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LINE & FORM
BY WALTER CRANE
[Illustration]
LONDON: G. BELL & SONS, LTD.
_First published, medium 8vo_, 1900.
_Reprinted, crown 8vo_, 1902, 1904, 1908, 1912, 1914.
CHISWICK PRESS: CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO.
TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON
TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
In the original of this work, most pages are headed by a topic phrase so
that a topic can be located quickly by riffling the pages of the book.
In this etext, the same topic phrases can be found right-aligned above
the paragraph that begins that topic. Thus a topic can be found by
scrolling the text and scanning the right margin.
The original of this work is copiously illustrated. Although this etext
cannot include the figures, it does include their caption as lines like
the following:
[Illustration (f002): The Origin of Outline]
Here f002 is a numeric label for the figure. Because an etext of this
type does not have page numbers, in references to a figure in the List
of Illustrations and in the Index these figure labels are used
instead of page number. In the body text, references to figures by page
number have been supplemented with the figure labels.
The illustrations f006, f007, f008 and f016 do not have captions in the
original and descriptive captions have been added.
The caret is used to indicate superscripts, for example ED^wd^ indicates
ED followed by a small superscript "wd".
Two minor typographical errors were corrected: "thing" to "think" on
page 10 and "intregal" to "integral" on page 197.
PREFACE
As in the case of "The Bases of Design," to which this is intended to
form a companion volume, the substance of the following chapters on Line
and Form originally formed a series of lectures delivered to the
students of the Manchester Municipal School of Art.
There is no pretension to an exhaustive treatment of a subject it would
be difficult enough to exhaust, and it is dealt with in a way intended
to bear rather upon the practical work of an art school, and to be
suggestive and helpful to those face to face with the current problems
of drawing and design.
These have been approached from a personal point of view, as the results
of conclusions arrived at in the course of a busy working life which has
left but few intervals for the elaboration of theories apart from
practice, and such as they are, these papers are now offered to the
wider circle of students and workers in the arts of design as from one
of themselves.
They were illustrated largely by means of rough sketching in line before
my student audience, as well as by photographs and drawings. The rough
diagrams have been re-drawn, and the other illustrations reproduced, so
that both line and tone blocks are used, uniformity being sacrificed to
fidelity.
WALTER CRANE.
Kensington, July, 1900.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
Origin and Function of Outline--Silhouette--Definition of Boundaries
by--Power of Characterization by--Formation of Letters--Methods of
Drawing in Line--The Progressive Method--The Calligraphic Method--The
Tentative Method--The Japanese Direct Brush Method--The Oval Method--
The Rectangular Method--Quality of Line--Linear Expression of
Movement--Textures--Emotion--Scale of Linear Expression 1
CHAPTER II
The Language of Line--Dialects--Comparison of the Style of Various
Artists in Line--Scale of Degrees in Line--Picture Writing--Relation
of Line to Form--Two Paths--The Graphic Purpose--Aspect--The
Ornamental Purpose--Typical Treatment or Convention--Rhythm--Linear
Plans in Pattern Designing--Wall-paper Design--Controlling
Forms--Memory--Evolution in Design--Variety in Unity--
Counterbalance--Linear Logic--Recurring Line and Form--Principle
of Radiation--Range and Use of Line 23
CHAPTER III
Of the Choice and Use of Line--Degree and Emphasis--Influence of the
Photograph--The Value of Emphasis--The Technical Influence--The
Artistic Purpose--Influence of Material and Tools--Brushwork--
