The Language of Line--Dialects--Comparison of the Style of
various Artists in Line--Scale of Degrees in Line--Picture
Writing--Relation of Line to Form--Two Paths--The Graphic
Purpose--Aspect--The Ornamental Purpose--Typical Treatment or
Convention--Rhythm--Linear Plans in Pattern Designing--Wall-paper
Design--Controlling Forms--Memory--Evolution in Design--Variety
in Unity--Counterbalance--Linear Logic--Recurring Line and
Form--Principle of Radiation--Range and Use of Line.
I spoke of Line as a Language, and gave some illustrations of its power
and range of expression, showing that line is capable not only of
recording natural fact and defining character, but also of conveying the
idea of movement and force, of action and repose; and, further, of
appealing to our emotions and thoughts by variations and changes in its
direction, the degree of its emphasis, and other qualities.
[Dialects]
Yet every designer and draughtsman uses line in a different way, and of
a different quality, according to his preference, habit, training, or
personality. The endless variations which result I should--to pursue the
analogy of speech further--term _dialects_. We might collect abundant
examples of these from the work of line-designers since the world began,
or compare the methods of any of the popular illustrators of to-day to
find constant variations and individual differences occurring even
among those which might be said, under the influence of a prevailing
mode, to be variations of one type.
Compare a Greek vase-painter's delicate brush line-drawing with the bold
pen-line of Albert Durer (to get a contrast in historic style). Compare
(to take two masters of different schools, but of the same country) the
line-treatment of Mantegna with the line-treatment of Raphael; or, to
take another jump, compare the line-work of Blake and Flaxman; or, to
take a modern instance, and to come to our own contemporary artists,
compare a drawing by Burne-Jones and one by Phil May.
We might construct a sort of scale of the degrees and qualities of line.
There is, for instance, outline of every degree of boldness or fineness,
from the strong black half-inch outline and upwards used in mosaic-work
and stained-glass leading; the outline of the pattern designer for
block-printing; the outline of the pen draughtsman for process-work or
woodcut; and so on, down to the hair-line of the drypoint etcher.
[Scale of Degrees in Line]
There are the _qualities_ of line in different degrees of firmness,
roughness, raggedness, or smooth and flowing. There are the degrees of
_direction_ of line, curvilinear or angular. On the angular side all
variations from the perpendicular and horizontal, or rectangle, within
which we may find all these degrees, and on the curvilinear side, all
the variations from spiral to circle: so that we might say that the
rectangle was the cradle of all angular variations of line, while the
semicircle was the cradle of all curvilinear variations. (See the
diagrams on p. 26.[f018])
[Illustration (f017): Scale of Various Degrees of Linear Weight and
Emphasis.]
Every artist, sooner or later, by means of his selective adaptive sense,
finds a method in the use of line to suit his own personality--to suit
his own individual aim in artistic expression--and in course of time it
becomes a characteristic manner, by which his work is instantly known,
like a friend's handwriting.
[Illustration (f018): Curvilinear and Rectangular Scales of Direction.]
Now what determines this choice, this personal selection, over and above
necessities of method and material, it would be difficult to say, unless
we had more minute knowledge of the natural history of a human being
than we are likely to possess. We can only say that from practice are
evolved certain methods or principles, consciously or unconsciously; and
it is only these general methods or principles that can be explained and
tested for the benefit of those essaying to follow the arduous and
difficult path of art.
[Relation of Line to Form]
At the outset we see that we need a means of definition in drawing, just
as a child needs a word to express a thing it wants. _Line_, at the
point of the pencil, pen, or brush, places this possibility of
definition within our reach; but before we can grasp it we need some
knowledge, however rudimentary, of its inseparable companion, _Form_.
I recall two innocent and entertaining methods from the traditions of
the nursery, which appeal at once in a curious way to both the oral and
graphic senses, and unite story and picture in one. These are
illustrated on p. 28.[f019] By such devices a child learns to associate
line and form, unconsciously and step by step defining form in the use
of, or pursuit of, line.
[Illustration (f019): Modern Picture-writing According to Nursery
Tradition]
It would be very entertaining and agreeable if we could carry the
principle further, and get a passable study from the antique, for
instance, by a similar process. In line-drawing we may, however, always
tell some story or fact, or character, phase, or idea.
[The Graphic Purpose]
But supposing we have mounted our steed _Form_, and taken our bridle
_Line_ in hand, and have started riding at large in the vast domain of
nature, with the primary object of finding and hunting down truth at
last; we soon perceive that there are so many truths, or rather that
truth, even of natural fact, has so many sides, that it is difficult to
make up our mind which one to pursue. Thought, however, will soon
discover that in this pursuit of truth we strike a road that naturally
divides itself, or branches out, into two main paths distinct in aim.
