TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE
* Italics are denoted by underscores as in _italics_.
* Small caps are represented in upper case as in SMALL CAPS.
* Letter spaced Greek text is enclosed in tildes as in ~καὶ τὰ
λοιπά~.
* Obvious printer errors have been silently corrected, after
comparison with a later edition of this work. Greek text has
also been checked with this later edition and with Perseus,
when the reference was found.
* Original spelling, hyphenation and punctuation have been kept,
but variant spellings were made consistent when a predominant
usage was found.
* Some inconsistencies in the use of diæresis (like “reorganize”
and “reörganize”) and in the use of accents over proper nouns
(like “Autokles” and “Autoklês”) have been retained.
* Throughout the text, “Mövers” has been changed to “Movers”, when
referring to Franz Karl Movers, as it is the spelling used in the
title pages of his main works in German.
* The following changes were also made, after checking with other
editions:
page 27: “Phokæn” → “Phokæan” (that Phokæan lady).
page 94: “from” → “at” (arriving at Sparta)
page 96: “Kannônes” → “Kannônus” (psephism of Kannônus).
page 374: “troad” → “Troad” (especially in the Troad).
note 711: “vii, 39” → “vii, 4, 39” (“Xen. Hellen. vii, 4, 39”)
* In note 965, the printed book version has been retained: “Μὴ
κινεῖ Καμάριναν, ἀκίνητόν περ ἐοῦσαν”, but the original English
edition has “Μὴ κινεῖ Καμάριναν, ἀκινητὸς γὰρ ἀμείνων”.
HISTORY OF GREECE.
BY
GEORGE GROTE, ESQ.
VOL. X.
REPRINTED FROM THE LONDON EDITION.
NEW YORK:
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
329 AND 331 PEARL STREET.
PREFACE TO VOL. X.
The present Volume is already extended to an unusual number of pages;
yet I have been compelled to close it at an inconvenient moment,
midway in the reign of the Syracusan despot Dionysius. To carry that
reign to its close, one more chapter will be required, which must be
reserved for the succeeding volume.
The history of the Sicilian and Italian Greeks, forming as it does
a stream essentially distinct from that of the Peloponnesians,
Athenians, etc., is peculiarly interesting during the interval
between 409 B.C. (the date of the second Carthaginian invasion) and
the death of Timoleon in 336 B.C. It is, moreover, reported to us
by authors (Diodorus and Plutarch), who, though not themselves very
judicious as selectors, had before them good contemporary witnesses.
And it includes some of the most prominent and impressive characters
of the Hellenic world,—Dionysius I., Dion with Plato as instructor,
and Timoleon.
I thought it indispensable to give adequate development to this
important period of Grecian history, even at the cost of that
inconvenient break which terminates my tenth volume. At one time I
had hoped to comprise in that volume not only the full history of
Dionysius I., but also that of Dionysius II. and Dion—and that of
Timoleon besides. Three new chapters, including all this additional
matter, are already composed and ready. But the bulk of the present
volume compels me to reserve them for the commencement of my next,
which will carry Grecian history down to the battle of Chæroneia
and the death of Philip of Macedon—and which will, I trust, appear
without any long interval of time.
G. G.
LONDON, FEB. 15, 1852.
CONTENTS.
VOL. X.
PART II.
CONTINUATION OF HISTORICAL GREECE.
CHAPTER LXXVI.
FROM THE PEACE OF ANTALKIDAS DOWN TO THE SUBJUGATION OF OLYNTHUS
BY SPARTA.
Peace or convention of Antalkidas. Its import and character.
Separate partnership between Sparta and Persia.—Degradation
in the form of the convention—an edict drawn up, issued, and
enforced, by Persia upon Greece.—Gradual loss of Pan-hellenic
dignity, and increased submission towards Persia as a means
of purchasing Persian help—on the part of Sparta.—Her
first application before the Peloponnesian war; subsequent
applications.—Active partnership between Sparta and Persia
against Athens, after the Athenian catastrophe at Syracuse.
Athens is ready to follow her example.—The Persian force aids
Athens against Sparta, and breaks up her maritime empire.—No
excuse for the subservience of Sparta to the Persians. Evidence
that Hellenic independence was not destined to last much
longer.—Promise of universal autonomy—popular to the Grecian
ear—how carried out.—The Spartans never intended to grant,
nor ever really granted, general autonomy.—Immediate point
made against Corinth and Thebes—isolation of Athens.—Persian
affairs—unavailing efforts of the Great King to reconquer
Egypt.—Evagoras, despot of Salamis in Cyprus.—Descent of
Evagoras—condition of the island of Cyprus.—Greek princes of
Salamis are dispossessed by a Phœnician dynasty.—Evagoras
dethrones the Phœnician, and becomes despot of Salamis.—Able
and beneficent government of Evagoras.—His anxiety to revive
Hellenism in Cyprus—he looks to the aid of Athens.—Relations
of Evagoras with Athens during the closing years of the
Peloponnesian war.—Evagoras at war with the Persians—he receives
aid both from Athens and from Egypt—he is at first very
successful, so as even to capture Tyre.—Struggle of Evagoras
against the whole force of the Persian empire after the peace
of Antalkidas.—Evagoras, after a ten years’ war, is reduced,
but obtains an honorable peace, mainly owing to the dispute
between the two satraps jointly commanding.—Assassination of
Evagoras, as well as of his son Pnytagoras, by an eunuch slave
of Nikokreon.—Nikoklês, son of Evagoras, becomes despot of
Salamis. Great power gained by Sparta through the peace of
Antalkidas. She becomes practically mistress of Corinth, and the
Corinthian isthmus. Miso-Theban tendencies of Sparta—especially
of Agesilaus.—The Spartans restore Platæa. Former conduct of
Sparta towards Platæa.—Motives of Sparta in restoring Platæa.
