DANCING IN THE MIDDLE AGES
The mediæval eclipse; ecclesiastical dancing in Spain; the
strolling ballets of Spain and Italy; suppression of dancing by the
church; dances of the mediæval nobility; Renaissance court ballets;
the English masques; famous masques of the seventeenth century.
There is a lapse of time, nearly a thousand years, from the fall of the
ancient civilization of Greece and Rome to the Grand Ballet of France,
when the art of dancing was almost stifled by the Mediæval ecclesiastic
scholasticism. Since we have practically no records of the dancing that
was fostered in Cadiz, which was probably the most conspicuous at that
time, we must confess that the greatly esteemed art of the ancients
nearly came to a ruin. If it had not been for Spain, where dancing
was introduced even into the churches, it might have taken centuries
longer to revive the vanishing ideas of the ancient choreography and
keep alive the plastic religion. We are told that a bishop of Valencia
adopted certain sacred dances in the churches of Seville, Toledo and
Valencia, which were performed before the altar. In Galicia a slow
hymn-dance was performed by a tall priest, while carrying a gorgeously
dressed boy on his shoulders, at the festival of Corpus Christi.
Much as the church fathers fought dancing in other countries, they
had to admit it in Spain. It is said that the choir-boys of Seville
Cathedral executed _danzas_ during a part of the religious processions
in mediæval Spain, and that this practice was authorized in 1439 by a
Bull of Pope Eugenius IV. Of these choir-boy dancers Baron Davillier
writes: ‘They are easily to be recognized in the streets of Seville by
their red caps, their red cloaks adorned with red neckties, their black
stockings, and shoes with rosettes and metal buttons. The hat (worn
during the dance), slightly conical in shape, is turned up on one side,
and fastened with a bow of white velvet, from which rises a tuft of
blue and white feathers. The most characteristic feature of the costume
is the _golilla_, a sort of lace ruff, starched and pleated, which
encircles the neck. Lace cuffs, slashed trunk-hose or _galzoncillo_
blue silk stockings and white shoes with rosettes, complete the costume
of which Doré made a sketch when he saw it in Seville Cathedral, on
the _octave_ of the Conception. The dance of the boys attracts as many
spectators to Seville as the ceremonies of Holy Week, and the immense
cathedral is full to overflowing on the days when they are to figure in
a function.’
Vuillier writes of another occasion of the Spanish temple dances: ‘One
of these festivals is celebrated on the 15th of August, the day of the
Assumption of the Virgin Mary, the other on the following day, the
feast of the patron of the village of Alaro. On these occasions a body
of dancers called _Els Cosiers_ play the principal part. It consists
of six boys dressed in white, with ribbons of many colors, wearing
on their heads caps trimmed with flowers. One of them, _La Dama_,
disguised as a woman, carries a fan in one hand and a handkerchief in
the other. Two others are dressed as demons with horns and cloven feet.
The party is followed by some musicians playing on the _cheremias_, the
_tamborino_, and the _fabiol_. After vespers the _Cosiers_ join the
procession as it leaves the church. Three of them take up positions on
either side of the Virgin, who is preceded by a demon; every few yards
they perform steps. Each demon is armed with a flexible rod with which
he keeps off the crowd. The procession stops in all the squares and
principal places, and there the _Cosiers_ perform one of their dances
to the sound of the _tamborino_ and the _fabiol_. When the procession
returns to the church they dance together round the statue of the
Virgin.’
Of a very primitive but unique nature were the mediæval strolling
ballets of Spain and Italy. Some old writers assert that they
originated in Italy and passed later into Spain, but others tell
the contrary. Later the Portuguese organized a strolling ballet in
adoration of St. Carlos. Castil-Blaze writes of a strolling ballet that
was instituted by the King René of Provence, in 1462, called the _Lou
Gue_. This consisted of allegorical scenes of the Bible and was danced
in the style of Roman mythological pantomimes. Most of the conspicuous
characters of the Bible and history were enacted in this ballet.