Charcoal--Pencil--Pen 51
CHAPTER IV
Of the Choice of Form--Elementary Forms--Space-filling--Grouping--
Analogies of Form--Typical Forms of Ornament--Ornamental Units--
Equivalents in Form--Quantities in Design--Contrast--Value of
Variations of Similar or Allied Forms--Use of the Human Figure
and Animal Forms in Ornamental Design 73
CHAPTER V
Of the Influence of Controlling Lines, Boundaries Spaces, and Plans in
Designing--Origin of Geometric Decorative Spaces and Panels in
Architecture--Value of Recurring Line--Tradition--Extension--
Adaptability--Geometric Structural Plans--Frieze and Field--
Ceiling Decoration--Co-operative Relation 108
CHAPTER VI
Of the Fundamental Essentials of Design: Line, Form, Space--Principles
of Structural and Ornamental Line in Organic Forms--Form and Mass in
Foliage--Roofs--The Mediaeval City--Organic and Accidental
Beauty--Composition: Formal and Informal--Power of Linear
Expression--Relation of Masses and Lines--Principles of Harmonious
Composition 138
CHAPTER VII
Of the Relief of Form--Three Methods--Contrast--Light and Shade, and
Modelling--The Use of Contrast and Planes in Pattern
Designing--Decorative Relief--Simple Linear Contrast--Relief by Linear
Shading--Different Emphasis in relieving Form by Shading Lines--Relief
by means of Light and Shade alone without Outline--Photographic
Projection--Relief by different Planes and Contrasts of Concave and
Convex Surfaces in Architectural Mouldings--Modelled Relief--
Decorative Use of Light and Shade, and different Planes in Modelling
and Carving--Egyptian System of Relief Sculpture--Greek and Gothic
Architectural Sculpture, influenced by Structural and Ornamental
Feeling--Sculptural Tombs, Medals, Coins, Gems--Florentine
Fifteenth-century Reliefs--Desiderio di Settignano 165
CHAPTER VIII
Of the Expression of Relief in Line-drawing--Graphic Aim and
Ornamental Aim--Superficial Appearance and Constructive
Reality--Accidents and Essentials--Representation and Suggestion of
Natural Form in Design--The Outward Vision and the Inner Vision 204
CHAPTER IX
Of the Adaptation of Line and Form in Design, in various materials and
methods--Mural Decoration--Fresco-work of the Italian Painters--
Modern Mural Work--Mural Spacing and Pattern Plans--Scale--The
Skirting--The Dado--Field of the Wall--The Frieze--Panelling--
Tapestry--Textile Design--Persian Carpets--Effect of Texture on
Colour--Prints--Wall-paper--Stained Glass 224
CHAPTER X
Of the Expression and Relief of Line and Form by _Colour_--Effect of
same Colour upon different Grounds--Radiation of Colour--White Outline
to clear Colours--Quality of Tints relieved upon other Tints--
Complementaries--Harmony--The Colour Sense--Colour Proportions--
Importance of Pure Tints--Tones and Planes--The Tone of Time--
Pattern and Picture--A Pattern not necessarily a Picture, but a
Picture in principle a Pattern--Chiaroscuro--Examples of Pattern-work
and Picture-work--Picture-patterns and Pattern-pictures 256
INDEX 283
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
The Origin of Outline f002
Silhouettes f003
Coast and Mountain Lines--Gulf of Nauplia f004
Proportions of Roman Capital Letters and of lower-case f005a
German text. From Durer's "Geometrica"
The Progressive Method of Drawing in Line f006a
The Calligraphic Method f007a
The Tentative Method f007b
The Oval and Rectangular Methods f008
Lines of Characterization in the Form and Feature of f009
Flowers: Lily and Poppy
Silhouette of Beech Leaves and Line Rendering of the same f010a
Lines of Movement f010b
Effect of Wind upon Trees f011
Line Arrangement in ribbed Sea-sand f012
Lines of different Textures, Structures, and Services f013
Lines of Exaltation and Rejoicing in Unison. The Morning f014
Stars, after William Blake
Lines of Grief and Dejection: Designs from Flaxman's Homer f015
Landscape f016
Scale of various Degrees of Linear Weight and Emphasis f017
Curvilinear Scale of Direction f018
Rectangular Scale of Direction f018
Picture Writing f019
Olive Branch, from Nature f020
