that Jesus left the Jewish atmosphere that characterized the northern
end of the sea to enter the Greek world so near at hand. The exact
scene of his healing of the demoniac was apparently uncertain even in
the minds of the Gospel writers. It is sometimes described as the land
of the Gadarenes and it is exceedingly probable that at this time the
authority of the powerful city of Gadara extended along the eastern
border of the lake which lay only six miles away. Josephus, in his
_Life_ (9:10), refers to certain Gadarene villages close to the shore.
On the eastern side of the Sea of Galilee the hills recede at every
point from a quarter to a half mile from shore, except at one point
across the lake from Tiberias. There the hills approach within forty
or fifty feet of the shore, and slope abruptly to the water, making it
easy for a frightened herd of swine to plunge headlong over the steep
place referred to in the Gospel narrative. Gerasa, from which is
derived the other designation of the region (Land of the Gerasenes),
is without much doubt represented by the ruins of Kursi or Kersa, on
the left bank of the Wady Semakh, about a mile from the sea.^{(32)}
The ruins indicate that it was a small village, surrounded by a wall
three feet in thickness. The ruins also extend outside the walls
toward the lake. On the hillsides which rise immediately above the
town are ancient tombs. Here Jesus probably met the maniac whose
belief that he was possessed of a legion of demons reflected the
strong Roman environment in which he lived.
=The Great Crisis in Jesus' Ministry.= The Gospel narratives are so
fragmentary and the topographical evidence is so meagre that it is
impossible to trace with any degree of assurance Jesus' various
journeys. Once, and possibly often, he visited his kinsmen at his
native town of Nazareth, following the well-beaten highway along the
lake to Magdala and thence past the village of Hattin to Nazareth.
From the cities on the northern end of the Sea of Galilee, which were
the scenes of his public ministry, the rumor of his work spread in all
directions and multitudes came streaming to him from Galilee, Judea,
the cities of the Decapolis and even distant Phœnicia. It soon became
evident, however, that the majority came merely to be healed, or
attracted by the hope that he was the Messiah of the popular
expectation. To such his strong ethical message was a disappointment.
They represented the stony or shallow ground of the familiar parable,
and, therefore, in their lives the seed which he sowed bore no fruit.
Scribes sent by the Jewish hierarchy at Jerusalem also came to entrap
him with questions and to stir up distrust and opposition even in the
ranks of his disciples. Thus he suddenly found himself surrounded not
by enthusiastic multitudes but by suspicious, relentless foes.
=Journey to Phœnicia.= This great crisis marks an important
turning-point in Jesus' ministry. Influenced by the evidences of the
loss of public favor and of the open opposition of the Pharisees, he
withdrew from public activity in Galilee and devoted himself more and
more to the instruction and training of his disciples. Through them he
realized that he was to accomplish his divine mission. On one occasion
he departed with his disciples to the borders of Tyre and Sidon. It
was a circuitous journey through the lofty, picturesque valleys of
upper Galilee, down toward the fertile, warm plains of Phœnicia. The
biblical narrative indicates that he did not enter the ancient city of
Tyre, but proceeded northward, probably along the great coast road
that ran through Sarepta and Sidon. At this time both of these cities
were important commercial centres. Sidon lay on a promontory jutting
out into the Mediterranean, with shallow, sandy harbors both on the
north and on the south. The fertile fields and groves that encircled
this northern metropolis, and its warm, sunny climate doubtless
reminded Jesus and his disciples of their home at Capernaum. The
Gospel narrative also implies that Jesus returned to Bethsaida
through the Greek towns east of the Jordan, thus completely avoiding
the territory of Antipas.