A politic step, as likely to sever Thebes from Athens.—Platæa
becomes a dependency and outpost of Sparta. Main object of Sparta
to prevent the reconstitution of the Bœotiad federation—Spartan
policy at this time directed by the partisan spirit of
Agesilaus, opposed by his colleague Agesipolis.—Oppressive
behavior of the Spartans towards Mantinea. They require the
walls of the city to be demolished.—Agesipolis blockades the
city, and forces it to surrender, by damming up the river
Ophis. The Mantineans are forced to break up their city into
villages.—Democratical leaders of Mantinea—owed their lives
to the mediation of the exiled king Pausanias.—Mantinea is
pulled down and distributed into five villages.—High-handed
despotism of Sparta towards Mantinea—signal partiality of
Xenophon. Return of the philo-Laconian exiles in the various
cities, as partisans for the purposes of Sparta—case of
Phlius.—Competition of Athens with Sparta for ascendency at
sea. Athens gains ground, and gets together some rudiments of a
maritime confederacy.—Ideas entertained by some of the Spartan
leaders, of acting against the Persians for the rescue of the
Asiatic Greeks.—Panegyrical Discourse of Isokrates.—State of
Macedonia and Chalkidikê—growth of Macedonian power during
the last years of the Peloponnesian war.—Perdikkas and
Archelaus—energy and ability of the latter.—Contrast of Macedonia
and Athens.—Succeeding Macedonian kings—Orestes, Æropus,
Pausanias, Amyntas. Assassination frequent.—Amyntas is expelled
from Macedonia by the Illyrians.—Chalkidians of Olynthus—they
take into their protection the Macedonian cities on the coast,
when Amyntas runs away before the Illyrians. Commencement of the
Olynthian confederacy.—Equal and liberal principles on which the
confederacy was framed from the beginning. Accepted willingly
by the Macedonian and Greco-Macedonian cities.—The Olynthians
extend their confederacy among the Grecian cities in Chalkidic
Thrace—their liberal procedure—several cities join.—Akanthus
and Apollonia resist the proposition. Olynthus menaces. They
then solicit Spartan intervention against her.—Speech of
Kleigenes the Akanthian envoy at Sparta.—Envoys from Amyntas at
Sparta.—The Spartan Eudamidas is sent against Olynthus at once,
with such force as could be got ready. He checks the career
of the Olynthians.—Phœbidas, brother of Eudamidas, remains
behind to collect fresh force, and march to join his brother
in Thrace. He passes through the Theban territory and near
Thebes.—Conspiracy of Leontiades and the philo-Laconian party in
Thebes, to betray the town and citadel to Phœbidas.—The opposing
leaders—Leontiades and Ismenias—were both Polemarchs.—Leontiades
overawes the Senate, and arrests Ismenias: Pelopidas and
the leading friends of Ismenias go into exile.—Phœbidas in
the Kadmeia—terror and submission at Thebes.—Mixed feelings
at Sparta—great importance of the acquisition to Spartan
interests.—Displeasure at Sparta more pretended than real,
against Phœbidas; Agesilaus defends him.—Leontiades at Sparta—his
humble protestations and assurances—the ephors decide that they
will retain the Kadmeia, but at the same time fine Phœbidas.—The
Lacedæmonians cause Ismenias to be tried and put to death.
Iniquity of this proceeding.—Vigorous action of the Spartans
against Olynthus—Teleutias is sent there with a large force,
including a considerable Theban contingent. Derdas coöperates
with him.—Teleutias being at first successful, and having become
over-confident, sustains a terrible defeat from the Olynthians
under the walls of their city.—Agesipolis is sent to Olynthus
from Sparta with a reinforcement. He dies of a fever.—Polybiades
succeeds Agesipolis as commander—he reduces Olynthus to
submission—extinction of the Olynthian federation. Olynthus and
the other cities are enrolled as allies of Sparta.—Intervention
of Sparta with the government of Phlius.—Agesilaus marches an
army against Phlius—reduces the town by blockade, after a long
resistance. The Lacedæmonians occupy the acropolis, naming a
council of one hundred as governors. 1-72
CHAPTER LXXVII.
FROM THE SUBJUGATION OF OLYNTHUS BY THE LACEDÆMONIANS DOWN TO THE
CONGRESS AT SPARTA, AND PARTIAL PEACE, IN 371 B.C.
