lamentable struggle, which has entailed such serious consequences on
Brazil, and which at the time I am writing is yet undetermined. Writers
have differed much as to the origin of the war, but none have shown how
it could have been avoided. I may observe _en passant_ that so far from
having entertained any prejudices against Paraguay, my sympathies have
always been in favour of that country as evinced during my visit to the
River Plate in 1853, at which period the elder Lopez was alive, and
there appeared to be dawning in the future, not only an era of internal
development for a very fine, fertile territory, but also a relaxation of
the iron rule under which the people had so long groaned, by
encouraging, to a limited extent it might be, commercial relations with
other countries. Lopez had joined Brazil in putting down the tyranny of
Rozas and in restoring a free government to the Argentine provinces; the
rivers were to be opened by treaty to all nations, and an era of peace
and prosperity appeared to be the natural result of these arrangements.
The visit of the younger Lopez to Europe, it was thought, would have
instilled into his mind the fact that all the wealth he saw there
emanated from commerce, and that his first object would be to render
Paraguay a commercial country. Unfortunately, however, he seems to have
become more enamoured with the martial attitude of France than anything
else, and determined on his return home to develop the military instead
of the commercial resources of Paraguay. His ambition was centered in
organizing a large army, fortifying the river approaches to Asuncion,
and creating a small but efficient steam fleet. The experience of the
past was thrown away, and on succeeding his father in the dictatorship,
it became evident that his policy was to be one of aggrandisement, if it
meant anything at all, and that, in other respects Paraguay was to
continue isolated from her neighbours, and to stand aloof from
participation in the business of the world. Paraguay had no enemies, nor
was there any desire to trouble her; her territorial position secured
her safety from attack, and it is impossible that all this military and
naval preparation on the part of Lopez could have been merely intended
for purposes of self-defence. The truth is, that Lopez had always
coveted that portion of territory called the Missions, formerly a great
stronghold of the Jesuits, but now part of the Argentine Confederation;
and the possession of this would bring him close upon Uruguay, where the
sea port of Monte Video afforded a tempting prize. At the same time, all
this involved the prospect of a collision with other Powers, against
which it was necessary to provide, and this I believe to be the true
reason for the great military preparations of Lopez. I have already said
that Paraguay joined with Brazil in putting an end to the tyranny of
Rozas, and entered into a treaty by which the navigation of the upper
rivers was to be free and the independence of Uruguay to be recognised.
If ever Brazil had any sinister design on the latter State this was the
time when she would have been most likely to assert it, but no such
disposition was evinced. On the contrary, it was the wish as well as the
interest of Brazil to keep Monte Video a free port, and the rivers open
to the flags of all nations. Unfortunately for the peace of South
America, Monte Video has never had a strong and independent Government,
and during the presidency of Berro disorders broke out on the frontier.