=At Cæsarea Philippi.= Soon after, or possibly in connection with the
same journey, Jesus visited Philip's capital at Cæsarea.^{(30)} It lay
at the head of the Jordan valley, on the highway from northern
Palestine to Damascus. About were picturesque hills, covered with
poplars, oaks, and evergreens, and fertile gardens watered by the many
streams that sprang from the base of Mount Hermon. The Roman town was
situated on a triangular terrace, with the present Wady Hashabeh on
the north and the Wady Zaareh on the south. On the east there was also
a protecting moat, while the inner city was surrounded by thick walls
and guarded by towers. It was not within this heathen city, but on the
quiet hilltops and the spurs of Mount Hermon that rise to the north of
the town, that Jesus found the refuge and quiet which he sought. Here,
away from the Judean multitudes and the popular hopes of a temporal
Messiah, Jesus told his disciples that he must accomplish his mission
not by the sword or with the outward signs of triumph, but through
suffering, ignominy, and death. Here, therefore, is to be sought the
scene of that transfiguration which was so closely connected with his
announcement to his disciples of the supreme sacrifice which he was
about to make and which revealed to them his true character.
=The Journey Southward from Galilee.= From Luke 13:31 it is clear that
at this period Herod Antipas was endeavoring to put Jesus to death,
even as he had John the Baptist. This fact doubtless explains why
Jesus avoided the territory of Antipas, preferring, as he himself
implies, to end his work in Jerusalem rather than in some gloomy
fortress like that of Machærus (Luke 13:33, 34). Hence, as he returned
southward from Cæsarea Philippi, passing through Galilee, probably
along the western side of the lake or by boat to the southern end, he
was careful "that no man should know it" (Mark 9:30). The most direct
route from Capernaum to Jerusalem was down the western side of the
Jordan valley. Luke 17:11 states that on his way he passed along the
borders of Samaria and Galilee. It was probably in one of the little
villages not far from Scythopolis that the ten lepers sought his help.
From Luke 9:51-56 it appears that he first planned to pass thence
through Samaria, probably by the road that ran through Teiasir and
Tubas and joined the main central highway near Sychar (_cf._ p. 80);
but the inhospitable reception accorded him by the Samaritans
evidently led him to avoid this road and keep instead to the Jordan
valley. Mark 10:1 indicates that he followed the east-Jordan highway.
This road took him into the territory of Perea, which was under the
control of Herod Antipas, but at a distance from his capital. Here, in
the field of John the Baptist's activity and near the scene of Jesus'
early work, the people again rallied about him in great numbers.
=At Jericho.= The multitudes still followed Jesus after he had crossed
the Jordan on his way to Jerusalem. The Gospel narratives have given
two vivid pictures, one of the blind men who sat by the way as he
passed along, and the other of Zaccheus, the prominent tax-collector.
The Herodian Jericho evidently lay on both sides of the Wady Kelt,
whose waters irrigated the city and its fertile gardens that extended
far across the level plain.^{(35)} The ancient ruins indicate that the
larger portion of the Roman city lay on the southern side of the Kelt;
but its suburbs extended northward to a point east of the older
Jericho, which lay near the western hills. The plains about the Roman
Jericho were probably cultivated for miles in each direction. Here the
date-palms grew in great profusion and their fruit was one of the
chief exports of the place. Strabo states that balsam was produced
here in large quantities. In summer the climate was exceedingly hot
and oppressive, but in winter it was balmy and equable. Josephus
describes with unwonted enthusiasm its marvellous fertility and
healthful climate (_Jew. Wars_, IV, 8:2, 3). Through it ran the great
caravan road to Gilead and the desert. It was the eastern outpost of
Judea. The collection of customs at this point was, therefore, of
great importance. The city was as different from the other cities of
Judah as was its physical environment. Plenty, luxury, and corruption
were its chief characteristics. It was the heir of the traditions of
the ancient Canaanite cities of the plain. Its immediate associations
were with Herod the Great, Cleopatra, and Archelaus, three of the most
sinister characters of this corrupt age.
