Foundation.] The design is marked by a very narrow flat bottom or a
wide keel combined with the ~V~-bottom. These boats are well-built
and are light and graceful. The wide keel is formed by a thick plank
keelson which narrows at bow and stern and is bent up to form the stem
and stern. The chine pieces run fore and aft and are lashed to the
stem and stern thus formed. The gunwales are about ¾ by 1⅛ inches. The
frames are about ¼ by ⅝ inch bent in a strongly ~U~-shaped form, with
their ends tenoned into the bottom of the gunwales. The keelson is
only about ⅜ inch thick and the chines are rather wide thin battens;
about ⁵⁄₁₆ by 1¼ inch. Some kayaks have an additional batten in the
sides above the chines. The deck is slightly ridged for nearly the
length of the boat. The stem and stern are carried up above the sheer
to form prominent posts; some builders carry them higher than shown.
The construction is neat and light and the boat is very easily paddled.
Its narrow beam makes it somewhat treacherous, however, in unskilled
hands. A double-bladed paddle is generally used with this kayak. While
the form appears to vary little among individuals of this class, the
construction varies, particularly in the number and dimensions of the
longitudinals. Frames are spaced rather consistently 5 to 6 inches
apart.
[Illustration: Figure 189
KAYAK FROM POINT BARROW, Alaska, in U.S. National Museum (USNM 57773).
Collected by Capt. M. A. Healy, U.S. Revenue Steamer _Bear_, 1888.
(_Smithsonian photo_ MNH-399-A.)]
[Illustration: Figure 190
COCKPIT OF KAYAK from Point Barrow (USNM 57773), showing method of
lashing skin cover to manhole. (_Smithsonian photo_ MNH-399.)]
[Illustration: Figure 191
KAYAK IN U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM (USNM 160325) cataloged as from Mackenzie
River area, 1885, but apparently an eastern kayak of unidentified
origin.]
[Illustration: Figure 192
CORONATION GULF KAYAK, Canada, partially reconstructed from a damaged
privately owned kayak (now destroyed).]
[Illustration: Figure 193
CARIBOU ESKIMO KAYAK, Canada, in American Museum of Natural History.]
[Illustration: Figure 194
NETSILIK ESKIMO KAYAK, King William Island, Canada, in the American
Museum of Natural History.]
The foregoing design differs greatly in every respect from the
example in figure 191, collected by the U.S. Fish Commission in 1885
and identified as a Mackenzie River kayak. It is a large heavy boat
compared to the one just described. The model of this old kayak,
and the construction too, is on the eastern pattern, such as is
used in Hudson Strait. The strongly upturned stern and less rising
bow resembles the old Greenland kayaks. The ~V~-bottom and 3-batten
construction combined with heavy deep gunwales is not to be found in
any of the known Alaskan kayaks. There is unfortunately no record of
the exact location where this kayak was found, nor any information
on the builders; if it is from the Mackenzie, the type now appears
to be wholly extinct and there has been nothing in recent times in
the vicinity faintly resembling it. The kayak is a well-built, safe,
strong boat; the high stern would aid it in coming head to sea and wind
when paddling stopped; and it resembles, more than most, the early
explorers' drawings of Arctic kayaks. The very high ends indicate that
it was not used where high winds are common, despite the otherwise
seaworthy design and construction, and regardless of the documentation,
it now seems certain that this kayak came from somewhere in the eastern
Arctic.
To the eastward of the Mackenzie, the kayaks are narrow, spindle-shaped
and very low sided, in the manner of the northern Alaskan boats.
The drawing of figure 192 was made from the remains of a kayak from
Coronation Gulf and to insure accuracy was compared with photographs
and measurements of some Copper Eskimo kayaks. This kayak is
characterized by a rather marked reverse sheer and a strongly raked
manhole rim. The deck forward of the manhole sweeps up very sharply,
but with a different profile than is seen on the north coast of Alaska;
the deck of these eastern kayaks sweeps up in a very short hollow
curve instead of the long convex sweep popular in Alaska. The ends of
the hull finish in small bone buttons; the skin cover passes under
the manhole rim, as in the Cape Krusenstern and Point Barrow types. A
two-bladed paddle is commonly used. The hull design is more stable than
that at Point Barrow and the ends are somewhat fuller, giving the boat
a rather parallel sided appearance; it has longitudinal battens from
the bottom of the hull, one the keelson; the gunwales are channelled
on the inside and are very light and neatly made. The frames are split
willows, round on the inside.
