the peculiar physical contour of Palestine on its inhabitants was
clearly illustrated during the latter part of the period of
settlement. Although masters of Canaan, there was apparently no
political unity between the different Hebrew tribes. Like the petty
Canaanite kingdoms, which they had conquered, they were all intent
upon their own problems and fought their battles independently. The
story of Jephthah reveals the same conditions in the east-Jordan
country. The result was that the Hebrews soon fell an easy prey to the
invaders who pressed them on every side. The Ammonites on the east
were ever eager to push their borders to the Jordan. It was only the
energetic leadership of Jephthah, a local champion of the tribe of
Manasseh, that delivered the Hebrews for a time from these invaders.
The land of Tob, where Jephthah took refuge, was probably in northern
Gilead. The name may be represented by that of the village and wady of
Taiyibeh, across the Jordan east of Bethshean. Jephthah's success only
aroused the enmity of the powerful tribe of Ephraim, west of the
Jordan, and the story in Judges 12 reveals a state of inter-tribal
warfare rather than of united action against their common foes.
=The Scenes of Gideon's Exploits.= As the event demonstrated, the only
influence sufficient to overcome the physical forces working for
disunion was a strong and prolonged attack from without. The attacks
of the Midianites, recorded in the Gideon stories, were too
intermittent to bring about a permanent organization of all the Hebrew
tribes. Gideon's victory, however, possesses a large significance, for
it led to the establishment of the first Hebrew kingdom. Ophrah,
Gideon's home, is not to be confused with the town farther south in
the territory of Benjamin. It was designated by the biblical
historians as Ophrah of the Abiezrites, being named from the clan to
which Gideon belonged. It has been identified with Ferata, six miles
southwest of Shechem; but this site is more probably the Pirathon of
the book of Joshua. The Ophrah of Gideon is best identified with 'Ain
el-Farah, about ten miles northeast of Shechem, at the head of the
Wady Farah, which flows southeast into the Jordan. Gideon's march,
therefore, with his three hundred brave followers, would be directly
down this valley and across the Jordan, either at the present Damieh
ford or farther north, opposite the point where the Jabbok breaks
through the hills of Gilead. The common identification of Succoth with
Tell Deir Alla, suggested by the Talmud, would point to the
northernmost of these two fords. The present ruin of Deir Alla is a
high mound on the eastern side of the Jordan, about a mile northwest
of the Jabbok. It commanded the great highway along the east side of
the Jordan and also the road inland that followed the course of the
River Jabbok. It was therefore an important strategic point. If this
identification of Succoth is correct, the site of Penuel must be
farther to the east along the valley of the Jabbok. The mounds known
as Tulûl ed-Dahab, that rise abruptly to the height of about two
hundred and fifty feet in the middle of the valley four or five miles
east of Deir Alla, fully satisfy the biblical references to this
important stronghold that was later rebuilt by Jeroboam I (I Kings
12:25). Ancient ruins and the remains of a great wall and platform
built of massive stones crown the eastern hill. Close to its northern
side runs the road from the Jordan to the desert. The mention of
Jogbehah, as an index of the route along which Gideon pursued the
fleeing Midianites, indicates that the way of retreat lay to the
southeast in the direction of Rabbath-Ammon. Jogbehah may without
reasonable doubt be identified with the ruins of Jubeihat, which lie
north of the present road from the Damieh Ford through Es-Salt on to
Amman. This route would have been the more natural line of retreat,
for from Jogbehah it was easy for the Midianites to escape directly
eastward into the desert. Anywhere east of the Jordan the retreating
Arab host would have felt secure from the attack.
=Gideon's Kingdom.= The significance of Gideon's victory lies not so
much in the courage with which he responded to the relentless law of
blood revenge, nor the greatness of his victory, but in the fact that
when he returned his followers and certain of the cities near Ophrah
asked him to rule over them and to transmit his authority to his sons.
Thus a local chieftain was transformed into a king. The kingdom thus
established would probably have survived had it not been for the
cruelty and folly of the son who succeeded him. In its widest bounds,
Gideon's kingdom was apparently very small. In addition to Ophrah,
Shechem, which was at this time the chief city in central Samaria,
Thebez, a town three miles north of 'Ain el-Farah, and doubtless the
conquered cities of Succoth and Penuel, across the Jordan to the east,
acknowledged his authority. Probably the villages and territory
included within these bounds also enjoyed his protection. In its
broadest bounds his kingdom probably did not extend more than
twenty-five miles from north to south and the same distance from east
to west.