Olive Branch, simplified in Decorative Treatment f021
Study of Horned Poppy f022
Adaptation of Horned Poppy in Design: Vertical Panel for f023
Needlework
Question and Answer in Line f024, f025
Diagram showing the Use of a Geometric Basis in Designing a f026
Repeating Pattern
Use of Controlling Boundaries in Designing Sprays f027
Method of Testing a Repeating Pattern f028
Sketch to show how a Pattern of Diverse Elements may be f029
harmonized by Unity of Inclosing and Intermediary Lines
The Principle of Counterbalance in different Systems of f030
Design
Border Units and Border Motive f031
Recurring Line and Form in Border Motives f032
Radiating Principle of Line in Natural Form f033
Radiating Lines of the Pectoral Muscles and Ribs f034
Vaulting of Chapter House, Westminster f035
Lines of Characterization of Feathers and Shells f036
Pen Drawing of Fruit f037
Effect of different Emphasis in Treatment of the same f038, f039
Designs
Effect of different Emphasis in the Drawing of Landscape f040
Example of Page Treatment to show Ornamental Relation f041a
between Text and Pictures
Suggestion for a Carpet Pattern and Abstract Treatment of f041b
the same on Point Paper as detail of Brussels Carpet
Brush Forms f042
Direct Brush Expression of Animal Form f043
Japanese Drawing of a Bird. From "The Hundred Birds of Bari" f044
Elementary Geometrical Forms f045a
Use of the same Forms in Architecture f045b
Poppy-heads f046
Apple cut to show Position of Seeds f047
Cube and Sphere in Architectural Ornament f048a
Filling of Square Space f049a
Filling of Circular Space f049b
Inlay Design: Pattern Units and Motives f050
Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Curves f051a
Grouping of Allied Forms: Composition of Angles f051b
Still-life Group illustrative of Wood-engraving f052
Japanese Diagonal Pattern f053
Treatment of Fruit and Leaf Forms: Corresponding Curvature f054
Correspondence in General Contour between Leaf and Tree f055a
Some Analogies in Form f055b
Tree of Typical Pattern Forms, Units and Systems f056
Sketches to show Use of Counterbalance, Quantity, and f057
Equivalents in Designing
Quantities and Counterchange of Border and Field in Carpet f058
Motives
Sketches to illustrate Value of different Quantities in f058-f061
Persian Rugs
Recurrence and Contrast in Border Motives f062
Use of inclosing Boundaries in Designing Animal Forms in f063a
Decorative Pattern
Decorative Spacing of Figures within Geometric Boundaries f063b
Simple Linear Motives and Pattern Bases f064
Use of Intervals in Repeating the same Ornamental Units f065
Designs of Floral, Human, and Animal Forms, governed by f066
Shape of inclosing Boundary
The Parthenon: Sketch to show Spaces used for Decorative f067
Sculpture in Greek Architecture
The Tower of the Winds, Athens f068
Sketch of part of the Arch of Constantine to show spaces for f069
Decorative Sculpture in Roman Architecture
Byzantine (Mosaic) Treatment of Architectural Structural f070
Features: Apse, S. Vitale, Ravenna
Detail of Canopy of Tomb of Gervaise-Alard, Winchelsea f071
Walberswick Church: West Door f072
Miserere in St. David's Cathedral f073
Recessed Panel from the Tomb of Bishop John Morgan, St. f074
David's Cathedral
Corbel from Bishop Vaughan's Chapel, St. David's Cathedral f075
Gothic Tile Pattern, St. David's Cathedral f076
Surface Pattern Motives derived from Lines of Structure f077a
Repeating Patterns built upon Square and Circular Bases f077b
Plan of a Drop Repeat f078
Sketch Designs to show Relation between Frieze and Field in f079
Wall-paper
Principles of Structural and Ornamental Line in Natural f080
Forms
Radiating, Recurring and Counterbalancing Lines in the f081a
Structure of the Skeleton and the Muscles
General Principles of Line and Form in the Branching and f081b
Foliage Masses of Trees
Principles of Structure in Foliage Masses f082
Albert Durer: Detail from "The Prodigal Son" f083
Albert Durer: St. Anthony f084
Roof-lines: Rothenburg f085
St. Margaret Street, Canterbury f086
Figure Designs controlled by Geometric Boundaries f087, f088