These two paths in art have been called by many names; they occasionally
cross each other, or overlap, and are sometimes blended, or even
confused; but it will be useful for our present purpose to keep them
very distinct. I will term them, for convenience:
1. The Graphic Purpose. (Accidental form.)
2. The Ornamental Purpose. (Typical form.)
Our use of line will largely depend upon which of these two it is our
object to pursue. Now when we look at anything with intent to draw--say
a leafy bough as it grows in the sunshine--we see great complexity of
form and surface-lighting. The leaves, perhaps, take all manner of
variations of the typical form, and are set at all sorts of angles. In
making a rapid sketch with the object of getting the appearance of the
bough, we naturally dwell upon these accidents and superficial facts. At
the same time, with nothing but line to express them, we are compelled
to use a kind of convention, though our aim be purely naturalistic, to
get a faithful portrait of the bough.
We must make our line as _descriptive_ as possible, defining the main
forms boldly, and blocking in broadly the main masses of form and light
and shade. We are now aiming at the general look of the thing. We are
striving to grasp the facts of _Aspect_. We are concerned with the
purely graphic purpose, to make a picture upon paper.
[Illustration (f020): Olive Branch From Nature]
We cannot, however, even under these simple conditions, altogether
leave out of account considerations which, strictly speaking, must be
termed "decorative." For instance, there is the question of placing the
study well upon the paper, a very important point to start with; and
then the question of beauty must arise, not only in the selection of our
point of view, but in the choice of method, in the treatment of line we
adopt; and it does not follow that the most apparently forcible way of
getting bold projection by means of black shadows, at the cost of the
more delicate characteristics of our subject, is the best. On the
contrary, the finest draughtsmanship is always the most subtle and
delicate, and one cannot get subtle and delicate draughtsmanship without
faithful study and careful constant practice--_knowledge of form_, in
short--and I am afraid there is no short cut to it.
[The Ornamental Purpose]
[Illustration (f021): Olive Branch Simplified in Decorative Treatment]
Now supposing we make our study of leaves, not as an end in itself, and
for its simple pictorial values or qualities only, but with an
ornamental or decorative purpose in view, intending to make use of its
form and character in some more or less systematic design or
pattern-work--adapted to special methods and materials--intended to
decorate a wall-surface or a textile, for instance; we might certainly
start with a general sketch of its appearance as before, but we should
find that we should want to understand it in its detail; the law of its
growth and construction; we should want to dwell upon its typical
character and form, the controlling lines of its masses, rather than on
its accidental aspects, because it would really be only with these that
we could successfully deal in adapting anything in nature to the
conditions and limitations of a design. To do this requires as much art
as to make a clever graphic sketch, perhaps more; but it is certainly
not so easily understood and appreciated, as a rule. Pattern-work is
taken so much for granted, except by those technically interested,
whereas a graphic sketch may bring the drama of nature, and of human
character and incident, before our eyes. It does not require us to stop
and think out the less obvious meaning, or trace the invention or grace
of line, to appreciate the rhythmic, silent music which the more
formalized and abstract decorative design may contain, _quite apart from
the forms it actually represents_.
[Illustration (f022): Study of Horned Poppy]
[Illustration (f023): Adaptation of the Horned Poppy in Design: Vertical
Panel For Needlework.]
[Question and Answer in Line]
Here we discover another function of line. For, directly we endeavour to
construct a decorative design--that is, a design intended to adorn or to
express an object or surface--we find that we must build it upon some
sort of a plan, or geometric controlling network or scaffolding, so as
to give it unity, rhythm, and coherence--especially so in the case of
repeating designs. Even in an isolated panel or picture the necessity of
this linear basis will be felt, since one cannot draw a line or define a
form without demanding an answer--that is, a corresponding, re-echoing
line or mass.
[Illustration (f024): Curves 1.Q and 2.A]
The curve (1. Q) is a proposition or question. It is answered or
balanced by the corresponding curve (2. A), and forms the basis for a
scroll design.
[Illustration (f025): Curves 1 and 2]
The five radiating lines (1) are obviously incomplete by themselves, but
if we add another four, in reverse order, (2) we get a centred and
symmetric motive of an anthemion character.
[Wall-Paper Design]
Take, however, a wall-paper. The problem is to construct a design
pleasant to the eye in line, form, colour, and suggestion; which will be
interesting in detail, and yet repeat upon a wall-surface without flaw,
and without becoming wearisome. Moreover, one which will lend itself to
being cut upon wood, if for block-printing, and which may be reproduced
with a due regard to economy of means. The designer may have a square of
twenty-one inches in which to make his design.
[Illustration (f026): Diagram Showing the Use of a Geometric Basis in
Designing Repeating Pattern.]