Great ascendency of Sparta on land in 379 B.C.—Sparta is now
feared as the great despot of Greece.—Strong complaint of
the rhetor Lysias, expressed at the Olympic festival of 384
B.C.—Panegyrical oration of Isokrates.—Censure upon Sparta
pronounced by the philo-Laconian Xenophon.—His manner of marking
the point of transition in his history—from Spartan glory to
Spartan disgrace.—Thebes under Leontiades and the philo-Spartan
oligarchy, with the Spartan garrison in the Kadmeia—oppressive
and tyrannical government.—Discontent at Thebes, though under
compression. Theban exiles at Athens.—The Theban exiles at
Athens, after waiting some time in hopes of a rising at Thebes,
resolve to begin a movement themselves.—Pelopidas takes the
lead—he, with Mellon and five other exiles, undertakes the task
of destroying the rulers of Thebes. Coöperation of Phyllidas the
secretary, and Charon at Thebes.—Plans of Phyllidas for admitting
the conspirators into Thebes and the government-house—he
invites the polemarchs to a banquet.—The scheme very nearly
frustrated—accident which prevented Chlidon from delivering
his message.—Pelopidas and Mellon get secretly into Thebes,
and conceal themselves in the house of Charon.—Leontiades
and Hypates are slain in their houses.—Phyllidas opens the
prison, and sets free the prisoners. Epaminondas and many other
citizens appear in arms.—Universal joy among the citizens on
the ensuing morning, when the event was known. General assembly
in the market-place—Pelopidas, Mellon, and Charon are named
the first Bœotarchs.—Aid to the conspirators from private
sympathizers in Attica.—Pelopidas and the Thebans prepare to
storm the Kadmeia—the Lacedæmonian garrison capitulate and
are dismissed—several of the oligarchical Thebans are put to
death in trying to go away along with them. The harmost who
surrendered the Kadmeia is put to death by the Spartans.—Powerful
sensation produced by this incident throughout the Grecian
world.—Indignation in Sparta at the revolution of Thebes—a
Spartan army sent forth at once under king Kleombrotus. He
retires from Bœotia without achieving anything.—Kleombrotus
passes by the Athenian frontier—alarm at Athens—condemnation
of the two Athenian generals who had favored the enterprise of
Pelopidas.—Attempt of Sphodrias from Thespiæ to surprise the
Peiræus by a night-march. He fails.—Different constructions
put upon this attempt and upon the character of Sphodrias.—The
Lacedæmonian envoys at Athens seized, but dismissed.—Trial of
Sphodrias at Sparta; acquitted through the private favor and
sympathies of Agesilaus.—Comparison of Spartan with Athenian
procedure.—The Athenians declare war against Sparta, and contract
alliance with Thebes.—Exertions of Athens to form a new maritime
confederacy, like the Confederacy of Delos. Thebes enrolls
herself as a member.—Athens sends round envoys to the islands
in the Ægean. Liberal principles on which the new confederacy
is formed.—Envoys sent round by Athens—Chabrias, Timotheus,
Kallistratus.—Service of Iphikrates in Thrace after the peace of
Antalkidas. He marries the daughter of the Thracian prince Kotys,
and acquires possession of a Thracian seaport, Drys.—Timotheus
and Kallistratus.—Synod of the new confederates assembled at
Athens—votes for war on a large scale.—Members of the confederacy
were at first willing and harmonious—a fleet is equipped.—New
property-tax imposed at Athens. The Solonian census.—The
Solonian census retained in the main, though with modifications,
at the restoration under the archonship of Eukleides in 403
B.C.—Archonship of Nausinikus in 378 B.C.—New census and
schedule then introduced, of all citizens worth twenty minæ and
upwards, distributed into classes, and entered for a fraction of
their total property; each class for a different fraction.—All
metics, worth more than twenty-five minæ, were registered in
the schedule; all in one class, each man for one-sixth of his
property. Aggregate schedule.—The Symmories—containing the
twelve hundred wealthiest citizens—the three hundred wealthiest
leaders of the Symmories.—Citizens not wealthy enough to be
included in the Symmories, yet still entered in the schedule,
and liable to property-tax. Purpose of the Symmories—extension
of the principle to the trierarchy.—Enthusiasm at Thebes
in defence of the new government and against Sparta.
Military training—the Sacred Band.—Epaminondas.—His previous
character and training—musical and intellectual, as well as
gymnastic. Conversation with philosophers, Sokratic as well as
Pythagorean.—His eloquence—his unambitious disposition—gentleness
of his political resentments.—Conduct of Epaminondas at the
Theban revolution of 379 B.C.—he acquires influence, through
Pelopidas, in the military organization of the city.—Agesilaus
marches to attack Thebes with the full force of the Spartan
confederacy—good system of defence adopted by Thebes—aid from
Athens under Chabrias. Increase of the Theban strength in
Bœotia, against the philo-Spartan oligarchies in the Bœotian
cities.—Second expedition of Agesilaus into Bœotia—he gains no
decisive advantage. The Thebans acquire greater and greater
strength. Agesilaus retires—he is disabled by a hurt in the
leg.—Kleombrotus conducts the Spartan force to invade Bœotia.—He
retires without reaching Bœotia.—Resolution of Sparta to equip
a large fleet, under the admiral Pollis. The Athenians send
out a fleet under Chabrias—Victory of Chabrias at sea near
Naxos. Recollections of the battle of Arginusæ.—Extension
of the Athenian maritime confederacy, in consequence of the
victory at Naxos.—Circumnavigation of Peloponnesus by Timotheus
with an Athenian fleet—his victory over the Lacedæmonian
fleet—his success in extending the Athenian confederacy—his
just dealing.—Financial difficulties of Athens.—She becomes
jealous of the growing strength of Thebes—steady and victorious
progress of Thebes in Bœotia.—Victory of Pelopidas at Tegyra
over the Lacedæmonians.—The Thebans expel the Lacedæmonians out
of all Bœotia, except Orchomenus—they reorganize the Bœotian
