ITALIAN MOVEMENTS IN ALBANIA--CONQUEST OF MONTENEGRO
While the French and British were strengthening their position in
Saloniki in every possible way, the Italians were beginning a movement
which was to have some influence in the Balkans.
Already, a year before, Italy had landed a small containing force in
Avlona, Albania, on the Adriatic coast, because Greece had previously
occupied a section of southern Albania, contiguous to her frontier.
Albania, it will be remembered, had been declared an independent
nation after the Balkan wars and William of Wied had been appointed
its sovereign, by the consent of the Powers. But so turbulent had his
subjects been that finally, when an uprising threatened his life, he
fled on a foreign warship. The leader of the Albanians, in so far as
they could be brought to respect any one general leader, was Essad
Pasha, the Albanian commander at Scutari, who had defended that place
so long and so valiantly against the attacks of the Montenegrins
during the First Balkan War.
Already in the latter days of November there had been rumors that
Italy was landing an army of considerable size in Avlona, to assist
the Serbians. This could easily be done without attracting much
attention, as this town, often described as the "Gibraltar of the
Adriatic," is not more than fifty or sixty miles from the Italian
coast and can be reached by steamer in a few hours. Its occupation by
an enemy would be highly undesirable, from the point of view of
Italian interests.
Baron Sonnino, the Italian prime minister, made a speech in which he
declared that Italy was determined to do everything to assist the
Serbian army, and that the Italian flag on the other side of the
Adriatic would also constitute a reaffirmation of Italy's traditional
policy, which included the maintenance of Albanian independence.
By the end of the first week of December, 1915, an army of 50,000 had
been landed. With part of this force Italy occupied Durazzo on
December 21, 1915, joining up there with Essad Pasha, who had declared
himself against Austria. A few days later this chief, in the name of
the Albanian nation, declared war on Austria.
Meanwhile, the Austrian warships had become very active along the
coast; in December their activities culminated in an attempt to
bombard Durazzo, whereupon they were engaged by some Italian, French,
and British ships and compelled to retire, with the loss of two
destroyers.
Thus, at the beginning of the year 1916, a period of comparative quiet
seemed to be settling down over the Balkans, with one exception. And
that exception was Montenegro. Austria was now prepared to turn her
full attention to this little state, whose soldiers had invaded her
territory several times, during the Serbian campaign at the very
beginning of the war, and now again, when the final invasion had been
undertaken.
Little was heard of Montenegro in the press dispatches, but she had
thrown the full strength of her little army into the field against the
Austro-German invaders. Before the Balkan wars her fighting men had
numbered some forty thousand, but by this time they were reduced to
something less than twenty thousand. They were short of artillery and
munitions, short of all kinds of supplies, even food, but it was a
difficult task for the Allies to offer them any material relief.
Montenegro is unserved by any seaport and even the Italians who had
landed at Avlona did not hope to establish any communication with them
through the mountainous country intervening.
The one topographical feature of Montenegro that must be especially
noted is a mountain which rises abruptly, dominating the surrounding
Austrian territory along the coast, more especially the seaport and
naval station, Cattaro. The importance of this eminence, Mount Lovcen,
would have been paramount, had it been properly equipped for offensive
action.
For Cattaro is a natural harbor of the first order, capable of
accommodating the whole Austrian fleet. The barracks at Cattaro are
plainly visible from the top of Mount Lovcen, but to bring guns of a
large enough caliber up there to reach those barracks was practically
impossible, on account of the rugged nature of the surrounding
country.
During the ten weeks the fourth and final invasion of Serbia was
running its course, the warriors of the Black Mountains were engaged
in giving their kinsmen, the Serbians, their full support. Indeed, the
Montenegrin army, though it amounted only to a few regiments, had held
a slice of Bosnia for some time, formed the left flank of the whole
Serbian position and did good service during the earlier stages of the
conflict, being opposed to the Austrian lines around Fotcha and on the
Lim, a branch of the Drina.