=Reasons for the Superiority of the Philistines.= The foes whose
aggressions compelled the Hebrew tribes to unite in common defence and
thus gave rise to the Hebrew kingdom were the Philistines. These hardy
immigrants from the islands and shores of the northeastern
Mediterranean had entered western Palestine during the reign of Ramses
III, at about the time when the Hebrews were intrenching themselves in
the east-Jordan land, preparatory to their advance upon the uplands of
Canaan (_cf._ p. 122). It was inevitable that these strong peoples
should ultimately clash. The Hebrews succeeded in capturing the
central plateau, but the Philistines soon surpassed them in military
strength and organization. This difference was largely due to the
characteristics of the territory in which the two peoples settled. In
striking contrast to the home of the Hebrews, Philistia was divided by
no natural barriers. All its territory was a gently rolling plain. Its
people were united by similar occupations and interests. The result
was that, while the Hebrew tribes were fighting their battles
independently or were even engaged in civil strife, the kings or
tyrants who ruled over the four or five leading Philistine cities had
already formed a close confederacy and were fighting as a united
people. The rich fertility of the land which they occupied also
accelerated their development. Their territory lay on the great
commercial highways of the eastern Mediterranean, so that they
received the culture and the products of Egypt on the one hand and of
Phœnicia and Babylonia on the other. Their exposed position and lack
of natural defences also hastened the development of their military
organization and equipment. Their cities were surrounded by strong
walls and in battle they employed chariots and horsemen as well as
infantry. It is easy, therefore, to understand why the Hebrews were
beaten in the early engagements.
=Scenes of the Samson Stories.= The Samson stories represent the
earlier stages in the protracted struggle between the men of the hills
and the men of the plains. The home of this hero of popular story was
the Danite town of Zorah, situated on the hill which guards on the
north the entrance to the Valley of Sorek. Two or three miles to the
northeast, where the valley broadens, lay the other important southern
Danite town of Eshtaol. Somewhere between these two points was the
Camp of Dan, and here Samson was buried after his stormy, dramatic
career. Up the valley which runs eastward from Zorah was probably the
cave and cliff of Etam, where the Hebrew champion dwelt for a time.
Across the valley from the tree-clad hill on which Zorah stood was the
town of Bethshemesh, while to the southwest it looked across the
waving grain fields, which figure in the Samson story, to Timnath,
only five miles away. With the exception of Gaza, which lay a long
day's journey across the plain, the scenes of all Samson's exploits
were not more than five or six miles from his boyhood home. Possessed
of ungoverned strength and passions, the hero was a typical product of
this western borderland and a forerunner of that more serious conflict
which soon raged between plain and hill.
=The Decisive Battle-field.= The scene of the decisive battle in which
the Hebrews were overwhelmingly defeated and the ark of Jehovah fell
into the hands of the Philistines may have been at a short distance
from the Plain of Sorek. It is probable, however, that Aphek must be
sought farther north, where broader plains lead up to the heart of
central Israel, for the Philistines were intent not merely upon border
warfare, but upon the conquest of the land of the Hebrews. In the
Greek text of Joshua 12:18 an Aphek in Sharon is mentioned. Thotmose
III in his list of conquered cities also speaks of an Aphek north of
Lydda and not far from Ono. Later, when the Philistines invaded Israel
by the Plain of Esdraelon, they rallied at Aphek, which was evidently
near the coast road that ran along the eastern side of the Plain of
Sharon. Aphek, therefore, must have been situated on the southeastern
side of this plain, commanding the passes that led into Benjamin and
southern Ephraim. A little later the Philistine garrisons were at
Michmash and Gibeah, indicating that the line of approach was across
the more open valley of Ajalon, thence through the Beth-horon pass.
=Fortunes of the Ark.= From the northern battle-field, the ark was
first borne in triumph to the Philistine city of Ashdod near the
coast. Thence, to avert a plague, it was carried to Gath, which is
probably identical with Tell es-Safi, that guards the entrance to the
Valley of Elah. From there it was transferred to Ekron in the north.