A useful way to begin with is to rule out a sheet of paper into squares,
say on the scale of 1-1/2 inch to the foot, and upon this jot down your
first ideas of linear arrangement and colour motive, and get the
general effect, and test the plan of repeats. When you are satisfied
with one, enlarge it to full size, correct and amplify it, and improve
it in form and detail. Changes will probably be found necessary in
drawing it upon the larger scale, sometimes additions, sometimes
omissions. Now in sketching out the general plan, one builds, as before
said, upon some basis or plan, however simple, since one cannot put a
simple spot, sprig, or spray upon paper intending to repeat, without
some system of connection to put them into relation.
[Controlling Forms]
In designing one's sprig, too, the best plan to secure good decorative
effect is to see that its general form is inclosed or bounded by an
agreeable linear shape, although itself not actually visible. Simple
leaf and flower forms are generally the best to use for these
controlling boundaries. Sprays designed on this principle may be relied
upon for repeating pleasantly and safely when they are placed upon, and
connected by, the controlling geometric plan. A good practical test of
the truth and completeness of your square repeat is, when the design is
done, or even in progress, to cut it into four equal parts (supposing it
to be a twenty-one inch square). This will enable you to get the joints
true, and also, by altering the position of the squares, to give you a
very good idea of the effect of the repeat full size. (See the diagrams
on p. 41.[f028])
These things must be considered, of course, merely as practical aids to
invention: not by any means as substitutes for it. One cannot give any
recipe for designing, and no rules, principles, or methods can supply
the place of imagination and fancy. "He who would bring back health from
the Indies," says an old proverb, "must take it out with him."
At the same time the imagination can be enfeebled by starvation and
neglect. It can be depressed by dull and sordid surroundings. It is apt
to grow, like other living things, by what it feeds on, and is stronger
for exercise and development.
[Illustration (f027): Use of Controlling Boundaries in Designing
Sprays]
[Memory]
Memory, too, is an important and serviceable thing in designing, and
this, again, can be cultivated to an almost unlimited extent. I mean
that selective kind of memory which, by constant and close observation,
extracts and stores up the essential serviceable kind of facts for the
designer: facts of form, of structure, of movement of figures,
expressive lines, momentary or transitory effects of colour--all those
rare and precious visual moments which will not wait, and which happen
unexpectedly. They should be captured like rare butterflies and
carefully stored in the mind's museum of suggestions, as well as, as far
as is possible, pinned down in the hieroglyphics of the note-book.
[Evolution in Design]
As regards procedure in working out a design, one generally thinks of
some leading feature, some central mass or form or curve--of a figure or
a flower, say--and one thinks of its capacity in repeat; and, since one
form or line should inevitably suggest or necessitate--as by a kind of
logic--another, one adds other forms until the design is complete. For
it must never be forgotten that design is a growth which has its own
stages of evolution in the mind, answering to the evolution of the
living forms of nature--first the blade, then the ear, after that the
full corn in the ear.
Experience teaches us that the most harmonious arrangements of form and
line are those in which the leading lines and forms through all sorts of
variations, continually recur. We cannot place a number of sharply
contrasting and contradictory forms together in design satisfactorily--
at least we cannot do so without recourse to other elements to harmonize
and to bring them into relation. For instance, we might get a great deal
of ornamental variety by means of a number of heraldic devices upon
shields, full in themselves of quaintness and contrasts, but brought
into harmony by the boundary lines of the shields and the divisions; or,
still further, by throwing them upon a background of leaves and stems,
the meandering lines and recurring forms of which would answer as a kind
of warp upon which to weave the heraldic spots into a connected and
harmonious pattern.
[Illustration (f028): Method of Testing a Repeating Pattern.]
[Variety in Unity]
But even in the ornamental treatment of diverse forms, as the mediaeval
heraldic designers were well aware, they can be brought into
decorative harmony by following a similar principle to the one already
laid down in regard to the designing of sprigs and sprays: that is to
say, that in designing an animal or figure for heraldry or introduction
into a pattern, one should arrange it so that it should fall within the
boundary of some geometric or foliated form, square, circular,
elliptical or otherwise, as might be desirable. To this, however, I
hope to return in a future chapter.
[Illustration (f029): Sketch to Show How a Pattern of Diverse Elements
May Be Harmonized by Unity of Inclosing and Intermediary Lines.]
[Counterbalance]
We may here consider another important principle in designing with line
and mass, that of _counterbalance_.
[Illustration (f030): The Principle of Counterbalance in Different
Systems of Design.]