But the Austrians along this part of the front were satisfied merely
to hold the Montenegrins back, not a very difficult task, considering
their numbers. On the other hand, any attempt to advance into their
mountainous country would have been an extremely arduous undertaking,
entirely out of proportion to the importance of the Montenegrin
forces, from a military point of view.
When Serbia had finally been overrun, Mackensen withdrew his Germans
and also some of the Austrians, these being sent north up to the
Russian front, where there seemed danger of renewed activities on the
part of the czar's forces. Especially threatening were the rumors that
the Russians were about to make a descent on Bulgaria through Rumania,
or across the Black Sea.
The Austrians along the Montenegrin front, however, remained where
they were and presently they were strongly reenforced, for Austria was
determined on the permanent elimination of Montenegro, as she had been
determined on putting an end to the Serbian nation. Nor was this
impossible, in spite of the mountainous nature of the country, if only
the invaders were provided with heavy enough guns. What could be done
in Serbia could also be done in Montenegro.
As far back as the middle of November, 1915, it was announced in the
dispatches from Rome that Austria was assembling a force of three army
corps in Herzegovina to attack Montenegro from that side. There was
also available the Austrian troops already in Serbia on the eastern
frontier of Montenegro, to say nothing of the Bulgarians, who so far
assisted the Austrians as to take Djakova, on December 3, 1915. The
whole expedition was put under the command of Von Koevess, shortly
after the fall of Mitrovitza.
King Nicholas was not ignorant of what was coming. At the end of
November, 1915, after Serbia's last resistance had been overcome, he
issued a proclamation to his people in which he said that Montenegro
would continue the fight to the bitter end, even though it was
probable that she would share the fate of Serbia. The Allies, he went
on to state, would make every effort to keep, not only the army, but
the people as well, supplied with all that was needed to live and to
resist the enemy. Supplies had always been a hard problem in that
poverty-stricken little land and when the Serbian refugees began
flocking in, it became an insoluble problem, unless with help from
outside, which was not always forthcoming.
It was obvious that, in spite of the fact that they had assisted in a
successful invasion of Serbia, the Austrians, now that they were by
themselves again, were not so confident of overcoming even the
Montenegrins that they could afford to undertake the campaign
impulsively, for during the whole month of December, 1915, they did
not press the campaign on the Montenegrin front. During this period
and the first week of January, 1916, they were satisfied with more or
less holding their lines, though they did advance some distance on the
eastern, or Sanjak, front, capturing Plevlie, Ipek, and Bielopolie.
But, as an offset to this success, the Montenegrins scored at least
one victory of considerable magnitude. On December 1, 1915, the
Montenegrin forces operating in southeastern Bosnia defeated the
Austrians near Foca, on the Drina, seven miles across the Drina,
forcing the enemy to retreat along the river toward Gorazda. A few
days later the Austrians retaliated by sending an aeroplane flying
over Cettinje, which dropped a number of bombs on that small city.
Other aeroplanes, flying over the Montenegrin encampments, dropped
circulars stating that all Serbia had been conquered, and if
Montenegro made any further resistance, she would suffer the same
fate. Toward the end of the month the Austrians began a heavy
bombardment of Mount Lovcen and launched a strong infantry attack
against it, but were repelled with considerable losses.
On December 23, 1915, the Montenegrin Government reported having
inflicted a reverse on the Austrians advancing from the east. The
Austrians bombarded violently in the Mojkovac sector, then attacked
Touriak, in the direction of Rozai-Berane, but were thrown back. At
Berane the Montenegrins assumed the offensive for a brief space, and
at Bielo they drove the enemy troops back as far as Ivania.
However, these were all minor operations and the successes of the
Montenegrins were not of a permanent nature. Apparently the Austrians
were all this time strengthening their lines and arranging their
forces for the general offensive, which they were ready to begin early
in January, 1916.
On January 6, 1916, Koevess began decisive operations with a series of
violent attacks on the eastern front, on the Rivers Tara, Lim, and
Ibar, while at the same time the warships in the Gulf of Cattaro
opened a terrific fire on Mount Lovcen.
For four days the Montenegrin troops offered a determined resistance.