federation.—They invade Phokis—Kleombrotus is sent thither
with an army for defence—Athens makes a separate peace with
the Lacedæmonians.—Jason of Pheræ—his energetic character and
formidable power.—His prudent dealing with Polydamas.—The
Lacedæmonians find themselves unable to spare any aid for
Thessaly—they dismiss Polydamas with a refusal. He comes to terms
with Jason, who becomes Tagus of Thessaly.—Peace between Athens
and Sparta—broken off almost immediately. The Lacedæmonians
declare war again, and resume their plans upon Zakynthus and
Korkyra.—Lacedæmonian armament under Mnasippus, collected from
all the confederates, invades Korkyra.—Mnasippus besieges the
city—high cultivation of the adjoining lands.—The Korkyræans
blocked up in the city—supplies intercepted—want begins—no hope
of safety except in aid from Athens. Reinforcement arrives from
Athens—large Athenian fleet preparing under Timotheus. Mnasippus
is defeated and slain—the city supplied with provisions.—Approach
of the Athenian reinforcement—Hypermenês, successor of Mnasippus,
conveys away the armament, leaving his sick and much property
behind.—Tardy arrival of the Athenian fleet—it is commanded not
by Timotheus, but by Iphikrates—causes of the delay—preliminary
voyage of Timotheus, very long protracted.—Discontent at Athens,
in consequence of the absence of Timotheus—distress of the
armament assembled at Kalauria—Iphikrates and Kallistratus
accuse Timotheus. Iphikrates named admiral in his place.—Return
of Timotheus—an accusation is entered against him, but trial is
postponed until the return of Iphikrates from Korkyra.—Rapid
and energetic movements of Iphikrates towards Korkyra—his
excellent management of the voyage. On reaching Kephallenia,
he learns the flight of the Lacedæmonians from Korkyra.—He
goes on to Korkyra, and captures by surprise the ten Syracusan
triremes sent by Dionysius to the aid of Sparta.—Iphikrates in
want of money—he sends home Kallistratus to Athens—he finds
work for his seamen at Korkyra—he obtains funds by service
in Akarnania.—Favorable tone of public opinion at Athens, in
consequence of the success at Korkyra—the trial of Timotheus
went off easily—Jason and Alketas come to support him—his
quæstor is condemned to death.—Timotheus had been guilty
of delay, not justifiable under the circumstances—though
acquitted, his reputation suffered—he accepts command under
Persia.—Discouragement of Sparta in consequence of her defeat at
Korkyra, and of the triumphant position of Iphikrates.—Helikê
and Bura are destroyed by an earthquake.—The Spartans again send
Antalkidas to Persia, to sue for a fresh intervention—the Persian
satraps send down an order that the Grecian belligerents shall
make up their differences.—Athens disposed towards peace.—Athens
had ceased to be afraid of Sparta, and had become again jealous
of Thebes.—Equivocal position of the restored Platæa, now that
the Lacedæmonians had been expelled from Bœotia.—The Thebans
forestall a negotiation by seizing Platæa, and expelling the
inhabitants, who again take refuge at Athens.—Strong feeling
excited in Athens against the Thebans, on account of their
dealings with Platæa and Thespiæ. The Plataic discourse of
Isokrates.—Increased tendency of the Athenians towards peace
with Sparta—Athens and the Athenian confederacy give notice to
Thebes. General congress for peace at Sparta.—Speeches of the
Athenian envoys Kallias, Autokles, Kallistratus.—Kallistratus
and his policy.—He proposes that Sparta and Athens shall divide
between them the headship of Greece—Sparta on land, Athens at
sea—recognizing general autonomy.—Peace is concluded. Autonomy of
each city to be recognized: Sparta to withdraw her harmosts and
garrisons.—Oaths exchanged. Sparta takes the oath for herself and
her allies. Athens takes it for herself: her allies take it after
her, successively.—The oath proposed to the Thebans. Epaminondas,
the Theban envoy, insists upon taking the oath in the name of
the Bœotian federation. Agesilaus and the Spartans require that
he shall take it for Thebes alone.—Daring and emphatic speeches
delivered by Epaminondas in the congress—protesting against the
overweening pretensions of Sparta. He claims recognition of the
ancient institutions of Bœotia, with Thebes as president of
the federation.—Indignation of the Spartans, and especially of
Agesilaus—brief questions exchanged—Thebes is excluded from the
treaty.—General peace sworn, including Athens, Sparta, and the
rest—Thebes alone is excluded.—Terms of peace—compulsory and
indefeasible confederacies are renounced—voluntary alliances
alone maintained.—Real point in debate between Agesilaus and
Epaminondas. 72-174
CHAPTER LXXVIII.
BATTLE OF LEUKTRA AND ITS CONSEQUENCES.
Measures for executing the stipulations made at the congress of
Sparta.—Violent impulse of the Spartans against Thebes.—King
Kleombrotus is ordered to march into Bœotia, and encamps at
Leuktra.—New order of battle adopted by Epaminondas.—Confidence
of the Spartans and of Kleombrotus.—Battle of Leuktra.—Defeat
of the Spartans and death of Kleombrotus.—Faint adherence of
the Spartan allies.—Spartan camp after the defeat—confession of
defeat by sending to solicit the burial-truce.—Great surprise,
and immense alteration of feeling, produced throughout Greece
by the Theban victory.—Effect of the news at Sparta—heroic
self-command.—Reinforcements sent from Sparta.—Proceedings in
Bœotia after the battle of Leuktra. The Theban victory not
well received at Athens.—Jason of Pheræ arrives at Leuktra—the
Spartan army retires from Bœotia under capitulation.—Treatment
of the defeated citizens on reaching Sparta—suspension of
the law.—Lowered estimation of Sparta in Greece—prestige of
military superiority lost.—Extension of the power of Thebes.
Treatment of Orchomenus and Thespiæ.—Power and ambition of
Jason.—Plans of Jason—Pythian festival.—Assassination of Jason
at Pheræ.—Relief to Thebes by the death of Jason—satisfaction in
Greece.—Proceedings in Peloponnesus after the defeat of Leuktra.