The persons and properties of Brazilian subjects were exposed to the
inroads of lawless marauders from Uruguay, until at length the patience
of the people of Rio Grande was exhausted, and they threatened to take
up arms in their own defence, if the Imperial Government did not at once
interfere for their protection. This statement has been personally
confirmed to me by large landed proprietors who were themselves on the
spot and suffered from the causes here referred to. Brazil was,
therefore, compelled to send troops to the frontier and to follow the
marauders into Uruguay, until such time as she could obtain fresh
guarantees from a Government which had proved itself totally incompetent
to deal with the matter. Then came the Colorado movement, headed by
Flores, and further complications ensued, which might have been settled
by the timely intervention of foreign Governments, but the men in power
were quite deaf to all friendly remonstrances. The flag of Brazil was
grossly insulted, trampled on in the streets of Monte Video, and the
treaty with her publicly burnt. Recent melancholy occurrences in that
city have shown what excesses can be committed from party spirit, and
how difficult it was at the period I allude to, to avoid an armed
intervention. How these acts affected the interests of Paraguay it is
not easy to conceive. Brazil agreed to recognise the independence of
Uruguay, and she left it in that condition, stronger than it had been
for some years previously. It is true that about this time Lopez had
given notice to Brazil that any interference in the affairs of Uruguay,
or the entry of Brazilian troops into Uruguayan territory, would be
considered by him as a _casus belli_—a piece of impertinence that Brazil
might well disregard, as the rights of nations allowed reprisals for
injuries received, and this was all Brazil carried into effect. Up to
the point mentioned Lopez had, therefore, no real or ostensible cause of
war against Brazil, but she stood in the way of the consummation of his
ambitious designs, and so he made what he termed an interference in
Uruguay the pretext for setting his legions in motion. Without any
declaration of war, he seized and took forcible possession of the
steamer Marquis de Olinda whilst on a peaceable errand up the River,
with Carneiro de Campos, the President of Matto Grosso on board, and has
retained him prisoner ever since; he marched a division into Brazil, and
occupied the frontier town of Uruguayana, simultaneously sending his
fleet down, no doubt to co-operate with his troops, but this was
prevented by the gallant action of the Riachuello, in which the
Paraguayan navy was nearly destroyed by the Brazilians. The proceedings
of Lopez towards Brazil were, therefore, offensive and insulting in the
highest degree, and still more so towards the Argentine Republic, which
had really given him no cause of offence beyond daring to remain
neutral, and consequently refusing to allow the passage of troops
through its territory. Upon the refusal of General Mitre to grant such
permission, he crossed the Parana and invaded Corrientes, seizing two
Argentine vessels as well as the persons and property of Argentine
subjects, on whom he levied black mail. These extreme measures taken by
Lopez towards both countries were in pigmy imitation of the first
Napoleon, whose tactics Lopez affected to follow by seizing the persons,
property, and territory of his neighbours before it was possible for
them to offer any opposition. Such an offence against the laws of
nations could lead only to an alliance against him as a common enemy,
with the condition that the aggrieved nations would not lay down their
arms until the offender was punished by expulsion from Paraguay. In
Europe this course was adopted against Napoleon I. and in South America,
under nearly identical circumstances, an equally strong measure was
rendered necessary for the future peace and security of the allies. If a
case in point was required on the spot, Paraguay itself had joined in
the expulsion of Rozas, because no security existed for any one so long
as that tyrant dominated at Buenos Ayres. That neither Brazil nor the
Argentine Republic anticipated such conduct on the part of Lopez is
evident from the unprepared state of both, the latter being at the time
literally without army or navy; indeed, the first check given to the
advance of Lopez was by the late General Flores, at the head of a
gallant little band of Oriental troops in conjunction with those of
Brazil. No impartial person can question, therefore, that Lopez has been
the sole cause of this long and bloody war, and that he committed a
glaring act of violence towards his neighbours, who were compelled in
self-defence to enter into a league for the expulsion of so dangerous a
character. To have made peace on any other terms would have been only
playing with a firebrand.
It is not my purpose in this chapter to criticise the manner in which
the war has been conducted, or to point out mistakes which may have been
made. Intelligent Brazilians believe that, instead of sending a large
army by sea, it would have been better to have made a diversion by
marching across the country to the interior of Paraguay, direct to
Asuncion, leaving Humaita blockaded. Thus a large amount of money would
have been expended in Brazilian territory. Whether this would have
hastened the conclusion of the war it is difficult to say, but the
direct advantages in other ways would no doubt have been considerable.
However, Brazil is not the only country that has blundered in carrying
on a distant war, as we know to our cost. That they did not anticipate
so vigorous a resistance is certain, nor was it possible to suppose that
any section of the Argentine people, whose nationality had been grossly
insulted, would have been lukewarm, or have desired to make peace until
the object of the struggle was accomplished.
THE PROVINCE OF SAN PAULO.