Berane, on the Lim, was captured by the Austrians on the 10th. On the
same day the warships suddenly ceased their bombardment of Mount
Lovcen and Austrian infantry swept up the mountain sides and delivered
a strong attack. The handful of Montenegrins at the top were
completely overwhelmed and Lovcen was captured. Some surprise was
expressed among the Allies at the time that this supposedly powerful
stronghold should so easily succumb, but it soon developed that the
defenders were not only short of food, but they had run out of
ammunition and had practically fired their last cartridges.
With Lovcen in the hands of the enemy Cettinje could no longer be held
by the Montenegrins, and on January 13, 1916, it was occupied by the
Austrians. The back of the Montenegrin resistance had now been broken.
On January 17, 1916, it was announced in the Austrian Parliament by
Count Tisza that the Montenegrin Government had sued for terms of
peace. Montenegro's official version of this sudden surrender was
given in a note by the Montenegrin Consul General in Paris:
"The newspapers announce that unhappy Montenegro has had to submit to
the inevitable after having struggled heroically under particularly
disadvantageous conditions against an enemy much superior in number
and formidably armed. It may be considered as certain that if the king
and the Government have yielded it is because the army had expended
the last of its munitions.
"Even flight was impossible. The enemy was on the frontiers; there was
no escape by the sea; inveterate hostility was to be encountered in
Albania. If the Serbian army was able to escape from Serbia, the weak
contingents of Montenegro, exhausted by the superhuman efforts of
their long and desperate, but effective resistance, and by privations
of all kinds, were not able to seek refuge on friendly territory. It
is possible to discuss _ad infinitum_ the conditions of the suspension
of hostilities, the details of which, it is to be observed, come from
enemy sources; it is even possible to heap insults on the unfortunate
conquered...."
The question immediately raised in the British and French newspapers
was: who opened negotiations with the enemy--the king or his minister?
Miuskovitch, who was frankly in favor of the Austrians, had become
premier at a critical moment in Montenegro's fate and negotiations
were undoubtedly proceeding while the fighting on Mount Lovcen was
still in progress. It was said that this was well known to the troops
in the field, and in consequence they had not made so determined a
resistance as they might otherwise have done.
Meanwhile throughout Germany and Austria celebrations of the great
victory were going on and a Vienna paper published what purported to
be the terms that were to be granted the conquered Montenegrins, harsh
in the extreme. It was even indicated that the Montenegrin soldiers
must all serve with the Austrians on the Italian front. And next there
was a strange silence, a period during which no mention at all was
made of Montenegrins, as to whether they had accepted the terms or
not.
Meanwhile among the Allies, who had not expected that Montenegro would
give in so quickly, there was much criticism of the little state's
surrender. It was suggested that it had been inspired for dynastic
reasons, by a pro-Austrian section of the court. It was even asserted
that King Nicholas had secretly come to terms with Austria before the
fall of Mount Lovcen and that the resistance put up by the
Montenegrins was unreal and of a purely theatrical character. It was
recalled that the wife of the Montenegrin Crown Prince was a German
princess. It was said that a compact was in existence, and had been in
existence for several months, by which Montenegro agreed to hand Mount
Lovcen over to the Austrians in return for Scutari.
These speculations were finally terminated by an official statement
issued by Sir J. Roper Parkington, the Consul General for Montenegro
in London, in which he said that the king and the Government of
Montenegro had peremptorily refused the conditions of peace offered
them by Austria and that Montenegro would continue the struggle to the
bitter end. The announcement made by the Austrian Government that the
Montenegrins had already laid down their arms seemed, therefore, to
have been without foundation. This communique also stated that all the
reports issued by the Austrians had been in large part untrue.
"King Nicholas," continued this official announcement, "remains with
his two sons at the head of his troops, to organize a final defense,
and to take part, in case of necessity, in the retreat of his brave
army. His majesty expresses the hope that the Allies will eventually
afford him effectual assistance for the retreat, as they have already
done for the Serbian army."
In the fourth week in January, 1916, the Montenegrin premier, M.