The Caribou Eskimo kayak preserved in the American Museum of Natural
History is the best example of the type found. The drawing of figure
193 shows the features of this particular type; the construction is
about the same as that of the Point Barrow kayak but is much lighter
and weaker. The peculiar projecting stem is formed of a stem block,
scarphed to the gunwales; to it the beak piece is attached with a
lashing. The sharply turned-up stern is formed in a similar manner by
two pieces joined together at the tip and lashed to the stern block;
this stern construction is similar to that of the eastern Arctic kayak
shown in figure 192. Both caribou hides and seal skins are used to
cover the Caribou Eskimo kayak. The seams are rubbed with fish oil and
ochre, a method also used extensively along the north coast of Alaska
to paint the framework of both kayaks and umiaks.
The Netsilik Eskimo kayak is related to the Caribou, but is less stable
and has different bow and stern profiles. The example shown in the
drawing of figure 194 requires little discussion; the cover is of seal
skin. These kayaks are used only in hunting caribou at stream crossings
and are not employed in sealing. The very narrow bottom and narrow beam
make this the most dangerous of all kayaks in the hands of a paddler
unaccustomed to such craft. Neither the Caribou nor the Netsilik
kayaks are very seaworthy and their construction is inferior. They are
characterized by rather heavy gunwales but the other members of their
structures are very slight.
No examples remain of the old kayaks once used on the Gulf of Boothia,
at Fury and Hecla Strait, and on the west side of Foxe Basin. Early
explorers in this area found kayaks, but the types used have been long
extinct. One kayak, supposed to have been built at Southampton Island,
had been preserved by a private collector, but when measured was in
a damaged state. Shown in figure 195, it does not conform with the
old description of kayaks from the Melville Peninsula but does agree
reasonably well with the Boas model of a kayak from Repulse Bay in the
U.S. National Museum (USNM 68126). On this basis it would appear that
in Boas' time this form of kayak was also used on the east side of the
Melville Peninsula. The design resembles to some extent the kayaks
from the southwest coast of Greenland, but the stern is like that
used in some Labrador craft. This old kayak was very light and sharp,
rather slightly built, but very graceful in model so far as could be
determined from the remains of the craft. The foredeck camber is ridged
and carried rather far forward. If the identification of this kayak
should be correct, it is apparent that the eastern model of the kayak
once extended as far west as the west side of Foxe Basin.
The kayak of lower Baffin Island, in figure 196, is flat-bottomed,
long, and rather heavy. The gunwale members are very deep and the
keelson and chine battens are quite heavy. This type has a slight
side-batten between chine and gunwale--in all, five longitudinal
members besides the gunwales--hence this example is the sole exception
to the 3-batten construction that may be said to mark the eastern
kayaks. The Baffin Island kayak is rather roughly built and the
two examples found had many frames cracked at the chines. However,
this kayak has many excellent features, being easily paddled, very
stable, and seaworthy. The double-blade paddle used is like that of
the Labrador kayak, very long with narrow blades. When the paddler
is seated, these kayaks, like many of their eastern sisters, draw
more water forward than the illustration would indicate (it should be
remembered that the trim of the kayaks in the water is not indicated by
the base lines used in the plans). The deeper draft at the bow, which
allows the kayak to hold her course into the wind and to come head
to the wind when at rest, gives a long easy run in the bottom toward
the stern. The slight rocker in the bottom shown in the drawing is
thus misleading. The stem is formed by the extension of the keelson,
producing the "clipper-bow" seen in many eastern boats. The stern is
shaped by a stern block of simple form into which the gunwales, keelson
and chines are notched. The batten between chine and gunwale stops a
little short of both bow and stern.
[Illustration: Figure 195
OLD KAYAK FROM VICINITY OF SOUTHAMPTON ISLAND, Canada. Plan made from a
much damaged kayak, now destroyed, once privately owned.]