Availing of an opportunity to accompany a friend to this province, we
left Rio on Tuesday, the 18th of February, on board the steamer Ptolemy,
with a remarkably smooth sea, and a light, but cool breeze. We reached
Santos early the following morning. The steamer was at once moored
alongside an iron wharf, facing the Custom House, and Mr. Miller, one of
the railway officials, came on board with the unpleasant information
that the railway was stopped, owing to the heavy rains, which appeared
to have prevailed here as at Rio. The town did not look very inviting
under the influence of a hot sun, but Mr. Miller kindly offered us rooms
at the station, where he himself lived, and made us very comfortable.
There was every prospect of our being obliged to walk up to the top of
the Serra, but fortunately, on the 20th, a telegram came to announce
that the line would be opened to San Paulo the next morning, when we
started with a small train, arrived at 2.33, and drove to the Hotel
d'Italia, where rooms had been engaged for us.
The province of San Paulo has played a distinguished part in the history
of Brazil, and has latterly attracted much notice from its production of
cotton, in addition to the large quantity of coffee grown and shipped
from the port of Santos, both of which articles are expected to be
greatly increased by the railway facilities. There can be no doubt that
the province offers splendid scope for emigration, if properly applied,
and this important subject will be specially treated of after I have
collected together the requisite materials. Certainly the size, extent,
and evident prosperity of the city of San Paulo surprised me, no less
than its superiority in most of the comforts and luxuries to places more
favourably situated by their proximity to the sea; but the large number
of old churches, convents, colleges, and public institutions date its
origin from the time of the Jesuits, who must have been very industrious
and wealthy to have found the means for building such huge places, with
the object of perpetuating their order, and for the spread of the Roman
Catholic religion. I much regretted that the stoppage of the railway,
and very unfavourable weather—constant thunder storms, with deluges of
rain—prevented me travelling some distance into the interior, where the
coffee and cotton plantations lie, but the accounts received from
others, who possess a thorough knowledge of the localities, enable me to
speak most highly of its resources.
His Excellency, Saldanha Marinho, the President of San Paulo, and who by
his affability and business habits has won the esteem and affection of
the people, received me kindly during my stay here. He is a determined
supporter of every practical measure having for its object the
improvement of the city and of the province. Respecting the great work
of the railway, on which so much of the future welfare of the province
depends, I will endeavour to give a tolerably ample description; but to
begin with, it may not be out of place to quote as follows from the work
of Mr. Scully, entitled “Brazil and its Chief Provinces”:—
“Passing over the Mugy river you arrive quickly at the foot of the
gorge formed by the two out-jutting spurs of the buttress-like
mountain, and the black defiant ravine is suggestive of anything but
a railway course. Here the line climbs boldly up the side of the
Mugy spur, at a usual ascent of one in ten, crossing mountain
torrents, leaping gloomy chasms, cutting through solid rocks,
holding hard on to every foot gained, until it attains a
resting-place upon the table land, 2,600 feet high, after five miles
of gigantic excavations, removing 1,100,000 cubic yards of granite
rock and earth.
“Here we must give a slight idea of how this daring plan is
utilised, which was at one time laughed at as an engineering
impossibility, and which even yet stands pre-eminent among similar
works.
“This entire and almost straight ascent of upwards of five miles is
divided into four “lifts” of about a mile and a quarter each, having
a level platform of some 400 feet in length between them. On these
lifts, as in general on all the line, the track is single, except at
the upper half, where it is doubled to admit of the ascending and
descending trains passing each other. At the upper end of each
platform is placed a powerful stationary engine of 200 horse-power,
whose two cylinders are 26 inches diameter and 5 feet stroke,
calculated to haul up 50 tons at the rate of ten miles an hour,
which are supplied by five Cornish boilers, three of which suffice
for the duty.
“A steel wire rope, tested to a strength far exceeding the
requirements which will ever be made upon it, passes over a
friction-wheel on each side of the fly-wheel drum upon which it is
wrapped round, and, one end being attached to an ascending and the
other to a descending train, it is intended to make the “lift”
partially self-acting, as it now wholly is at one of the inclines
which is not supplied with its stationary engine, the weight of the
descending train drawing up the ascending one. Powerful brakes that
will stop a train instantly are supplied to guard against a breaking
down of any part of the machinery, or a rupture of the rope. From
this short description our readers can form an idea of the
mechanical contrivances for effecting the ascent.