=Situation of Bethany.= From Jericho the road led up through the
barren wilderness of Judea^{(25)} to Jerusalem. It was an almost
steady climb of three thousand feet. Probably Herod the Great had
already joined these two important cities of his empire by a Roman
road, following the general course along which runs the modern
carriage road. In striking contrast to the barrenness of the brown,
rocky wilderness is the lofty plateau which stands at the top of the
final ascent. On this southeastern spur of the Mount of Olives lay the
little town of Bethany.^{(124)} It was surrounded by small,
rock-strewn grain fields and stood in a bower of fig, almond, and
olive trees. To the northwest rose the higher ridges of the Mount of
Olives, shutting off the view of Jerusalem. Above was probably
situated the little village of Bethphage, less than a mile away and
closely associated with Bethany in the minds of the Gospel writers.
The view to the east was through the broad hollow down which went the
road to Jericho. To the southeast the eye looked beyond the barren
hills of the Judean wilderness to the Dead Sea and the lofty line of
the plateau of Moab.^{(24)} It is significant that Jesus chose this
village as his home while in Judea, for it was retired, yet near to
Jerusalem and one of the few places that commanded a wide outlook.
This fact suggests the impression which Jerusalem made upon the mind
of the great Prophet of Nazareth. Shut in by its surrounding hills and
by its narrow fanaticism and ceremonialism its atmosphere must have
seemed to him stifling.
=The Triumphal Entrance Into Jerusalem.= Near Bethany, his southern
home, where Jesus apparently spent many days, he secured the ass on
which he made his memorable journey to Jerusalem. The occasion was the
Passover Feast, and pilgrims from Perea, Galilee, and eastern Judea,
the fields in which his ministry had been performed, accompanied him
on the journey. As they saw him riding on an ass, the royal beast in
the days of David, the earlier hopes of the people were suddenly
revived. Quickly the news of his presence spread through the long line
of pilgrims. Those ahead tore branches from the trees by the wayside
or else spread their garments in the way along which he was to pass,
while they all joined in a triumphant song suggested by Psalm 118:25,
26:
Hosanna to the son of David!
Blessed is he who cometh in the name of the Lord!
Hosanna in the highest!
Slowly the procession wound around the southern spur of the Mount of
Olives, with the deep gorge of the Kidron on the south, until
Jerusalem suddenly burst into view. Thence descending into the valley,
Jesus entered the city and found his way to the temple just as the sun
was setting behind the western hills. He sought not a waiting throne,
but a place for quiet worship. Then in the hush of the evening,
refusing to give the slightest encouragement to the selfish, material
hopes of the people, he returned to his humble home at Bethany.
=Jesus' Activity in the Temple.= Jesus' activity during the last week
of his ministry gathers about the temple.^{(125)} The remark of his
disciples regarding its huge foundation stones was used by him as a
means of calling their attention to the temple not built with hands.
It was probably near the entrances in the southern part of the great
court of the Gentiles, under the huge portico with its four rows of
Corinthian columns, that the extortionate money-changers and those who
sold doves plied their trade. To secure a place within the sacred
precincts, they must have bribed the temple officials. Jesus' act in
expelling them was, therefore, not merely a reassertion of the
sanctity of the temple, but also a rebuke of the corrupt practices of
the Sadducean nobles. Solomon's Porch, where Jesus walked and taught,
was the long colonnade with its double row of pillars on the eastern
side of the Court of the Gentiles. From this eastern side one
magnificent gate, with doors adorned with Corinthian brass, led
directly into the Court of the Women. Within this small eastern court
were probably placed the thirteen offertory chests into which the
people cast their free-will offerings. Here only men and women of
Jewish faith and parentage were allowed to enter. It was probably
within this court that Jesus stood with his disciples and watched the
people as they cast in their offerings, the rich of their plenty and
the poor widow her mite.
=The Last Supper and Agony.= The place of the upper chamber, where
Jesus ate the last supper with his disciples, is not definitely known.
Tradition fixes it at a certain place on the western hill. Equally
uncertain is the exact site of the Garden of Gethsemane. Its name
indicates that it was probably an olive grove containing an oil press.