Expression of Storm and Calm in Landscape f089
Expression of Repose and Action f090
Controlling Lines of Movement: Movement in a Procession f091a
Lines left by a Watercourse--Lines governing fallen Debris f091b
from a Quarry
Relief of Form, (1) by Outline, (2) by Contrast, (3) by f092
Light and Shade
Relief of Form and Line in Pattern Design by means of f093
Contrast and the Use of Planes
Treatment of Mantling (14th-16th centuries) f094a, f094b
Brass of Martin de Visch, Bruges, 1452 f095
Relief in Pattern Design by means of Simple Linear Contrasts f096a
Relief by adding Shading Lines to Outline f097a
Relief by Diagonal Shading f097b
Different Method and different Emphasis in Relieving Form by f098
Shading Lines
Albert Durer's Principle in the Treatment of Drapery: From f099
the Woodcut in the "Life of the Virgin" Series
Albert Durer: Pen-drawing f100
Filippino Lippi: Study of Drapery f101
Raphael: Studies of Drapery f102
Relief by means of Light and Shade alone, in Pen-drawing f103a
without Outline
Relief by means of White Line on a Dark Ground and _vice f103b
versa_
Relief in Architectural Mouldings f104
Roman Treatment of Corinthian Order, Forum of Nerva, Rome f105
Egyptian Relief Sculpture: Thebes f106
Greek Relief: Eleusis f107
Egyptian Relief: Denderah f107
Chartres Cathedral: Carving on West Front f108
Chartres Cathedral: Tympanum of Central Door of West Front
f109
Medals of the Lords of Mantua, Cesena, and Ferrara, by f110
Vittore Pisano
Treatment of Draped Figure in Black on White Ground and f111a
_vice versa_
Treatment of the same Figure in Light and Shade f111b
The Graphic Principle of the Expression of Form by Light and f112
Shade; with and without Outline
Linear Expression of Features, Feathers and Fur: Notes from f113
Nature
Sketches to illustrate the Graphic and the Decorative f114
Treatment of Draped Figures
Decorative Treatment of Birds f115
Floral Designs upon Typical Inclosing Shapes of Indian and f116
Persian Ornament
Dancing Figure with the Governing Lines of the Movement f117a
Lines of Floral Growth and Structure: Lily and Rose f117b
Coast-lines, Gulf of Nauplia f118a
Lines of Movement in Water, Shallow Stream over Sand f118b
Giotto: Chastity (Lower Church, Assisi) f119
Pinturicchio: Mural Painting (Piccolomini Chapel, Siena) f120
Diagram showing the Principal Fundamental Plans or Systems f121
of Line governing Mural Spacing and Decorative Distribution
Diagram to show how the apparent Depth of a Space is f122
increased by the Use of Vertical Lines, and its apparent
Width by the Use of Horizontal Lines
Decorative Spacing of the Wall: Sketches (to half-inch f123
scale) to show different Treatment and Proportions
Figure of Laura, from the Burgundian Tapestries: The f124
Triumphs of Petrarch, in the South Kensington Museum
Pinturicchio: Fresco in the Appartimenti Borgia f125
Portion of Detail of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque of f126
Ardebil: Persian, sixteenth century
Sketch to illustrate Treatment of Borders in a Persian Rug f127
Arras Tapestry: Diagrams to show the Principle of Working f128
and Surface Effect
Contrasting Surfaces in Warp and Weft in Woven Silk Hanging f129
Indian printed Cotton Cover: South Kensington Museum f130
Stained Glass Treatment: Inclosure of Form and Colour by f131
Lead Lines
Sketch to show Effect of the same Colour and Form upon f132
different Coloured Grounds
Principle of the Effect of the Blending or Blurring of f133
Colours at their Edges
Use of Black and White Outline to clear the Edges of f133
Coloured Forms upon different Coloured Grounds
J. Van Eyck: Portrait of J. Arnolfini and his Wife f134
Ver Meer of Delft: Lady at a Spinet f135
Botticelli: The Nativity f136
Holbein: The Ambassadors f137
Botticelli: Madonna and Child f138
Crivelli: The Annunciation f139
Perugino: The Virgin in Adoration with St. Michael and St. f140
Raphael, and Tobias
Titian: Bacchus and Ariadne f141
Madox Brown: Christ Washing St. Peter's Feet f142
[Illustration (f002): The Origin of Outline.]