As the lowing cows drew it back across the plains to the Hebrew
territory they must have turned to the southeast, following the Valley
of Sorek, until they reached the city of Bethshemesh, beside which
runs to-day the railway, as it enters the Judean hills.
Kirjath-jearim, where the ark finally rested, was probably about five
miles due east of Bethshemesh, farther up the valley which led toward
Jerusalem.
=The Sanctuary at Shiloh.= The history of Samuel, the seer who was
able to interpret the meaning of this great crisis in Israel's history
and to point out the way of deliverance, opens at Shiloh, in the
territory of southern Samaria. This little town was east of the
central highway and at the northern end of a fertile plain, from which
valleys radiate in all directions. The town itself lay on a rounded,
rocky hill, lower than those around it, and was encircled by deep
valleys on the east, on the north, and on the west. The hill rises in
terraces to a flattened knob now crowned with extensive ruins.^{(80)}
The rude mosque and spreading tree, which are supposed to mark the
site of the ancient Hebrew sanctuary, stand in front of the hill; but
the cuttings in the native rock, in which the semblance of an ancient
altar can still be distinguished, the small rock-cut reservoirs, and
the level terrace near by all suggest that the site of the rude
sanctuary in which the ark was at first deposited lay back of the hill
now crowned with the ruins of the town. Here doubtless the maidens of
Shiloh once took part in the religious dances. Here the people from
all parts of the land resorted at the annual feasts, and here Samuel
sat at the feet of the aged Eli. It is a quiet spot,^{(81)} with
picturesque views of mountain and plain, central yet apart from the
streams of commerce and war--a fitting place for worship. It never
recovered, however, from its destruction at the hands of the
Philistines after their great victory and from the loss of prestige
which came from the capture of the ark. Even during the days of
Samuel, its traditions appear to have been transferred to the northern
Gilgal, five miles over the hills to the southwest.
=Samuel's Home at Ramah.= Samuel's home was evidently not far from
Shiloh and in the territory of southwestern Ephraim. Of the many
towns, which bear the name, Ramah, or high place, the present Beit
Rima, twelve miles in a straight line from Shiloh and eight from the
northern Gilgal, corresponds perfectly with the biblical references to
the home of Samuel. It lies in a straight line about eighteen miles
northwest of Saul's home at Gibeah. Saul's quest for his father's
asses took him over the high ridges and through the deep, picturesque
valleys of western Benjamin and Ephraim. A few trees still grow on the
hills, suggesting they were once densely wooded, and rushing,
perennial streams dash along the valleys toward the Plain of Sharon.
Ramah itself is situated where the hills of Samaria descend to the
western plain. Near by the natives still worship a Mohammedan prophet,
Neby Saleh, whose tomb is the goal of many pilgrimages. On the hill to
the east we found many stones set up by pious pilgrims as they caught
the first glimpse of this sacred shrine. It would seem that, in this
modified form, the spirit of the great prophet of Ramah still
dominates this wild region, which is a little world in itself, apart
from the rest of Palestine. Here at Ramah, on the heights, where stood
the local altar, Samuel directed the sacrifice, and by public act and
later by private counsel on the quiet of the house-top^{(82)} inspired
the stalwart Benjamite chieftain to perform those deeds of valor which
proclaimed him the one divinely fitted and called to deliver Jehovah's
people.
=The Site of Gibeah.= In returning, Saul apparently took the highway
which led southeast to the main road through central Samaria and
thence directly to Gibeah. First Samuel 14:1-5 and Isaiah 10:29
indicate that Geba, situated on the heights opposite Michmash, was
distinct from Saul's home. The reference in Judges 19:12-14 makes it
clear that Gibeah lay close to the main road north from Jerusalem but
south of the Benjamite Ramah. Saul's native town is sometimes confused
with Geba (opposite Michmash), but is probably to be usually
identified with the ruins at Tell el-Ful, four miles directly north of
Jerusalem.^{(83)} It was a commanding site, two thousand seven hundred
and fifty-four feet above the level of the sea, and therefore over two
hundred feet higher than Jerusalem and one hundred feet higher than
the Mount of Olives. The identification is confirmed by the statement
of Josephus (_B. J._ V. 2:1) that Titus, in advancing from the north
against Jerusalem, encamped at Gabbath-Saul, that is, the hill of
Saul, between three and four miles north of Jerusalem. The town
enjoyed the protection of the inaccessible heights of the central
plateau and yet commanded the roads which radiated in every direction
throughout the land. Like Jerusalem, it was thus central, well
protected, and a fitting site for the first capital of all Israel.