“Throughout these wonderful inclines the most majestic and wild
scenery is observed along the slightly winding way. On the third
lift occurs a ravine still more gloomy than the rest, which is
called the Boca do Inferno (Mouth of Hell); that, having a width of
900 feet, is crossed by an iron viaduct, which lies on rows of iron
columns resting on stone piers 200 feet below in the centre of the
line.”
I have great pleasure in endorsing all Mr. Scully says as to the
excellent qualities of the railway officials, and can also affirm that
to Mr. Aubertin and Mr. Hutchings is due the extraordinary development
that has been effected in the production of cotton.
THE SAN PAULO RAILWAY.
I will now proceed to describe the railway in my own terms, without
reference to the statistics or the reports that have been published
about it. My impression on leaving the station was that of setting off
on an adventurous journey—not merely ensconcing oneself in the corner of
a railway carriage and taking a comfortable nap. Curiosity was excited
to the utmost, after the accounts I had heard, and the temporary
stoppage of the line by recent heavy rains washing down some of the
slopes of the cuttings rather added to the interest of a first visit.
There was a tolerable amount of bustle at starting, but away we went
about eleven o'clock, over low, swampy ground. For seven miles the rails
run parallel with the old road to Santos, and the bridge at Cubitao (an
arm of the sea) is passed, beyond which for a further distance of six
and a half miles (making 13½ miles to the foot of the Serra) it becomes
a dense mass of forest and jungle, which it must be difficult to convert
to any useful purpose; indeed, the curse of the country is this mass of
useless forest, only fit for the haunts of wild animals and reptiles.
How they have hitherto been able to carry on the traffic between Santos
and San Paulo is a mystery when we look at the country and miles of wood
passed through. However, we are now in sight of the first rise of the
mountain, which looks grim enough, and the train comes to a stop at the
station, after passing an open space of ground, on which stands a house,
built and formerly inhabited by the contractors, with almost a little
village about it, occupied by their staff, &c., where, I understand,
cricket was often played to while away the leisure hours after the
labours of the day. Now everything is going to wreck, and if the land is
not kept clear it will soon be a jungle again: such is the quick growth
of vegetation in this country and so rank does it become. The station at
the foot of the Serra is a good substantial sort of house, the station
master being a young German, with a wife and family, very comfortable
adjuncts in so lonely a spot; and the house was surrounded by fowls and
other live stock needful to family wants. We stood contemplating the
height we had to be dragged with a certain kind of awe, and presently we
saw the train descending, which it did steadily enough, bringing Mr.
Aubertin, the general manager, Captain Burton, her Majesty's consul, and
some other notabilities of San Paulo. The former gentlemen returned with
us, adding materially to the interest and pleasure of the trip by their
intelligent knowledge of all we had to see and pass through.
[Illustration: Bridge Viaduct on the San Paulo Railway.]