OF LINE AND FORM
CHAPTER I
Origin and Function of Outline--Silhouette--Definition of
Boundaries by--Power of Characterization by--Formation of
Letters--Methods of Drawing in Line--The Progressive Method--The
Calligraphic Method--The Tentative Method--The Japanese Direct
Brush Method--The Oval Method--The Rectangular Method--Quality of
Line--Linear Expression of Movement--Textures--Emotion--Scale of
Linear Expression.
Outline, one might say, is the Alpha and Omega of Art. It is the
earliest mode of expression among primitive peoples, as it is with the
individual child, and it has been cultivated for its power of
characterization and expression, and as an ultimate test of
draughtsmanship, by the most accomplished artists of all time.
The old fanciful story of its origin in the work of a lover who traced
in charcoal the boundary of the shadow of the head of his sweetheart as
cast upon the wall by the sun, and thus obtained the first profile
portrait, is probably more true in substance than in fact, but it
certainly illustrates the _function_ of outline as the definition of the
boundaries of form.
[Silhouette]
As children we probably perceive forms in nature defined as flat shapes
of colour relieved upon other colours, or flat fields of light on dark,
as a white horse is defined upon the green grass of a field, or a black
figure upon a background of snow.
[Illustration (f003a): Silhouette]
[Illustration (f003b): Silhouette]
[Definition of Boundaries]
To define the boundaries of such forms becomes the main object in early
attempts at artistic expression. The attention is caught by the
edges--the shape of the silhouette which remains the paramount means of
distinction of form when details and secondary characteristics are
lost; as the outlines of mountains remain, or are even more clearly
seen, when distance subdues the details of their structure, and evening
mists throw them into flat planes one behind the other, and leave
nothing but the delicate lines of their edges to tell their character.
We feel the beauty and simplicity of such effects in nature. We feel
that the mind, through the eye resting upon these quiet planes and
delicate lines, receives a sense of repose and poetic suggestion which
is lost in the bright noontide, with all its wealth of glittering
detail, sharp cut in light and shade. There is no doubt that this
typical power of outline and the value of simplicity of mass were
perceived by the ancients, notably the Ancient Egyptians and the Greeks,
who both, in their own ways, in their art show a wonderful power of
characterization by means of line and mass, and a delicate sense of the
ornamental value and quality of line.
[Illustration (f004): Coast and Mountain Lines--Gulf of Nauplia]
[Formation of Letters]
Regarding line--the use of outline from the point of view of its value
as a means of definition of form and fact--its power is really only
limited by the power of draughtsmanship at the command of the artist.
From the archaic potters' primitive figures or the rudimentary attempts
of children at human or animal forms up to the most refined outlines of
a Greek vase-painter, or say the artist of the Dream of Poliphilus, the
difference is one of degree. The tyro with the pen, learning to write,
splotches and scratches, and painfully forms trembling, limping O's and
A's, till with practice and habitude, almost unconsciously, the power to
form firm letters is acquired.
Writing, after all, is but a simpler form of drawing, and we know that
the letters of our alphabet were originally pictures or symbols. The
main difference is that writing stops short with the acquisition of the
purely useful power of forming letters and words, and is seldom pursued
for the sake of its beauty or artistic qualities as formerly; while
drawing continually leads on to new difficulties to be conquered, to new
subtleties of line, and fresh fascinations in the pursuit of distinction
and style.
[Illustration (f005a): Proportions of Roman Capital Letters and Method
of Drawing Them (From Albert Durer's "Geometrica").]
[Illustration (f005b): Proportions of Lower-Case German Text and Method
of Drawing the Letters (From Albert Durer's "Geometrica").]
The practice of forming letters with the pen or brush, from good types,
Roman and Gothic, however, would afford very good preliminary practice
to a student of line and form. The hand would acquire directness of
stroke and touch, while the eye would grow accustomed to good lines of
composition and simple constructive forms. The progressive nature of
writing--the gradual building up of the forms of the letters--and the
necessity of dealing with recurring forms and lines, also, would bear
usefully upon after work in actual design. Albert Durer in his
"Geometrica" gives methods on which to draw the Roman capitals, and also
the black letters, building the former upon the square and its
proportions, the thickness of the down strokes being one-eighth of
square, the thin strokes being one-sixteenth, and the serifs being
turned by circles of one-fourth and one-eighth diameter. The capital O,
it will be noted, is formed of two circles struck diagonally.