It was doubtless enclosed with a fence like similar gardens about
Jerusalem to-day. It was situated somewhere to the east of the Kidron,
on the side of the Mount of Olives. A tradition which is probably not
older than the sixteenth century identifies Gethsemane^{(126)} with a
garden low down in the Valley of the Kidron, opposite the temple. This
garden, with its eight old olive trees, aids the imagination in
picturing the spot, probably farther away and more secluded, where
Jesus met and overcame his last great temptation, and gave himself
wholly and voluntarily to the completion of the divine task entrusted
to him.
=Scenes of the Trials.= The Gospel narrative implies that Jesus was
not tried before a formal meeting of the Sanhedrin, which would have
convened in one of the chambers immediately adjoining the temple, but
in the house of Caiaphas, the high priest. This midnight session was,
therefore, not a regular trial, but a preliminary examination by his
Sadducean enemies, with a view to formulating definite charges against
him. The house of the high priest was undoubtedly near the temple,
probably somewhere to the west. According to the Fourth Gospel, the
trial before Pilate, the Roman governor, was held in the Prætorium.
The judgment seat of Pilate may have been connected with the palace
reared by Herod on the western hill, which was then the home of the
Roman rulers of Jerusalem, but more probably it was in the tower of
Antonia, immediately to the north of the temple, opening into the
Court of the Gentiles where the mob which was in league with the high
priestly party was assembled.
=Traditional Place of the Crucifixion.= The exact scene of the
crucifixion is also uncertain. The biblical records indicate that it
was outside the city wall and yet in a conspicuous position near the
city and also near an important highway. In the vicinity was a tomb,
and the name, Golgotha, suggests that it was either at a place of
burial or else on a hill, the form of which suggested the shape of a
skull. In Luke the place is called The Skull, supporting the
conclusion that it was the peculiar form of the rock that gave the
place its name. Jerome speaks of it as the little mountain, or hill,
of Golgotha. It was the practice both of the Jews and Romans to put to
death public offenders outside the city. In the case of those, like
Jesus, charged with rebellion, a conspicuous public place was chosen
in order to make the object-lesson more impressive. The traditional
site of the crucifixion is due west of the temple, across the upper
end of the Tyropœon Valley. It is possible to infer from recent
excavations that it was just outside the northern wall of the Roman
city. Tombs discovered at this point show that it was also a place of
burial. While this identification is not impossible, it cannot be
traced farther back than the fourth Christian century.
=The More Probable Site.= A more probable site is somewhere near the
rounded skull-like hill five hundred feet north of the Damascus gate,
above the so-called Grotto of Jeremiah.^{(127)} It is near the great
northern road and, because of its height, can readily be seen from the
northern side of the city. It is the continuation of the northern
ridge on which Jerusalem is built and its bold form and abrupt face
are due to the rock cuttings at this point. Vast quantities of stone
used in the repeated restorations of the walls have been taken from
these quarries. Probably Herod quarried at this point much of the
stone used in extending the temple area southward. The bold, rocky
bluff on the northern side of this quarry was well adapted to public
executions. If this was the scene of the crucifixion the place where
the cross rested has probably been cut away by later excavations.
=The Place of Burial.= In a little garden to the left is shown to-day
a well-preserved, rock-cut tomb.^{(128)} It is an excellent example of
the family tomb of the Roman period and may have been that of Joseph
of Arimathea, although there is no conclusive evidence. It possesses
great interest, however, because it is a type of the tomb in which the
body of the Master was laid.^{(129)} Most significant is the fact that
not one of the places which witnessed the closing scenes of his life
can be identified with absolute assurance. Occidental as well as
oriental Christianity has shown itself too eager to worship sacred
sites and in so doing to forget the deeper meaning of the events which
have made the places memorable. Though most of the scenes will remain
forever unknown, the work and teachings of the Master will abide and
occupy an increasingly larger place in the life and thought of
mankind.