Expulsion of the Spartan harmosts and dekarchies.—Skytalism at
Argos—violent intestine feud.—Discouragement and helplessness of
Sparta.—Athens places herself at the head of a new Peloponnesian
land-confederacy.—Accusation preferred in the Amphyctionic
assembly, by Thebes against Sparta.—The Spartans are condemned
to a fine—importance of this fact as an indication.—Proceedings
in Arcadia.—Reëstablishment of the city of Mantinea by its own
citizens.—Humiliating refusal experienced by Agesilaus from the
Mantineans—keenly painful to a Spartan.—Feeling against Agesilaus
at Sparta.—Impulse among the Arcadians towards Pan-Arcadian
union. Opposition from Orchomenus and Tegea.—Revolution at
Tegea—the philo-Spartan party are put down or expelled.—Tegea
becomes anti-Spartan, and favorable to the Pan-Arcadian
union.—Pan-Arcadian union is formed.—March of Agesilaus against
Mantinea. Evidence of lowered sentiment in Sparta.—Application by
the Arcadians to Athens for aid against Sparta; it is refused:
they then apply to the Thebans.—Proceedings and views of
Epaminondas since the battle of Leuktra.—Plans of Epaminondas for
restoring the Messenians in Peloponnesus.—Also, for consolidating
the Arcadians against Sparta.—Epaminondas and the Theban army
arrive in Arcadia. Great allied force assembled there. The
allies entreat him to invade Laconia.—Reluctance of Epaminondas
to invade Laconia—reasonable grounds for it.—He marches into
Laconia—four lines of invasion.—He crosses the Eurotas and
approaches close to Sparta.—Alarm at Sparta—arrival of various
allies to her aid by sea.—Discontent in Laconia among the Periœki
and Helots—danger to Sparta from that cause.—Vigilant defence of
Sparta by Agesilaus.—Violent emotion of the Spartans, especially
the women. Partial attack upon Sparta by Epaminondas.—He retires
without attempting to storm Sparta: ravages Laconia down to
Gythium. He returns into Arcadia.—Great effect of this invasion
upon Grecian opinion—Epaminondas is exalted, and Sparta farther
lowered.—Foundation of the Arcadian Megalopolis.—Foundation of
Messênê.—Abstraction of Western Laconia from Sparta.—Periœki
and Helots established as freemen along with the Messenians
on the Lacedæmonian border.—The details of this reorganizing
process unhappily unknown.—Megalopolis—the Pan-Arcadian Ten
Thousand.—Epaminondas and his army evacuate Peloponnesus.—The
Spartans solicit aid from Athens—language of their envoys, as
well as those from Corinth and Phlius, at Athens.—Reception of
the envoys—the Athenians grant the prayer.—Vote passed to aid
Sparta—Iphikrates is named general.—March of Iphikrates and his
army to the Isthmus.—Trial of Epaminondas at Thebes for retaining
his command beyond the legal time—his honorable and easy
acquittal. 174-241
CHAPTER LXXIX.
FROM THE FOUNDATION OF MESSENE AND MEGALOPOLIS TO THE DEATH OF
PELOPIDAS.
Changes in Peloponnesus since the battle of Leuktra.—Changes
out of Peloponnesus.—Amyntas prince of Macedonia.—Ambitious
views of Athens after the battle of Leuktra.—Her aspirations to
maritime empire, and to the partial recovery of kleruchies.—She
wishes to recover Amphipolis—Amyntas recognizes her right to the
place.—Athens and Amphipolis.—Death of Jason and Amyntas—state
of Thessaly and Macedonia.—Alexander of Pheræ—he is opposed
by Pelopidas—influence of Thebes in Thessaly.—State of
Macedonia—Alexander son of Amyntas—Euridikê—Ptolemy.—Assistance
rendered by the Athenian Iphikrates to the family of
Amyntas.—Iphikrates and Timotheus.—The Spartan allied
army defends the line of Mount Oneium—Epaminondas breaks
through it, and marches into Peloponnesus.—Sikyon joins the
Thebans—Phlius remains faithful to Sparta.—Reinforcement from
Syracuse to Peloponnesus, in aid of Sparta.—Forbearance and
mildness of Epaminondas.—Energetic action and insolence of the
Arcadians—Lykomedes animates and leads them on.—Great influence
of Lykomedes.—Elis tries to recover her supremacy over the
Triphylian towns, which are admitted into the Arcadian union,
to the great offence of Elis.—Mission of Philiskus to Greece
by Ariobarzanes.—Political importance of the reconstitution
of Messênê, which now becomes the great subject of discord.
Messenian victor proclaimed at Olympia.—Expedition of Pelopidas
into Thessaly.—The Tearless Battle—victory of the Spartan
Archidamus over the Arcadians.—Third expedition of Epaminondas
into Peloponnesus—his treatment of the Achæan cities.—The Thebans
reverse the policy of Epaminondas, on complaint of the Arcadians
and others. They do not reëlect him Bœotarch.—Disturbed state of
Sikyon. Euphron makes himself despot—his rapacious and sanguinary
conduct.—Sufferings of the Phliasians—their steady adherence
to Sparta.—Assistance rendered to Phlius by the Athenian
Chares—surprise of the fort of Thyamia.—Euphron is expelled from
Sikyon by the Arcadians and Thebans—he retires to the harbor,
which he surrenders to the Spartans.—Euphron returns to Sikyon—he
goes to Thebes, and is there assassinated.—The assassins are put
upon their trial at Thebes—their defence.—They are acquitted by
the Theban Senate.—Sentiment among the Many of Sikyon, favorable
to Euphron—honors shown to his body and memory.—The Sikyonians
recapture their harbor from the Spartans.—Application of Thebes
for Persian countenance to her headship—mission of Pelopidas and
other envoys to Susa.—Pelopidas obtains from Persia a favorable
rescript.—Protest of the Athenians and Arcadians against the
rescript.—Pelopidas brings back the rescript. It is read publicly
before the Greek states convoked at Thebes.—The states convoked
at Thebes refuse to receive the rescript. The Arcadian deputies
protest against the headship of Thebes.—The Thebans send the
rescript to be received at Corinth; the Corinthians refuse:
failure of the Theban object.—Mission of Pelopidas to Thessaly.
He is seized and detained prisoner by Alexander of Pheræ.—The
Thebans despatch an army to rescue Pelopidas. The army, defeated
and retreating, is only saved by Epaminondas, then a private
man.—Triumph of Alexander in Thessaly and discredit of Thebes.