[Methods of Drawing in Line]
Letters may be taken as the simplest form of definition by means of
line. They have been reduced through centuries of use from their
primitive hieroglyphic forms to their present arbitrary and fixed types,
though even these fixed types are subject to the variation produced by
changes of taste and fancy.
But when we come to unformulated nature--to the vast world of complex
forms, ever changing their aspect, full of life and movement, trees,
flowers, woods and waters, birds, beasts, fishes, the human form--the
problem how to represent any of these forms, to express and characterize
them by means of so abstract a method as line-drawing, seems at first
difficult enough.
But since the growth of perception, like the power of graphic
representation, is gradual and partial, though progressive, the eye and
the mind are generally first impressed with the salient features and
leading characteristics of natural forms, just as the child's first idea
of a human form is that of a body with four straight limbs, with a
preponderating head. That is the first impression, and it is
unhesitatingly recorded in infantine outline.
The first aim, then, in drawing anything in line is to grasp the general
truths of form, character, and expression.
[The Progressive Method]
There are various methods of proceeding in getting an outline of any
object or figure. To begin with, the student might begin progressively
defining the form by a series of stages in this way. Take the profile
of a bird, for instance; the form might be gradually built up by the
combination of a series of lines:
[Illustration (f006a): (bird forms)]
or take the simpler form of a flask bottle:
[Illustration (f006b): (bottle forms)]
or a jar on the same principle:
[Illustration (f006c): (jar forms)]
or, simpler still, a leaf form, putting in the stem first with one
stroke (1):
[Illustration (f006d): (leaf forms)]
and building the form around it (2, 3).
[The Calligraphic Method]
[Illustration (f007a): (calligraphic forms)]
This might be termed the calligraphic method of drawing; and in this
method facility of hand might be further practised by attempting the
definition of forms by continuous strokes, or building it up by as few
strokes as possible. The simpler types of ornament consisting of
meandering and flowing lines can all be produced in this way, i.e., by
continuous line, as well as natural forms treated in a certain abstract
or conventional way, which adapts them to decoration.
[The Tentative Method]
[Illustration (f007b): (jar forms)]
Another method is to sketch in lightly guide lines for main masses,
building a sort of scaffolding of light lines to assist the eye in
getting the correct outline in its place, using vertical centre lines
for symmetrical forms to get the poise right. This is the method very
generally in use, but I think it very desirable to practise direct
drawing as well, to acquire certainty of eye and facility of hand; and
one must not mind failure at first, as this kind of power and facility
is so much a matter of practice.
[Illustration (f007c): (birdbath sketch)]
[The Japanese Direct Brush Method]
The Japanese, who draw with the brush, have accustomed themselves to
draw in a direct manner without any preliminary sketching, and the charm
of their work is largely owing to that crisp freshness of touch only
possible to their direct method. The great object is to establish a
perfectly intimate correspondence between eye and hand, so that the
latter will record what the former perceives.
Abundant specimens of the freedom and naturalism of the modern school of
Japanese artists in this direct brush method may be found in the work of
Bari, Hiroshigi, and Hokusai, and in the numerous prints and books of
designs from their hands. To all draughtsmen and designers they are most
valuable to study for their direct method and simple means of expression
of form and fact. Accidental as they frequently seem in composition, the
placing of the drawing upon the paper is carefully considered before
starting, and this, of course, is always a very important point.
Yet another method of drawing, more especially in relation to the
drawing of the human figure and animal forms, I may mention as a help to
those who do not feel strong enough for the direct method. At the same
time it must be borne in mind that we can accustom ourselves to _any_
method; and the more dependent we become upon a single method, the less
facility we shall have for working in any other. But for all that it is
desirable to master _one_ method--that is, to be able to draw in line
_freely_ in one way or another--and experience and practice alone will
enable us to find the method most satisfactory.