Well, the signal is given, and we are off, mounting an incline of about
1 in 10 for a distance of some 800 yards, where there is a curve, and we
are shut out from the lower level of the line, steadily ascending the
mountain, until we reach the first lift, about 1¼ miles. After a short
delay, we were hooked on the second lift, and as we mount the scenery
becomes grander, the shadows of the mountains deeper, and the work
becomes heavier. I was surprised to find so many curves, which are an
additional strain on the wire rope, as well as an additional risk,
requiring close attention to the break, where we rode in order to have a
good view of everything. Mr. Fox, engineer-in-chief, and Mr. Welby,
locomotive superintendent, were with us, and we got down to look over
Fairburn's splendid stationary engines, which are of 200 horse-power,
embedded in a granite foundation, about 40 feet deep, with live boilers
to each, three being generally used. The curves continue on the third
lift, close to which, entering the fourth lift, is the wonderful viaduct
across a chasm in the mountain, which makes your head giddy to look
down. The bridge is certainly a great engineering achievement, resting
on iron pillars with a stone foundation, the centre being nearly 200
feet deep. We are accustomed to great altitude of railway bridges at
home and elsewhere, but there is a peculiar aerial look about this one
which makes one glad to be over it. At one point in this fourth section
is a fine view of a deep valley behind us, the opposite mountain one
dense mass of forest, and the scene is inexpressibly grand. To have made
the lifts straight would have necessitated frequent tunnelling and added
another half million to the cost of construction. On reaching the top of
the Serra, a distance of about five miles from its base, the break is
detached, a locomotive takes hold of the six carriages which have come
up in two lifts, and away we whisk for some time through a thickly
wooded country, for a distance of about 48 miles, stopping at several
stations. Some miles before reaching San Paulo are the Campos, or level
plains, covered with a short grass, and rather swampy, but no cattle are
to be seen, owing, I believe, to the number of insects which fasten on
them, causing sores, and being otherwise injurious. It is, however, a
great relief to the eye, after the dense forests passed through, to come
upon plains.
From San Paulo the line passes on to Jundiahy, a distance of 44 miles,
or a total length from Santos of 88 miles, the chief interest of course
being centred in the gigantic works of the Serra. The San Paulo Railway
is undoubtedly one of the grandest works yet made with English capital
in Brazil, and it is destined to play a very important part in the
future development of this fine province. Engineering mistakes have,
undoubtedly, been made, and the want of a personal superintendence of
the engineer-in-chief, at all events during the construction of the
important works of the Serra, is amongst the complaints made by the
Brazilian Government, as also the manner in which the contract was
executed. It is also questionable whether another and less costly route
could not have been selected to be worked by locomotives, instead of the
old fashioned but dangerous lifts. However, for the present, this is
mere matter of controversy or opinion. The railway is made, though far
from being complete or perfect, and it is evident that a considerable
expenditure has to be faced before sufficient traffic can be carried on
to realise the expectations of directors and shareholders, few of whom
know anything about the undertaking or are able to comprehend the
difficulties it has still to pass through.
It is curious that the real traffic is only tapped at the extreme end of
the line (Jundiahy), where only commences cotton growing, and the great
coffee plantations are some 30 miles further on, to which district a
private company is now trying to get the line extended. One advantage
possessed by the existing company will be in having their mileage rate
for the bulk of their traffic over the whole of the line, and of course
it will be an additional advantage to present shareholders if the line
should be continued to Campinas, which is, I believe, a large and
thriving place, the abode of many wealthy proprietors. Passenger traffic
can only be limited for some time to come, from the absence of a
resident population along the line; at the same time it will naturally
increase between Santos, San Paulo, and the upper part of the Province,
particularly when the line is extended in that direction. The stoppage
of the line is between San Paulo and Jundiahy, where the cuttings have
given way to some extent, a contingency, I fear, they will always be
exposed to, from the heavy rains which prevail, and I believe I am
justified in adding, the imperfect manner in which some of them have
been constructed. Whilst expressing my admiration at the courage and
enterprise of the resident engineer and superintendent, who jointly
succeeded in getting the line opened, I cannot conceal from myself the
difficulties they have still to overcome in order to carry on an
adequate traffic and get the line accepted by Government. One thing is
very certain, that had a deputation of shareholders been sent out to
look over the intended line before fairly concluding the contract for
making it, they would have returned so scared and frightened as to have
led to an immediate dissolution of the company, and San Paulo would
hardly have had its railway in this generation, so far as English
capital is concerned. I well remember the kind of awe with which I
looked over the plans and sections of the line before it was commenced,
nor has this effect been diminished by a personal inspection of the
works up to this place. That the railway will be a grand thing for the
province there can be no doubt, and this consideration ought to render
the Government lenient towards a company which, apart from its other
difficulties, has suffered so much by maladministration at home.