The procession of the ballet went through a city to the square of a
garden before some cathedral or castle. Fame headed the march, blowing
a trumpet and carrying a gorgeous shield on a winged horse. He was
followed by the rest of the company in various comic and spectacular
costumes. There were the Duke of Urbino, King Herod, Fauns, Dryads, and
Apostles, and finally the Jews, dancing round a Golden Calf.
‘King René wrote this religious ballet in all its details,’ writes
Castil-Blaze. ‘Decorations, dance music, marches, all were of his
invention, and his music has always been faithfully preserved and
performed. The air of _Lou Gue_ has some curious modulations; the
minuet of the Queen of Sheba, the march of the Prince of Love, upon
which so many _noëls_ have been founded, and, above all the _Veie de
Noue_, are full of originality. But the wrestler’s melody is good
René’s masterpiece, if it be true that he is its author, as tradition
affirms. This classic air has a pleasing melody with gracefully written
harmonies; the strolling minstrels of Provence play it on their flutes
to a rhythmical drum accompaniment, walking round the arena where the
wrestlers are competing.’
Some queer religious pantomimes came into vogue in France about the
twelfth century, and of these the torch dances, executed on the
first Sunday in Lent, enjoyed the greatest popularity; but they were
all suppressed by the clergy and later became degenerate. In Paris
the clergy sold dancing indulgences to the rich patricians for a
considerable sum of money. The high society was taught to despise
dancing as an amusement unworthy of its position. It remained only a
popular diversion among the middle class. The theatrical ballets and
strolling pantomimes disappeared altogether. The theatre was declared
by the clergy a Pagan institution and every art connected with the
stage of infernal origin. But, strange to say, mediæval stage dancing
was first introduced by women. Men appeared only as spectators of such
performances. Thus we read in a ballad of the twelfth century that the
_damosels_ arranged a grand ball and the knights came to look on.
The first dances that the mediæval nobility introduced at their
castles, in which they themselves participated, were the famous
_Caroles_. These were performed to the vocal accompaniment of the
dancers themselves, although sometimes a strolling band was hired.
Out of these grew gradually the various mediæval social dances and
the court ballets and gay masquerades, which reached a climax during
the middle of the seventeenth century. The most celebrated of this
kind were the _Ballets des Ardents_, arranged by the Duchess de Berri
and attended by the whole court. However, the most conspicuous of the
mediæval attempts in this respect was the _Fête_ given in 1489 by
Bergonzio di Botta of Tortona, in honor of Galeazzo, Duke of Milan, on
the occasion of his marriage of Isabella of Aragon. Of this we read:
‘The Amphitryon chose for his theatre a magnificent hall surrounded
by a gallery, in which several bands of music had been stationed; an
empty table occupied the middle. At the moment when the Duke and the
Duchess appeared, Jason and Argonauts advanced proudly to the sound of
martial music. They bore the Golden Fleece; this was the tablecloth,
with which they covered the table, after having executed a stately
dance, expressive of their admiration of so beautiful a princess and of
a sovereign to possess her. Next came Mercury, who related how he had
been clever enough to trick Apollo, shepherd of Admetus, and rob him
of a fat calf, which he returned to present to the newly married pair,
after having had it nobly trussed and prepared by the best cook of
Olympus. While he was placing it upon the table, three quadrilles that
followed him danced round the fatted calf, as the Hebrews had formerly
capered round that of gold.’
The writer describes how Diana, Mercury and the Nymphs followed the
first scene. Then Orpheus appears to the music of flutes and lutes.
‘Each singer, each dancer had his special orchestra, which was arranged
for him according to the sentiments expressed by his song or by his
dance. It was an excellent plan, and served to vary the symphonies;
it announced the return of a character who had already appeared, and
produced a varied succession of trumpets, of violins with their sharp
notes, of the arpeggios of lutes, and of the soft melodies of flutes
and reed pipes. The orchestrations of Monteverdi prove that composers
at that time varied their instrumentation thus, and this particular
artifice was not one of the least causes of the prodigious success of
opera in the first years of its creation.’