Miuskovitch, issued a note admitting there had been negotiations with
Austria, but asserted that they had been merely a pretext to gain
time, to insure the safe retreat of the army toward Podgoritza and
Scutari, as well as to give opportunity to the Serbian troops to leave
Podgoritza and Scutari for Alessio and Durazzo in Albania.
On January 23, 1916, old King Nicholas appeared in Rome, where he was
met by his son-in-law, the King of Italy, and from thence he went on
to Lyons, in France, where his queen had preceded him and where, by
the courtesy of the French Government, the capital of Montenegro was
temporarily established.
At this time the Austrian Government had continued issuing reports to
the effect that the Montenegrin soldiers were laying down their arms,
but this seems to have been only partly true. Though many of them were
captured, a much greater number joined the Serbians in Albania, where
they made a juncture with the forces under Essad Pasha.
The Austrians, however, continued their advance, occupying Scutari on
the 23d and San Giovanni di Medua on the 25th. Thus Montenegro itself
was finally overrun.
But this little country, the poorest in Europe, offered the Austrians
very little reward for their enterprise.
An Austrian journalist, accompanying the invading forces when they
took possession of the king's palace in Cettinje, described the
interior decorations as follows:
"In the reception room two great oil paintings occupied the positions
of honor. One was that of the Emperor of Austria and the other was
that of the Queen of Hungary. In the king's study, on one of the
writing tables, there was a portrait of Francis Joseph and in other
rooms we also came across his picture."
[Illustration: The Austrian Campaign in Montenegro.]
On the whole, Montenegro had not made the desperate resistance which
its reputation for hard fighting had led people to believe it would
put up. This partial failure was explained by M. Miuskovitch, who
declared that when Montenegro entered the war on the side of the
Allies she had been promised everything necessary for the army and
also for the civil population, because even in normal times they
import wheat. Russia and France were to have sent supplies, but this
promise could not be carried out. They had done the best they could
with the materials on hand, but without ammunition they could not be
expected to fight.
The Montenegrins, said the premier, had been given the task of
protecting the rear of the Serbian army and they had defended the
Sandjak frontier so successfully that on this side the Serbians had
had time to retire. But when the Serbians were obliged to fall back on
Montenegrin territory, their arrival precipitated events. The
Montenegrins had still some supplies, but with 120,000 to 130,000
additional mouths to feed, these were soon exhausted. On many
occasions the Montenegrin soldiers did not receive rations for a whole
week and when they did, each ration only amounted to half a pound of
corn flour a day.
After escaping, King Nicholas sent the following letter to General
Vukovitch:
"I order you anew to resist the enemy in the most energetic way
possible. In the event of a retreat, follow the direction of the
Serbian army toward Durazzo. The Serbian commanders have been informed
of this. You will receive food supplies at Medua and farther on.
"Prince Mirko and all the other ministers who have remained cannot in
any case open negotiations with anyone whatever. The French Government
has promised our retreating army all possible facilities, such as it
gave to the Serbian army. Prince Mirko and the other ministers must in
no case remain, but make every possible effort to escape."
Having completed their invasion of Montenegro, the Austrians now began
to continue their advance over into Albania. On January 26, 1916, they
reached San Giovanni di Medua, a seaport in northern Albania. At the
same time Essad Pasha at Durazzo reported that he was being threatened
by an Austrian and Bulgarian column marching northwest from Berat,
while still another column was heading toward the Italian forces in
Avlona.
Meanwhile all haste was being made in getting the Serbians safely out
of Albania and transporting them to Corfu, the Greek island lying
south of Avlona, in the Adriatic, which the Allies had occupied under
the protest of the Greek Government. This undertaking was much
facilitated by an improvement in the weather, which until then had
been very severe, and by the construction of bridges across the rivers
by a force of British engineers. Depots of provisions were also
established along all the roads by which the refugees were straggling
in toward the coast. The few guns, limbers, and munitions which these
fragments of the Serbian army had brought with them were transported
to Brindisi. At about the same time that the Austrians occupied San
Giovanni di Medua, a Bulgarian detachment had occupied Dibra, in
southern Albania, just above the Greek frontier and not far from Lake
Ochrida and Monastir.