A somewhat similar kayak is used on the Labrador side of Hudson Strait
but, as shown in figure 197 on page 207, the appearance of the craft is
distinctive. The kayak is flat-bottomed, with the snied-off chines seen
in the Baffin Island boat, giving a cross section form like that of
many Japanese sampans. The 3-batten system is used in construction, and
the gunwales are very heavy and deep, standing vertical in the sides
of the boat. The sheer is slightly reversed and there is little rocker
in the bottom. One of the most obvious features of the Labrador kayak
is the long "grab" bow, which is formed by a batten attached to the
end of the keelson. The stern is formed with a very small block inside
the gunwales, and to this the keelson is laced or pegged. It will be
noticed that the rake of the manhole is very moderate. These kayaks are
heavy and strong, paddle well, particularly so against wind and sea.
Shown in the drawing is the type of long-and narrow-bladed paddle used.
[Illustration: Figure 196
BAFFIN ISLAND KAYAK, from Cape Dorset, Canada, in the Museum of the
American Indian, Heye Foundation.]
This example illustrates better than the Baffin Island kayak the
combination of deep forefoot and the greatest beam well abaft the
midlength that marks many eastern models. When paddled, the craft
always trims so that the kayak draws most water at the fore end of the
keelson and the bottom of the stern is usually just awash. This makes
the bottom sweep up from the forefoot in a very slight gradual curve
to the stern, when the boat is afloat. As a result, the kayak may be
said to be of the "double-wedge" form that has been popular in fast
low-powered motor boats, since having the beam far aft gives to the
bow a wedge shape in plan, while the deep forefoot and shallow stern
produce an opposite wedge in profile. It would appear that this form
had been found by trial and error to produce a fast, easily paddled
rough-water kayak in an otherwise heavy hull. The North Labrador kayaks
are the largest in the Arctic for a single person; some are reported as
long as 26 feet. The long-and narrow-bladed paddle may be explained by
the fact that the Eskimo never produced a "feathered" double paddle,
with blades set at right angles to one another. To paddle against
strong winds, he developed a blade that was very long and very narrow
for a double-paddle, and therefore offered less resistance to the wind,
yet could be dipped deep so that little propulsion effect was lost.
The kayak used on the northeast coast of Labrador, shown in figure
198, differs slightly from that of Hudson Strait. The northeast-coast
kayak has a very slight ~V~-bottom and a strong concave sheer with
relatively great rocker in the bottom. While the craft trims by the
bow afloat, the rocker probably makes it more maneuverable than the
Hudson Strait kayak, though less easily paddled against strong winds.
The ~V~-bottom is formed by using a keelson that is heavier and deeper
than the chines. The latter are thin, wide battens, on the flat. The
V-bottom appears to help the boat run straight under paddle and may be
said to counteract, to some extent at least, the effect of the strongly
rockered bottom.
The Polar coast of Greenland is the home of sharpie-model kayaks having
flat bottoms and flaring sides; the kayaks in figures 199 and 200 are
representative of those used in the extreme north. These have "clipper"
bows, with sterns of varying depth and shape, concave sheer and varying
degrees of rocker in the bottom. Most have their greatest beam well
aft and draw more water forward, as do the Labrador and Baffin Island
types. The chief characteristic of the construction of this type is
that the transverse frames are in three parts, somewhat as in the
umiak. However, these kayaks depart from umiak construction in having
the frame heads rigidly tenoned into the gunwales. This is done to give
the structure a measure of transverse rigidity which would otherwise
be lacking, since light battens are used for the keelson, stem, and
chines. Figure 199 shows the details of the construction used.
These kayaks are highly developed craft--stable, fast, and
seaworthy--and the construction is light yet strong enough to withstand
the severe abuse sometimes given them. The cap on the fore part of
the manhole is a paddle holder, for resting the paddle across the
deck. Some Eskimos used this as a thole, and when tired, "rowed" the
kayak with the paddle, to maintain control. It will be noted that
oval or circular manholes are seldom found in the eastern types of
kayaks already described; ~U~-shaped manholes, or bent-rim manholes
approaching this form, appear in those very stable types which do not
require to be righted at sea by the paddler and in which the watertight
paddling jacket or waistband is not used.