This was followed by a solo singer accompanied by a lyre, after whose
aria Atlanta and Theseus appeared to the sound of brass instruments.
After this appeared a ballet of Tritons. During the intermission
refreshments were served and the spectacle ended with the scenes
of Orpheus, Hymen and Cupid. Finally, Lucretia, Penelope, Thomyris,
Judith, Portia, and Sulpici advanced and laid at the feet of the
Duchess the palms of virtue that they had won during their lives.
There is no doubt that this spectacular fête of the Duke of Milan gave
the initial impetus to the following Grand Ballets at the French Court,
which in turn became the embryos of the modern stage dances. It is also
very likely that the well-known masques, so much in vogue during the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, were an outcome of the original
Milan pageant. In particularly high favor stood the masques at the
English court. Thus we read that in 1605 ‘The Masque of Blackness’ was
given at Whitehall, in which Queen Anne and her ladies blackened their
skins and appeared as blackamoors. The Spanish Ambassador, having to
kiss Her Majesty’s hand, gave voice to his fears that the black might
come off. Three years later ‘The Masque of Beauty’ was given. Both
were written by Ben Jonson. The speeches of the masques were mostly in
verse, but sometimes in prose. In the ‘Masque of Castillo,’ written by
John Crowne in 1675, the Princess Anne and Mary took part at St. James’
Palace and the performance was a great success. Though Bacon designated
masques as mere toys, nevertheless he enjoyed them as spectacles on
account of their rich colors and costumes. In 1632 James Shirley wrote
‘The Triumph of Peace,’ upon which production a sum of £21,000 was
expended. This was given for the first time before the king and queen
at Whitehall and was repeated in Merchant Tailors’ Hall. The music
to this was composed by William Lawes and Simon Ives. The scenes and
costumes were designed and superintended by the famous architect Inigo
Jones.
Nearly all the masques of olden times were written in honor of the
marriage of royalty or of some great nobleman and were mostly given at
Christmastide Twelfth Night. They were said to be many-sided in their
construction, music and themes. For the most part they were dramatic,
festive and gay, the allegorical characters giving them an element
of poetic charm. Dancing was one of their most potent elements, and
this was graceful, dainty and lively. The dancers called maskers were
a special feature in the masques, though they had nothing to do with
speech or song. The dresses in these masques were not always accurate,
for the parts were sometimes acted by women in farthingales, though
they impersonated classic goddesses. Masques were patronized in England
for only two centuries, Henry VIII, Elizabeth, James I, and Charles I
being their main sponsors. Queen Anne of Denmark was so much delighted
with them that she acted one of the characters.
Alfonso Ferrabosco, a noted musician of Italian descent, was the
composer of many masques during the reign of James I. Other composers
were Nicholas Laniere and John Coperario. ‘Salmacida Spolia’ by Sir
William Davenant, with music by Ferrabosco, was said to be one of the
most spectacular masques of the seventeenth century. It consisted of
pretty scenes and songs between the dances, so full of allegory and
devices, and so gay in costumes and light that it was a favorite of
English nobility for three generations. The most popular of the English
masques were ‘Love’s Triumph Callipolis’ by Ben Jonson and Inigo
Jones, which was performed at the court in 1630; the ‘Sun’s Darling,’
performed in 1623; the ‘Masque of Owles,’ performed for King Charles
I; and ‘Tempe Restored’ by Aurelian Townsend, performed in 1632, with
Queen Henrietta Maria and fourteen ladies as the leading characters.
In the last-named masque the beasts form a procession, fourteen stars
descend to the music of the spheres, and Tempe is restored to the true
followers of the Muses. Large figures were posted on either side of
the stage, one a winged woman, the other a man, with the lighted torch
of Knowledge and Ignorance. Women with snaky locks mingled with Harmony
in the songs of the chorus of Circe. Dances by the queen and her ladies
added to the spectacular character of the scene.