Harsh treatment of Pelopidas.—Second Theban army sent into
Thessaly, under Epaminondas, for the rescue of Pelopidas, who
is at length released by Alexander under a truce.—Oropus is
taken from Athens and placed in the hands of the Thebans. The
Athenians recall Chares from Corinth.—Athens discontented with
her Peloponnesian allies; she enters into alliance with Lykomedes
and the Arcadians. Death of Lykomedes.—Epaminondas is sent as
envoy into Arcadia; he speaks against Kallistratus.—Project of
the Athenians to seize Corinth; they are disappointed.—They
apply to Sparta.—Refusal of the Spartans to acknowledge the
independence of Messênê; they reproach their allies with
consenting.—Corinth, Epidaurus, Phlius, etc., conclude peace
with Thebes, but without Sparta—recognizing the independence of
Messênê.—Athens sends a fresh embassy to the Persian king—altered
rescript from him, pronouncing Amphipolis to be an Athenian
possession.—Timotheus sent with a fleet to Asia—Agesilaus—revolt
of Ariobarzanes.—Conquest of Samos by Timotheus.—Partial
readmission to the Chersonese obtained by Timotheus.—Athenian
kleruchs or settlers sent thither as proprietors.—Difficulties
of Athens in establishing kleruchs in the Chersonese.—Kotys
of Thrace.—Timotheus supersedes Iphikrates.—Timotheus acts
with success on the coast of Macedonia and Chalkidikê. He
fails at Amphipolis.—Timotheus acts against Kotys and near the
Chersonese.—Measures of the Thebans in Thessaly—Pelopidas is sent
with an army against Alexander of Pheræ.—Epaminondas exhorts the
Thebans to equip a fleet against Athens.—Discussion between him
and Menekleidas in the Theban assembly.—Menekleidas seemingly
right in dissuading naval preparations.—Epaminondas in command
of a Theban fleet in the Hellespont and Bosphorus. Pelopidas
attacks Alexander of Pheræ—his success in battle—his rashness—he
is slain.—Excessive grief of the Thebans and Thessalians for his
death.—The Thebans completely subdue Alexander of Pheræ. 242-310
CHAPTER LXXX.
FROM THE DEATH OF PELOPIDAS TO THE BATTLE OF MANTINEA.
Conspiracy of the knights of Orchomenus against
Thebes—destruction of Orchomenus by the Thebans.—Repugnance
excited against the Thebans—regret and displeasure of
Epaminondas.—Return of Epaminondas from his cruise—renewed
complications in Peloponnesus.—State of Peloponnesus—Eleians and
Achæans in alliance with Sparta.—The Eleians aim at recovering
Triphylia—the Spartans, at recovering Messênê.—War between
the Eleians and Arcadians; the latter occupy Olympia.—Second
invasion of Elis by the Arcadians. Distress of the Eleians.
Archidamus and the Spartans invade Arcadia.—Archidamus
establishes a Spartan garrison at Kromnus. The Arcadians gain
advantages over him—armistice.—The Arcadians blockade Kromnus,
and capture the Spartan garrison.—The Arcadians celebrate
the Olympic festival along with the Pisatans—excluding the
Eleians.—The Eleians invade the festival by arms—conflict
on the plain of Olympia—bravery of the Eleians.—Feelings of
the spectators at Olympia.—The Arcadians take the treasures
of Olympia to pay their militia.—Violent dissensions arising
among the members of the Arcadian communion, in consequence
of this appropriation. The Arcadian assembly pronounces
against it.—Farther dissensions in Arcadia—invitation sent to
the Thebans—peace concluded with Elis.—The peace generally
popular—celebrated at Tegea—seizure of many oligarchical
members at Tegea by the Theban harmost.—Conduct of the Theban
harmost.—View taken by Epaminondas.—His view is more consistent
with the facts recounted by Xenophon, than the view of Xenophon
himself.—Policy of Epaminondas and the Thebans.—Epaminondas
marches with a Theban army into Peloponnesus, to muster at
Tegea.—Agesilaus and the Spartans are sent for.—Night-march of
Epaminondas to surprise Sparta. Agesilaus is informed in time
to prevent surprise.—Epaminondas comes up to Sparta, but finds
it defended.—He marches back to Tegea—despatches his cavalry
from thence to surprise Mantinea.—The surprise is baffled,
by the accidental arrival of the Athenian cavalry—battle
of cavalry near Mantinea, in which the Athenians have the
advantage.—Epaminondas resolves to attack the enemy near
Mantinea.—View of Xenophon—that this resolution was forced upon
him by despair—examined.—Alacrity of the army of Epaminondas,
when the order for fighting is given.—Mantinico-Tegeatic
plain—position of the Lacedæmonians and Mantineans.—March of
Epaminondas from Tegea.—False impression produced upon the
enemy by his manœuvres.—Theban order of battle—plans of the
commander.—Disposition of the cavalry on both sides.—Unprepared
state of the Lacedæmonian army.—Battle of Mantinea—complete
success of the dispositions of Epaminondas.—Victory of the
Thebans—Epaminondas is mortally wounded.—Extreme discouragement
caused by his death among the troops, even when in full victory
and pursuit.—Victory claimed by both sides—nevertheless the
Lacedæmonians are obliged to solicit the burial-truce.—Dying
moments of Epaminondas.—The two other best Theban officers
are slain also in the battle.—Who slew Epaminondas? Different
persons honored for it.—Peace concluded—_statu quo_ recognized,
including the independence of Messênê—Sparta alone stands
out—the Thebans return home.—Results of the battle of Mantinea,
as appreciated by Xenophon—unfair to the Thebans.—Character of
Epaminondas.—Disputes among the inhabitants of Megalopolis. The
Thebans send thither a force under Pammenes, which maintains the
incorporation.—Agesilaus and Archidamus.—State of Persia—revolted
satraps and provinces—Datames.—Formidable revolt of the satraps
in Asia Minor—it is suppressed by the Persian court, through
treachery.—Agesilaus goes as commander to Egypt—Chabrias is
there also.—Death and character of Agesilaus.—State of Egypt
and Persia.—Death of Artaxerxes Mnemon. Murders in the royal
family.—Athenian maritime operations—Timotheus makes war
against Amphipolis and against Kotys.—Ergophilus succeeds
Timotheus at the Chersonese—Kallisthenes succeeds him against
Amphipolis—war at sea against Alexander of Pheræ.—Ergophilus
and Kallisthenes both unsuccessful—both tried.—Autokles in the
Hellespont and Bosphorus—convoy for the corn-ships out of the
Euxine.—Miltokythes revolts from Kotys in Thrace—ill-success of
the Athenians.—Menon—Timomachus—as commanders in the Chersonese.