[The Oval and Rectangular Methods]
[Illustration (f008): (human and horse forms)]
[The Rectangular Method]
This other method is to block in the principal masses of the forms we
desire to represent by means of a series of ovals, as shown in the
illustration, and when we have got the masses in their proper relations,
to proceed to draw in the careful outline of the figure, or whatever it
may be, upon this substructure of guiding lines, correcting as we go
along. It would be quite possible to work on the same principle, but
upon a structure of more or less rectangular masses. The real use of the
method is to assist the student to get a grasp of the relation of the
masses of a figure and a sense of structure in drawing; whether square
or oval blocking in is used may be a matter of choice. It may be said
for the oval forms that they resemble the contours of the structure in
human and animal forms.
If one had a tendency to round one's forms too much, it would be well to
try the rectangular method to correct this, and _vice versa_.
After a certain facility has been acquired in rendering form by means of
line, we shall perceive further capacities of expression in its use, and
begin to note how different characteristics of form and natural fact may
be expressed by varying the quality of our outline.
If we are drawing a plant or a flower, for instance, we should endeavour
to show by the quality of our line the difference between the fine
springing curves in the structure of the lily, the solid seed-centre and
stiff radiation of the petals of the daisy, and the delicate silky folds
of the poppy.
[Quality of Line]
[Illustration (f009): Lines of Characterization in the Form and Feature
of Flowers: Lily and Poppy.]
But, as leaves come before flowers, it would be best to begin with leaf
forms and try to express the character of oak and beech, lime and
chestnut leaves, for instance, by means of outline. Probably at first
we shall feel dissatisfied with our outline as not being full enough: it
may look meagre in quality and small in definition of form. This
probably arises from not allowing enough space--from setting the
outline too much within the boundary of the form. To correct this one
cannot do better than block in the form of the object we are drawing
(leaf, flower, or figure) with a full brush in black silhouette, placing
the object against the light or white paper, so that its true boundary
may be seen uninterfered with by surface markings or shadows, and,
concentrating our attention upon the _edge_, follow it as carefully as
possible with the solid black. Then, if we compare the result with our
outline, it will help to show where it has failed; and the practice of
thus blocking in with the brush in solid silhouette will tend to
encourage a larger style of drawing, since good outline means good
perception of mass; and as a general principle in drawing, it may be
recommended to place one's outline _outside_ the silhouette boundary of
the form rather than within it; that is to say, when the figure or
object is relieved in light against dark, as the line in that case
defines the edge against the background. When the figure or object
appears as dark upon a light ground, however, the outline should be
within the silhouette, obviously, or its delicate boundary is lost.
[Illustration (f010a): Silhouette of Beech Leaves and Line Rendering of
the Same.]
[Linear Expression of Movement]
Another important attribute of line is its power of expressing or
suggesting _movement_. By a law of inseparable association, undulating
lines approaching the horizontal, or leading down to it, are connected
with the sense of repose; whereas broken curves and rectangular lines
always suggest action and unrest, or the resistance to force of some
kind.
[Illustration (f010b): Lines of Movement]
The recurrence of a series of lines in the same direction in a kind of
crescendo or wave-like movement suggests continuous pressure of force in
the same direction, as in this series of instantaneous actions of a man
bowling, where the line drawn through or touching the highest points in
each figure takes the line of the curve of a wave. The wave-line,
indeed, may be said not only to suggest movement, but also to describe
its direction and force. It is, in fact, _the line of movement_. The
principle may be seen in a simpler way, as Hogarth points out in his
"Analysis of Beauty," by observing the line described along a wall by
the head of a man walking along the street. Or, as we may see sometimes
near the coast, trees exposed to the constant pressure of the wind
illustrate this recurrence of lines in the same direction governing
their general shape; and as each tree is forced to spread in the
direction away from the wind, the effect is that of their being always
struggling against its pressure even in the calmest weather; and this is
entirely due to our association of wind-movement with this peculiar
linear expression.