=Situation of Jabesh-Gilead.= The site of the Israelite city of
Jabesh-Gilead, across the Jordan, whose messengers aroused Saul to
action, has not as yet been absolutely identified. The name is
preserved in the Wady Yabis, which runs from the heights of Gilead
into the Jordan a little southwest of Bethshean. Eusebius states
(_Onomas._ 268.281) that it was on the eastern table-land, six Roman
miles from Pella, on the road to Gerasa, the modern Jerash. It is
probably represented by the ruins of Miryamim, north of the Wady
Yabis, where the ancient road leads up through the Wady Saleh to the
heights seven miles southeast of Pella. About these massive, ancient
ruins are open plains where the Ammonite hosts could assemble. Here in
the early morning was probably fought the first memorable battle in
Israel's war for independence.
=The Sanctuary at Gilgal.= After the destruction of Shiloh it was
natural that the Hebrew tribes should assemble at Gilgal, the sacred
shrine a few miles to the southwest, and there make king the man who
had proved his fitness to lead and his ability to deliver them from
their foes. The town itself was two thousand four hundred and
forty-one feet above the sea and was approached by a long climb from
almost every side. It stood on the top of a round hill jutting boldly
out into the midst of deep valleys. The hill is a gilgal, or circle,
connected with the rest of the land by a rocky shoulder running to the
south. On this shoulder of land are two fine rock-cut thrashing
floors. The southern front of the rocky plateau is occupied by the
present village of Jiljilia. The space on the north and west is still
unoccupied and bears all the marks of an ancient high place. Near the
shrine of a Mohammedan saint are two terebinths, probably survivors of
the ancient sacred grove. On the northwest, the cuttings in the rock
suggest channels to carry off the sacrificial blood, while one
rock-cutting resembles an altar, with a reservoir or underground room.
About is a large rocky terrace, where one can in imagination see the
assembled Israelites as they gathered to proclaim as king the gigantic
Benjamite warrior and thus to lay the foundations of Israel's
independence and national glory.
=The Philistine Advance.= The scene of Israel's history was suddenly
transferred farther south. The choice of Saul as king was equivalent
to declaring war against the Philistines, and Saul's intrepid son,
Jonathan, assumed the offensive by attacking their garrison at Gibeah.
These active oppressors of Israel soon came streaming up over the pass
of Beth-horon^{(84)} to crush the rebellion. At their approach most of
Saul's followers vanished and he was left with only a handful of men.
For the moment the Hebrew kingdom seemed but a wild dream. Again it
was simply the courage of Jonathan that at this crisis turned the tide
of war and gave Saul a secure throne. The Philistines had advanced to
the fortress of Michmash and, finding no opposition, had dispersed in
search of plunder. One band turned back toward Beth-horon in the west,
another went north to the southern Ophrah, otherwise known as Ephraim.
The third band had gone eastward, along the road which led across the
barren wilderness to the Valley of Achor and the Jordan.
=The Pass of Michmash.= The only remnant of the Philistine army left
to guard the Hebrews under Saul was the garrison at Michmash. In early
times one important branch of the main highway apparently led from
Gibeah to the northeast, past Geba and the pass below Michmash to Ai
and Bethel. The highway which led up from the Jordan valley and Gilead
in the east ran directly past Michmash, connecting through the pass of
Beth-horon with the main highways of the coast. Michmash was therefore
the key to central Canaan. The Wady es-Suweinit is broad and shallow
in its upper course below the village of Michmash, but to the
southeast of the town there is a terraced crag or plateau overhanging
the valley, which here has steep cliffs on both sides^{(85)}. This
point was probably the scene of Jonathan's brave exploit. Accompanied
only by his armor-bearer, he descended the cliff in front of Geba,
crossed the deep valley, and climbed up the almost sheer cliff on the
other side. The temerity of his act at first only aroused the
curiosity and scorn of the Philistines, so that they allowed him to
scale the heights unmolested. Their scorn was turned to terror when,
like a divine warrior, he attacked and slew twenty of their number.
The biblical narrative implies that an earthquake added to the panic,
which quickly spread to the ranks of the plundering Philistines.