XXV
THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY THROUGHOUT THE ROMAN EMPIRE
=Original Centre at Jerusalem.= The spread of Christianity throughout
the civilized world bears conclusive testimony not only to the
life-giving truth of Jesus' message, but also to the supreme wisdom of
his method. His heroic death at first daunted, but the vision of his
living presence, which, according to the oldest records, came to his
disciples amidst the familiar scenes on the northern shores of the Sea
of Galilee, quickly inspired them to take up the mission which he had
left them and to proclaim abroad the good tidings of God's love for
men. Strangely enough, Galilee, which had been the scene of the call,
the training, and the sending forth of Jesus' disciples, again sinks
into oblivion. Capernaum, Chorazin, and Bethsaida had failed to
respond to their great opportunity. In accordance with the implied, if
not the expressed, commands of Jesus, his disciples soon transferred
their homes and work to Jerusalem, the religious home of the Jewish
race, to which they, as well as their Master, at first alone appealed.
Here it was possible at the great annual festivals, when the pilgrims
streamed to the temple from all parts of the Roman empire, to touch
the entire Jewish world. Following the example of the Great Teacher,
his disciples took up the task of teaching and preaching within the
precincts of the temple and especially at Solomon's Porch on the
eastern side, where he had often walked and talked.
=Spread of Christianity Outside Judea.= The stoning of Stephen, which
was outside the city and probably in the deserted quarries
immediately to the north of the temple, marked a new epoch in the life
of the early Christian community, for it was the beginning of a bitter
persecution at the hands of the Jewish authorities, which soon drove
the disciples in all directions from secluded Judah and transformed
them into a world-conquering missionary force. In this early
dispersion the apostles naturally followed the great highways, which
led northward, southward, and westward from Jerusalem. Philip the
Evangelist preached with great success at Samaria. Here he was
building on an older Hebrew basis, for the Bible of the Samaritans
contained the first five books of the Old Testament with portions of
the book of Joshua. The mixed Samaritan population, however, ever open
by virtue of their geographical position to the diverse influences
that surged up and down the eastern Mediterranean, never proved a
stable element in the early Christian church.
=Philip's Work in the South and West.= Leaving the Samaritans, Philip
set out for the coast city of Gaza. He probably took the central
highway from Jerusalem southward by way of Hebron. A late tradition
places the spring where he baptized the Ethiopian official on the
tortuous road, practically impassable for chariots, which leads
southwestward from Jerusalem, but the older and more probable
tradition identifies it with that beside the main road southward, a
little north of Bethzur. Thence Philip turned westward, preaching and
teaching with success at the old Philistine town of Ashdod, which lay
three miles from the Mediterranean, on the border line between the
fertile plain and the drifting sands, at the point where the main
coast highway divided into its eastern and western branches.
=Extension and Expansion of Christianity During the First Decade.=
Peter, likewise, turned westward, and at the flourishing city of
Lydda, which stood where the main highway from Jerusalem to Joppa
crossed the great northern coast road, found a well-established
Christian community. Joppa^{(130)} stood on a bold hill looking out
over the western sea. It was fitting that here Peter, the natural
leader of the rapidly growing Christian church, should have a clear
vision of the great and needy Gentile world that lay beyond the narrow
bounds of Judea. Joppa was indeed the gateway between Jerusalem, which
represented Judaism, and Rome, which stood as the embodiment of
regnant heathenism. From Joppa, with its small, rocky harbor, the
apostle followed the messengers of Cornelius, the Roman centurion,
along the road which closely skirted the shore to Cæsarea, the new
door which Herod the Great had opened between Palestine and the
Gentile world along the shores of the Mediterranean. Here Peter was
far beyond Jewish atmosphere and civilization. The population, the
public buildings, and the language of this busy seaport were either
Greek or Roman. Thus, before Herod Agrippa in 41 A.D. entered upon his
brief but brilliant reign of three years, Christianity had swept over
the borders of Judea into the great strategic cities of the western
coast plains and even to Damascus, far in the north. It was also
breaking the narrow Jewish bonds and following the great western
highways that were guiding it on to the conquest of the empire.