Farther south, on the northern coast of Greenland, and apparently also
on the opposite coast of Baffin Island, a modified design of kayak is
used. This type, illustrated in figure 205, shows relationship to both
the flat-bottom kayak of northern Greenland and to the northeastern
Labrador type. In this model the "clipper" bow is retained but the
stern and cross section resemble those of the Labrador kayaks. The
construction, however, is fundamentally that employed in northern
Greenland. As in the Labrador type, the deadrise in the bottom is
formed by using in the keelson members that are deeper than those in
the chine. The gunwales do not flare as in the Greenland model, but
stand vertical in the side flaring slightly at bow and extreme stern.
The frame heads are rather loosely tenoned and are commonly secured
to the gunwales with lashings. Transverse stiffness is obtained in
this model by employing a rather heavy, rigid keelson fixed to the
stern block, and by a tripod arrangement forward consisting of the
stem batten and a pair of transverse frames placed at the junction of
stem and keelson with their heads firmly lashed and tenoned into the
gunwales. The construction, though strong, is rather rough compared
to that of other Greenland types. The manhole rim in this type is
not bent, but is made up of short straight pieces, as shown in the
drawing; and the double-bladed paddle shown resembles that used in
Labrador. This is a rather heavy kayak of very good qualities but not
as maneuverable as some of the flat-bottom kayaks found farther north.
[Illustration: Figure 197
KAYAK FROM NORTH LABRADOR, Canada, in the Museum of the American
Indian, Heye Foundation.]
[Illustration: Figure 198
LABRADOR KAYAK, Canada, in the U.S. National Museum (USNM 251693).]
[Illustration: Figure 199
NORTH GREENLAND KAYAK, in the Museum of the American Indian, Heye
Foundation.]
[Illustration: Figure 200
NORTH GREENLAND KAYAK, in the Peabody Museum, Salem, Mass. Taken off by
the late Norman L. Skene, 1921.]
[Illustration: Figure 201
PROFILE OF GREENLAND KAYAK from Disko Bay, in the National Museum (USNM
72564). Collected by Maj. Wm. M. Beebe, Jr., 1882. (_Smithsonian photo
15726-D._)]
Ross found that the Greenland Eskimos north of Cape York had ceased to
use kayaks in 1818. Not until about 1860 was the kayak reintroduced
here, by Eskimos from Pond Inlet, north Baffin Island, who walked over
the sea ice. This fact probably accounts for the various sharpie and
modified sharpie forms used along the northern and Polar coasts of
Greenland.
[Illustration: Figure 202
DECK OF GREENLAND KAYAK from Disko Bay (USNM 72564). (_Smithsonian
photo 15726-C._)]
The model of the kayak used on much of the central and southern coasts
of Greenland has changed rather extensively since 1883, and this
change has apparently affected the kayaks used on the east coast as
well. In this part of the Arctic, the Eskimo are notable kayakers and
the boat is not only well designed but also carries highly developed
equipment and weapons for its work. The basic model used is a graceful
~V~-bottom one, with raking ends and rather strong sheer. In the old
boats represented by the drawings of figures 206 and 207, the sheer
is strong at bow and stern, but this form has been gradually going
out of favor. The kayaks are narrow but their shape gives them much
stability. Pegged to the bow and stern are plates of bone to protect
them from ice; in rare cases these bone stem bands, or bang plates, are
lashed in place. The first drawing shows the construction used: light
strong gunwales and a 3-batten longitudinal system with bent transverse
frames. The keelson and chines--light, rectangular in section and
placed on edge--are shaped slightly to fair the sealskin covering. The
cover passes under the manhole rim. Bow and stern are made of plank
on edge, shaped to the required profile. The gunwales are strongly
tapered in depth fore and aft. Eight to twelve thwarts, or deck beams,
are used in addition to the two heavy thwarts supporting the manhole;
usually there is one more forward of the manhole than there is aft,
and all are very light scantlings. The thwart forward of the manhole
stands slightly inside the cockpit and is strongly arched; the after
one is clear of the cockpit opening and has very little arch. Two
light, short battens, or carlins, 24 to 36 inches long support the
deck, where it sweeps up to the raked manhole, and usually there are
two abaft the manhole as well. Lashings are used as fastenings except
at the ends of the hull, where pegs secure the keelson to the stem and
stern; at this point, on some kayaks examined, sinew lashings are also
found. The whole framework is strong, light, and neatly made. In a few
instances the gunwales do not flare with the sides the whole length
and, thus, near the stern, a knuckle is formed in the skin cover, as
in figure 207, opposite. The exact amount of flare and deadrise varies
village to village. The old kayaks used in eastern Greenland had more
rake in the bow than the examples illustrated, and also were marked
by a sheer almost straight from the bow to within a foot or so of the
stern, where it turned up sharply to a high stern, as in the drawing
(fig. 191, p. 203.) These kayaks also had less flare and deadrise than
most of the southwestern Greenland models. The amount of rocker in the
keelson varies a good deal, that shown in figure 206, opposite, appears
to have been about the maximum; a straight keelson does not seem
ever to have been used. The manholes are fitted to allow use of the
watertight paddling jacket; the projecting rim shown at the after-side
of the manhole in the drawing is primarily to strengthen the manhole
rim, but may also serve to prevent the drawstring holding the skirt
of the jacket to the rim from slipping over the top. This old form of
Greenland kayak, which has been widely described and much admired,
was a fast and handy hunting boat; but it has become obsolete in most
areas, and seems to have gone out of use more rapidly on the east coast
than the west, where the type represented in the drawing was built as
late as 1959 at Umanak Fjord.