Take any defined space as a panel, tile, or border to be filled with
design: you place your principal mass, and instantly feel that it must
be balanced by a corresponding mass, or some equivalent. Its place will
be determined by the principle upon which the design is built. If on a
symmetrical arrangement, you find your centre (say of a panel), and you
may either throw the chief weight and mass of the design upon the
central feature (as a tree), and balance it by smaller forms or wings
each side, or _vice versa_; or, adopting a diagonal plan, you place your
principal mass (say it is a tile) near the top left-hand corner (suppose
it is a pomegranate), connecting it with a spiral diagonal line (the
stem); the place of the counterbalancing mass (the second pomegranate)
is obviously near the bottom right-hand corner of the square. You may
then feel the necessity for additional smaller forms, and so add to it
(the leaves), completing the design. (See preceding page.)
[Linear Logic]
On the same principle one may design upon various other plans. The exact
choice of the distribution of the counterbalancing masses must always be
a matter of personal feeling, judgment, and taste, controlled by the
perception of certain logical necessities: as it seems to me that
designing is a species of linear reasoning,* and might almost be
worked in its elementary stages on the principle of the syllogism,
consisting of two propositions and a conclusion. A spiral curve is a
harmonious line, says the designer: repeat it, reversed, and you
prolong the harmony; repeat it again, with variations, and you complete
the harmony. Or, harmonious effect is produced by recurring form and
line. Here is a circular form; here is a meandering line: combine and
repeat them, and you get a logical and harmonious border motive.
[*] I recall here a saying of Sir E. Burne-Jones, that "a bad
line can only be answered by a good line."
[Illustration (f031): Border Units and Border Motive.]
[Recurring Line and Form]
The everlastingly recurring egg and dart moulding and the volute are
instances of the harmonious effect of very simple arrangements of
recurring line and form. We also get illustrated in these another linear
quality in design--that up-and-down movement which gives a pleasant
rhythm to the simplest border, and is of especial consequence in all
repeating border and frieze designs. The borders of early, ancient, and
classical art might be said to be little besides rhythmical and logical
arrangements of line. The same rhythmical principle is found in the
designs of the classical frieze in all its varieties, culminating in the
rhythmic movement of the great Pan-Athenaic procession in that
master-frieze of the Parthenon, which, though full of infinite variety
and delicate sculptured detail, is yet controlled by a strictly
ornamental motive, and constructed upon the rhythmic recurrence of pure
line.
[Illustration (f032): Recurring Line and Form in Border Motives.]
[The Principle of Radiation]
Another great linear principle in design is what is known as the
_radiating_ principle, which gives vitality and vigour alike to both
arrangements of line and delineations of form. It is emphatically and
abundantly illustrated in natural forms, from the scallop shell upon the
sea-shore to the sun himself that radiates his light upon it. The
palm-leaf in all its graceful varieties demonstrates its beauty, its
constructive strength combined with extraordinary lightness, which
becomes domesticated in that fragile sceptre of social influence and
festivity, the fan, and which again spreads its silken, or gossamer,
wing as a suggestive field for the designer. We find the principle
springing to life again in the fountain jet, and symbolical of life as
it has ever been; by means of the same principle applied to construction
the Gothic architects raised their beautiful vaults, and emphasized the
structural principle and the beauty of recurring line by moulding the
edges of their ribs; while we have but to look at the structure of the
human frame to find the same principle there also, in the fibres of the
muscles, for instance, the radiation of the ribs, and of the fingers and
toes.
[Illustration (f033): Radiating Principle of Line in Natural Form.]
In truth, as I have said, if there can be said to be one principle more
than another, the perception and expression of which gives to an
artist's work in design peculiar vitality, it is this principle of
radiating line. One may follow it through all stages and forms of
drawing and design, and it is equally important in the design of the
figure, in the structure of a flower, in the folds of drapery, and alike
in the controlling lines of pictorial composition and decorative plan,
whether the lines radiate from seen or from hidden centres, which in all
kinds of informal design are perhaps the most important.
[Illustration (f034): Radiating Lines of the Pectoral Muscles & Ribs]
[Range and Use of Line]
We see, therefore, that line possesses a constructive and controlling
function, in addition to its power of graphic expression and decorative
definition. It is the beginning and the end of art. By means of its
help we guide our first tottering steps in the wide world of design;
and, as we gain facility of hand and travel further afield, we discover
that we have a key to unlock the wonders of art and nature, a method of
conjuring up all forms at will: a sensitive language capable of
recording and revealing impressions and beauties of form and structure
hidden from the careless eye: a delicate instrument which may catch and
perpetuate in imperishable notation unheard harmonies: a staff to lean
upon through the journey of life: a candid friend who never deceives us:
perchance a divining rod, which may ultimately reveal to us that Beauty
and Truth are one--as they certainly are, or ought to be, in the world
of art.
[Illustration (f035): Radiating Line in Architectural Construction:
Vaulting of Chapter House, Westminster.]