On February 10, 1916, the last of the Serbian soldiers had been taken
out of Albania. In spite of the attempt made by Austrian ships and
submarines, involving several minor naval engagements with the ships
of the Allies, the embarkations had been going on at the rate of from
eight to ten thousand men a day. In Corfu alone, 75,000 had been
landed; others were taken to Bizerta, the French naval port in Tunis,
and some had been sent to Italy. On this date Dr. Vesnitch, the
Serbian minister in Paris, made the following statement:
"One hope still illumines the night of invaded Serbia; her avenging
army. At present that army numbers more than 100,000 men. It can be
confidently stated that it will be increased to 150,000."
On February 11, 1916, the Austrians had advanced within a few miles of
Durazzo and on the following day occupied the Tirana heights, between
Breza and Bazar Siak, Breza being about twelve miles northeast of
Durazzo and Bazar Siak about halfway between these two towns. Two days
later the Italian forces advanced against this Austrian column and
delivered a strong attack, which was repulsed by the Austrians,
according to Vienna dispatches. Meanwhile the Bulgarians were
occupying Fieri, about sixteen miles from Avlona, and claimed that
they had taken possession of a third of southern Albania. A day or two
later the Austrian and Bulgarian columns operating in central Albania
made a junction and occupied Elbassan, thirty-eight miles southeast of
Durazzo.
The enemy was, in fact, closing in on Durazzo. On February 25, 1916,
the Austro-Bulgarian forces had driven the Italians to the isthmus
west of the Durs lakes and the Austrian artillery began to open fire
on Durazzo itself. At daybreak the next morning the Austrians closed
in and the Italians and Albanians under Essad Pasha were finally,
after a spirited resistance, driven back from their positions at Bazar
Siak. Soon afterward the Italians on the southern bank of the lower
Arzen were forced to abandon their positions. The Austrians crossed
the river and proceeded southward.
At noon a decisive action east of Bazar Siak drove the Italians from
their positions. The same fate was suffered by the defenders of Sasso
Blanco, six miles east of Durazzo. By evening the entire outer circle
of defenses had been taken. The Austrians, advancing to the inner line
positions, observed that the Italians were embarking on their ships.
They were now able to reach the docks with their artillery, and
attempted to hinder the retirement of the Italians with a heavy shell
fire and succeeded in inflicting some damage to some of the ships. But
by the following morning the Italians had made good their escape, and
with them went Essad Pasha and his Albanian troops.
On February 28, 1916, the Austrian Government issued a full report on
the campaign in Albania which had culminated in that section in the
capture of Durazzo:
"The Austrian troops have captured Durazzo. During the forenoon one
column, under the fire of the Italians, advanced across the northern
isthmus to Portos, four miles north of Durazzo. Our troops advancing
across the southern isthmus were hindered at the beginning by the fire
of the Italian artillery, but toward night numerous detachments, by
wading, swimming, and floating, reached the bridge east of Durazzo,
driving back the Italian rear guard. At dawn an Austrian battalion
entered the burning town."
The spoils were, according to the report, twenty-three cannon,
including six big coast defense guns, 10,000 rifles, and a large
amount of artillery ammunition and provisions.
The Italian version was:
"After our ships had silenced the enemy batteries and swept the coast
and near-by roads of their fire, all the Italian troops which were
sent temporarily to Durazzo to cover the evacuation of the Serbians,
Montenegrins, and Albanians, reembarked without incident and were
transported to Avlona, notwithstanding the bad weather which still
prevails in the lower Adriatic. War material which was still
serviceable was also taken aboard the ships and the damaged supplies
were either rendered useless or destroyed."
Thus, by the first of March the Austro-Bulgarian forces had almost
completed their conquest of Albania, the only important point still in
the hands of the Italians being Avlona. At this point, however, the
Italians had made longer and bigger preparations for defense, besides
which they were here in far greater numbers, estimated at from 50,000
to 120,000.