Spanish warriors is the round shield with the elegant ornaments on
the disc."
These may be considered the chief varieties of Spanish arms in the
Middle Ages. In other instances the French and Italian forms are
adopted. The manufacture of arms was not reduced then as at a later date
to the monopoly of the Government or to determined localities. Besides
the arms made at Toledo, those of Seville, Granada, Valencia, Zaragoza,
Barcelona, the Basque provinces, and Cuellar, were very famous. Readers
of Shakespeare will remember Falstaff's _bilbo_, a rapier made at Bilbao
in the Basque provinces. The principal merit of these arms consisted in
the manner in which the artist tempered his metal. It was generally done
at night in order to distinguish in the darkness the exact colour of the
heated steel in dipping it into the water. The swords known by the name
of _perrillo_ were highly esteemed in Spain during the 15th and 16th
centuries; they were marked with a figure resembling a dog. Cervantes
mentions and praises these blades in his "Rinconete y Cortadillo" and
"Don Quixote." They were made by a Moor of Granada, who it is stated had
been swordsman of King Boabdil, and became a Christian under the name of
Julian del Rey. His godfather was King Ferdinand, and besides working at
Granada he did so at Zaragoza and Toledo. When an artist of merit
excelled in a given locality, it absorbed all the fame of this industry.
During the Renaissance larger centres of this industry were established
in large towns, and the fame of the objects they produced was
concentrated there. Toledo absorbed the importance in the industry of
sword making.