=The Great Victory Over the Philistines.= Saul and his warriors on the
heights to the south looked across the ravine and saw the tumult among
the Philistines. With his characteristic impetuosity the king, without
even waiting to consult the divine oracle, rushed in pursuit of the
Philistines and was soon joined by the Hebrews who had fled for refuge
to the rocky hills and valleys of Ephraim. The territory was well
adapted to the fierce guerilla warfare in which the Hebrews were
skilled, and the Philistines, accustomed to manœuvring upon the open
plain, were caught at a disadvantage. The pursuit swept down through
the valleys to the west, through the pass of Beth-horon, and thence
southward to Ajalon, which was the chief western gateway of the hill
country.
=Saul's Wars.= The victory was so complete that for several years the
Philistines appear to have left Saul undisturbed. This opportunity he
improved to develop his army and to organize his kingdom, which
probably did not extend far beyond the Plain of Esdraelon to the
north. His capital, Gibeah, was really a military camp, for he was
exposed to constant attack on every side. In the south he made a
campaign against the Bedouin Amalekites. From the southeast came the
attacks of the Edomites, and from the east the Ammonites were seeking
to push their bounds farther westward. In this stern school, under the
leadership of a bold, warlike king, the Israelites learned not only to
fight bravely, but unitedly and therefore effectively.
[Illustration: THE HEBREW EMPIRE UNDER DAVID]
XVI
THE SCENES OF DAVID'S EXPLOITS
=David's Home at Bethlehem.= The history of the united Hebrew empire
gathers about the personality of its founder, David. The life of no
other Old Testament character is recorded with greater detail and
picturesqueness than that of the shepherd boy from Bethlehem. His
native town was beautifully situated on a spur that ran eastward from
the watershed of central Judah.^{(86)} It is surrounded on three sides
by deep valleys and looks eastward down upon the wilderness of Judea.
About it are fields of wheat and barley and on the hillsides are
vineyards and groves of olive and almond trees, for it is one of the
two most fertile spots in the entire territory of Judah.^{(23)} There
are no springs in the village itself, the nearest being about eight
hundred yards to the southeast. The inhabitants are dependent upon
rock-cut wells or cisterns, of which there are many, or upon the water
conducted by an aqueduct from the Pools of Solomon to the southwest.
The territory about Bethlehem is pre-eminently the land of the
shepherd.^{(87)} The traveller to-day sees almost no cattle or large
animals. Their absence is probably due to the limited supply of water
and to the frequent outcrops of gray limestone, which make travelling
dangerous for cattle and horses. The landscape is dotted with flocks
of sheep and goats. The rocky pastures run up to the outskirts of
Bethlehem, which appears to have been in ancient times simply a
shepherd's village.
=The Contest in the Valley of Elah.= Bethlehem lies only ten miles
south in a straight line from Saul's capital at Gibeah. Hence the
journey of the messenger who summoned David to the service of his
king was not long. The event which brought the youthful shepherd to
the attention of the nation took place in the Valley of Elah,^{(88)}
but twelve miles in a straight line west of Bethlehem. Its
geographical setting throws much light upon this dramatic event in
Israel's early history. The Philistine army was drawn up between Socoh
and Azekah in Ephes-dammin, the Valley of Dark-red Lands, doubtless so
named from the patches of dark-red ploughed land which in the spring
still impart a rich glow to the landscape. Socoh was on the south side
of the Valley of Elah and Azekah was across the wady to the northwest.
The Philistine position was, therefore, on the southwestern side of
the valley, which is here about one-quarter of a mile wide and well
adapted to the manœuvring of their chariots. The Hebrew position was
evidently across the valley on the steep bluff to the northeast, with
its left flank at the entrance of the wady and highway which led to
Bethlehem and Gibeah. Through the middle of the fertile valley the
mountain torrent has cut a deep ravine, with steep banks on either
side and a bed strewn with white stones. The strength of the strategic
position occupied by each of the two armies and the danger involved in
advancing through the deep ravine, clearly explain their delay in
making an attack. The situation also reveals the courage of the youth
who dared cross the deep ravine and advance single-handed across the
plain against the Philistine champion. It is not strange that the
moment David slew Goliath, the Bethlehem shepherd became the idol of
the people. It was equally natural that the impulsive Saul should feel
a growing jealousy toward the one who seemed to have stolen from him
the heart of the people.