[Illustration (f011): Lines Expressive of Movement: Effect of Wind Upon
Trees]
Flowing water, again, is expressed by certain recurring wave-lines,
which remind us of the ancient linear symbols of the zigzag and meander
used from the earliest times to express water. In the streams that
channel the sands of the sea-shore when the tide recedes we may see
beautiful flowing lines, sometimes crossing like a network, and
sometimes running into a series of shell-like waves; while the sands
themselves are ribbed and channelled and modelled by the recurring
movement of the waves, which leave upon them the impress and the
expression of their motion (much as in a more delicate medium the
air-currents impress the fields of cloud, and give them their
characteristic forms).
[Illustration (f012): Line Arrangement in Ribbed Sea Sand]
[Linear Expression of Textures]
Textures and surfaces, too, fall within the range of linear expression.
One would naturally use lines of totally different consistency and
character to express rough or smooth surfaces: to express the difference
of value, for instance, between the ivory-like smoothness of an egg and
the scaly surface of a pine-cone, entirely different qualities of line
are obviously wanted. The firm-set yet soft feathers of the plumage of a
bird must be rendered by a very different touch from the shining scales
of a fish. The hair and horns of animals, delicate human features,
flowers, the sinuous lines of thin drapery, or the broad massive folds
of heavy robes, all demand from the designer and draughtsman in line
different kinds of suggestive expression, a translation or rendering of
natural fact subordinate to the artistic purpose of his work, and in
relation to the material and purpose for which he works.
[Linear Expression of Emotion]
[Illustration (f013): Lines of Different Textures, Structures, and
Surfaces.]
Then, again, when we come to the expression of ideas--of thought and
sentiment--we find in line an abstract but direct medium for their
illustration; and this again, too, by means of that law of inseparable
association which connects the idea of praise or aspiration and
ascension, for instance, with long lines inclining towards the severe
vertical, as when we draw a figure with upraised hands; while the
feeling might be increased if led up to or re-echoed by other groups and
objects in the composition, forming a kind of vertical crescendo on the
same principle which we were considering in regard to the expression of
lateral movement. Few things in design are finer or more elevated in
feeling than William Blake's design of the Morning Stars singing
together, in the series of the Book of Job, yet it is little more than
a vertical arrangement of figures with uplifted and intercrossing arms.
The linear plan gives the main impetus to the expressiveness of the
design, and is the basis of the beauty, which culminates in the rapture
of the fresh youthful faces.
[Illustration (f014): Expression of Emotion: Lines of Exaltation and
Rejoicing in Unison. The Morning Stars, After William Blake. (From the
Book of Job.)]
[Scale of Linear Expression]
Bowed and bent lines tending downwards, on the other hand, convey the
opposite ideas of dejection and despair. This is illustrated in these
figures of Flaxman's, who was a great master of style in outline.
[Illustration (f015): Lines of Grief and Dejection. Flaxman: Designs to
Homer.]
[Capacity of Line]
We seem here to discover a kind of scale of linear expression--the two
extremes at either end: the horizontal and the vertical, with every
degree and modulation between them; the undulating curve giving way to
the springing energetic spiral, the meandering, flowing line sinking to
the horizontal: or the sharp opposition and thrust of rectangular, the
nervous resistance of broken curves, the flame-like, triumphant,
ascending verticals. Truly the designer may find a great range of
expression within the dominion of pure line. Line is, indeed, as I have
before termed it, a language, a most sensitive and vigorous speech of
many dialects; which can adapt itself to all purposes, and is, indeed,
indispensable to all the provinces of design in line. Line may be
regarded simply as a means of record, a method of registering the facts
of nature, of graphically portraying the characteristics of plants and
animals, or the features of humanity: the smooth features of youth, the
rugged lines of age. It is capable of this, and more also, since it can
appeal to our emotions and evoke our passionate and poetic sympathies
with both the life of humanity and wild nature, as in the hands of the
great masters it lifts us to the heavens or bows us down to earth: we
may stand on the sea-shore and see the movement of the falling waves,
the fierce energy of the storm and its rolling armament of clouds,
glittering with the sudden zigzag of the lightning; or we may sink into
the profound calm of a summer day, when the mountains, defined only by
their edges, wrapped in soft planes of mist, seem to recline upon the
level meadows like Titans and dream of the golden age.
[Illustration (f016): (landscape)]