The Athenians lose Sestos.—Kephisodotus in the Chersonese.
Charidemus crosses thither from Abydos.—Assassination of
Kotys.—Kersobleptes succeeds Kotys. Berisades and Amadokus, his
rivals—ill-success of Athens—Kephisodotus.—Improved prospects of
Athens in the Chersonese—Athenodorus—Charidemus.—Charidemus is
forced to accept the convention of Athenodorus—his evasions—the
Chersonese with Sestos is restored to Athens.—The transmarine
empire of Athens now at its maximum. Mischievous effects of her
conquests made against Olynthus.—Maximum of second Athenian
empire—accession of Philip of Macedon. 311-383
CHAPTER LXXXI.
SICILIAN AFFAIRS AFTER THE DESTRUCTION OF THE ATHENIAN ARMAMENT
BEFORE SYRACUSE.
Syracuse after the destruction of the Athenian
armament.—Anticipation of the impending ruin of Athens—revolution
at Thurii.—Syracusan squadron under Hermokrates goes to
act against Athens in the Ægean.—Disappointed hopes—defeat
at Kynossema—second ruinous defeat at Kyzikus.—Sufferings
of the Syracusan seamen—disappointment and displeasure at
Syracuse.—Banishment of Hermokrates and his colleagues. Sentence
communicated by Hermokrates to the armament.—Internal state of
Syracuse—constitution of Diokles.—Difficulty of determining
what that constitution was.—Invasion from Carthage.—State of
the Carthaginians.—Extent of Carthaginian empire—power, and
population—Liby-Phœnicians.—Harsh dealing of Carthage towards
her subjects. Colonies sent out from Carthage.—Military force of
Carthage.—Political constitution of Carthage.—Oligarchical system
and sentiment at Carthage.—Powerful families at Carthage—Mago,
Hamilkar, Hasdrubal.—Quarrel between Egesta and Selinus in
Sicily.—Application of Egesta to Carthage for aid—application
granted—eagerness of Hannibal.—Carthaginian envoys sent to
Sicily.—Hannibal crosses over to Sicily with a very large
armament. He lays siege to Selinus.—Vigorous assault on
Selinus—gallant resistance—the town is at length stormed.—Selinus
is sacked and plundered—merciless slaughter.—Delay of the
Syracusans and others in sending aid. Answer of Hannibal to
their embassy.—Hannibal marches to Himera and besieges it.
Aid from Syracuse under Diokles—sally from Himera. Hannibal
destroys Himera, and slaughters three thousand prisoners, as an
expiation to the memory of his grandfather.—Alarm throughout
the Greeks of Sicily—Hannibal dismisses his army, and returns
to Carthage.—New intestine discord in Syracuse—Hermokrates
comes to Sicily.—He levies troops to effect his return by
force.—He is obliged to retire—he establishes himself in the
ruins of Selinus, and acts against the Carthaginians.—His
father attempts to reënter Syracuse, with the bones of the
Syracusans slain near Himera. Banishment of Diokles.—Hermokrates
tries again to penetrate into Syracuse with an armed force.—He
is defeated and slain.—First appearance of Dionysius at
Syracuse.—Weakness of Syracuse, arising out of this political
discord—party of Hermokrates. Danger from Carthage.—Fresh
invasion of Sicily, by the Carthaginians. Immense host under
Hannibal and Imilkon.—Great alarm in Sicily—active preparations
for defence at Agrigentum.—Grandeur, wealth, and population of
Agrigentum.—The Carthaginians attack Agrigentum. They demolish
the tombs near its walls. Distemper among their army. Religious
terrors—sacrifice.—Syracusan reinforcement to Agrigentum,
under Daphnæus. His victory over the Iberians. He declines to
pursue them.—Daphnæus enters Agrigentum. Discontent against
the Agrigentine generals, for having been backward in attack.
They are put to death.—Privations in both armies—Hamilkar
captures the provision-ships of the Syracusans—Agrigentum
is evacuated.—Agrigentum taken and plundered by the
Carthagians.—Terror throughout Sicily.—Bitter complaints against
the Syracusan generals.—The Hermokratean party at Syracuse comes
forward to subvert the government and elevate Dionysius.—Harangue
of Dionysius in the Syracusan assembly against the generals,
who are deposed by vote of the people, and Dionysius with others
appointed in their room.—Ambitious arts of Dionysius—he intrigues
against his colleagues, and frustrates all their proceedings. He
procures a vote for restoring the Hermokratean exiles.—Dionysius
is sent with a Syracusan reinforcement to Gela. He procures the
execution or banishment of the Geloan oligarchy.—He returns
to Syracuse with an increased force—he accuses his colleagues
of gross treason.—Dionysius is named general, single-handed,
with full powers.—Apparent repentance of the people after the
vote. Stratagem of Dionysius to obtain a vote ensuring to him a
body of paid guards.—March of Dionysius to Leontini.—Dionysius
establishes himself at Syracuse as despot.—Dionysius as
despot—the means whereby he attained the power. 383-446
CHAPTER LXXXII.
SICILY DURING THE DESPOTISM OF THE ELDER DIONYSIUS AT SYRACUSE.
Imilkon with the Carthaginian army marches from Agrigentum to
attack Gela.—Brave defence of the Geloans—Dionysius arrives
with an army to relieve them.—Plan of Dionysius for a general
attack on the Carthaginian army.—He is defeated and obliged
to retreat.—He evacuates Gela and Kamarina—flight of the
population of both places, which are taken and sacked by the
Carthaginians.—Indignation and charges of treachery against
Dionysius.—Mutiny of the Syracusan horsemen—they ride off to
Syracuse, and declare against Dionysius.—Their imprudence.
Dionysius master of Syracuse.—Propositions of peace come from
Imilkon. Terms of peace.—Collusion of Dionysius with the
Carthaginians, who confirm his dominion over Syracuse. Pestilence
in the Carthaginian army.—Near coincidence, in time, of this
peace, with the victory of Lysander at Ægospotami—sympathy
of Sparta with Dionysius.—Depressed condition of the towns
of Southern Sicily, from Cape Pachynus to Lilybæum.—Strong
position of Dionysius.—Strong fortifications and other
buildings erected by Dionysius, in and about Ortygia.—He
assigns houses in Ortygia to his soldiers and partisans—he
distributes the lands of Syracuse anew.—Exorbitant exactions
of Dionysius—discontent at Syracuse.—Dionysius marches out of
Syracuse against the Sikels—mutiny of the Syracusan soldiers
at Herbesa—Dorikus the commander is slain.—The Syracusan
insurgents, with assistance from Rhegium and Messênê, besiege
Dionysius in Ortygia.—Despair of Dionysius—he applies to a
body of Campanians in the Carthaginian service, for aid.—He
amuses the assailants with feigned submission—arrival of the
Campanians—victory of Dionysius.—Dionysius strengthens his
despotism more than before—assistance lent to him by the
Spartan Aristus—Nikoteles the Corinthian is put to death.—He
disarms the Syracusan citizens—strengthens the fortifications
of Ortygia—augments his mercenary force.—Dionysius conquers
Naxus, Katana, and Leontini.—Great power of Dionysius.
Foundation of Alæsa by Archonides.—Resolution of Dionysius to
make war upon Carthage.—Locality of Syracuse—danger to which
the town had been exposed, in the Athenian siege.—Additional
fortifications made by Dionysius along the northern ridge of
the cliffs of Epipolæ, up the Euryalus.—Popularity of the
work—efforts made by all the Syracusans as well as by Dionysius
himself.—Preparations of Dionysius for aggressive war against
the Carthaginians.—Improvement in the behavior of Dionysius
towards the Syracusans.—His conciliatory offers to other
Grecian cities in Sicily. Hostile sentiment of the Rhegines
towards him. Their application to Messênê.—He makes peace with
Messênê and Rhegium.—He desires to marry a Rhegine wife. His
proposition is declined by the city. He is greatly incensed.—He
makes a proposition to marry a wife from Lokri—his wish is
granted—he marries a Lokrian maiden named Doris.—Immense warlike
equipment of Dionysius at Syracuse—arms, engines, etc.—Naval
preparations in the harbor of Syracuse. Enlargement of the bulk
of ships of war—quadriremes and quinqueremes.—General sympathy
of the Syracusans in his projects against Carthage.—He hires
soldiers from all quarters.—He celebrates his nuptials with two
wives on the same day—Doris and Aristomachê. Temporary good
feeling at Syracuse towards him.—He convokes the Syracusan
assembly, and exhorts them to war against Carthage.—He desires
to arrest the emigration of those who were less afraid of the
Carthaginian dominion than of his.—He grants permission to
plunder the Carthaginian residents and ships at Syracuse. Alarm
at Carthage—suffering in Africa from the pestilence.—Dionysius
marches out from Syracuse with a prodigious army against
the Carthaginians in Sicily.—Insurrection against Carthage,
among the Sicilian Greeks subject to her. Terrible tortures
inflicted on the Carthaginians.—Dionysius besieges the
Carthaginian seaport Motyê.—Situation of Motyê—operations of
the siege—vigorous defence.—Dionysius overruns the neighboring
dependencies of Carthage—doubtful result of the siege of
Motyê—appearance of Imilkon with a Carthaginian fleet—he is
obliged to return.—Desperate defence of Motyê. It is at length
taken by a nocturnal attack.—Plunder of Motyê—the inhabitants
either slaughtered or sold for slaves.—Farther operations of
Dionysius.—Arrival of Imilkon with a Carthaginian armament—his
successful operations—he retakes Motyê.—Dionysius retires to
Syracuse.—Imilkon captures Messênê.—Revolt of the Sikels from
Dionysius. Commencement of Tauromenium.—Provisions of Dionysius
for the defence of Syracuse—he strengthens Leontini—he advances
to Katana with his land-army as well as his fleet.—Naval battle
off Katana—great victory of the Carthaginian fleet under
Magon.—Arrival of Imilkon to join the fleet of Magon near
Katana—fruitless invitation to the Campanians of Ætna.—Dionysius
retreats to Syracuse—discontent of his army.—Imilkon marches
close up to Syracuse—the Carthaginian fleet come up to occupy
the Great Harbor—their imposing entry. Fortified position
of Imilkon near the Harbor.—Imilkon plunders the suburb of
Achradina—blockades Syracuse by sea.—Naval victory gained by the
Syracusan fleet during the absence of Dionysius.—Effect of this
victory in exalting the spirits of the Syracusans.—Public meeting
convened by Dionysius—mutinous spirit against him—vehement
speech by Thedorus.—Sympathy excited by the speech in the
Syracusan assembly.—The Spartan Pharakidas upholds Dionysius—who
finally dismisses the assembly, and silences the adverse
movement.—Alliance of Sparta with Dionysius—suitable to her
general policy at the time. The emancipation of Syracuse depended
upon Pharakidas.—Dionysius tries to gain popularity.—Terrific
pestilence among the Carthaginian army before Syracuse.—Dionysius
attacks the Carthaginian camp. He deliberately sacrifices a
detachment of his mercenaries.—Success of Dionysius, both by sea
and by land, against the Syracusan position.—Conflagration of
the Carthaginian camp—exultation at Syracuse.—Imilkon concludes
a secret treaty with Dionysius, to be allowed to escape with the
Carthaginians, on condition of abandoning his remaining army.
Destruction of the remaining Carthaginian army, except Sikels and
Iberians.—Distress at Carthage—miserable end of Imilkon.—Danger
of Carthage—anger and revolt of her African subjects—at length
put down. 446-512
HISTORY OF GREECE.
PART II.
CONTINUATION OF HISTORICAL GREECE.