[Illustration: Figure 203
COCKPIT of Greenland kayak from Disko Bay. (USNM 72564). (_Smithsonian
photo 15726._)]
[Illustration: Figure 204
BOW VIEW of Greenland kayak from Disko Bay (USNM 72564). (_Smithsonian
photo 15726-A._)]
[Illustration: Figure 205
NORTHWESTERN GREENLAND KAYAK, in the U.S. National Museum (USNM
160388).]
[Illustration: Figure 206
SOUTHWESTERN GREENLAND KAYAK, 1883, in the U.S. National Museum (USNM
160328).]
[Illustration: Figure 207
SOUTHWESTERN GREENLAND KAYAK, in the Peabody Museum, Salem, Mass. Taken
off by the late Norman L. Skene, 1921.]
[Illustration: Figure 208
SOUTH GREENLAND KAYAK, in the American Museum of Natural History.]
Since the 1880's it has been gradually replaced by the type shown
above. The modern version has the same construction as the old but,
as can be seen, the model has undergone much alteration. The rake of
the bow and stern have become much greater; the sheer is now almost
straight. The flare of the sides has been increased and the deadrise
in the bottom has been reduced. The new model is undoubtedly an
improvement over the old type, being faster (particularly against a
headwind) and quicker turning. However, it would probably be found
to be somewhat harder than the old model to right when capsized. And
although the new model is more stable than the old, it is not suited
for unskilled users; a few American soldiers drowned during World War
II through rashly venturing into rough water before becoming practiced
in the use of these kayaks.
The intricate arrangement of deck lashings shown are required to hold
weapons and accessories. Just ahead of the paddler a stand or tray on
low legs holds the coiled harpoon line; and under the deck lashings are
held such weapons as the lance, darts, and harpoons. Toggles of bone
or ivory, often carved, are used to tighten and adjust these lines.
The Greenland kayaks carry deck fittings and gear that are far better
developed than those seen in any of the western types.
_Chapter Eight_
TEMPORARY CRAFT
Use of temporary craft seems to have been confined to the Indians, who
for the most part built them of bark, although some tribes used skins.
However, very little in the way of information exists on the forms
used by the individual tribes, for early travelers did not always have
opportunities to see these emergency craft, and when they did they
rarely took the trouble to record their construction and design.
_Bark Canoes_
There is ample evidence to support the belief that a great many of
the tribes building birch-bark canoes also used temporary canoes of
other barks such as spruce and elm, as has been mentioned in earlier
chapters. Invariably, the qualities of these other barks, particularly
spruce, were such that their use was often somewhat more laborious and
the results less satisfactory than with birch; but the necessities of
travel and the availability of materials were controlling factors, and
with care spruce bark could be used to build a canoe almost as good as
one of birch bark. The forms of these canoes do not appear to have been
as standardized as the tribal forms of the better-built bark canoes;
rather, the model of the temporary canoe was entirely a matter to be
decided by the individual builder on the basis of the importance of
the temporary canoe to his needs, the limitation on time allowed for
construction, and the material available.
The reasons for using substitute material are fairly obvious. In forest
travel it was not always possible or practical to portage a canoe for
a long distance simply to make a short water passage somewhere along
the route. War parties and hunters, therefore, often found it necessary
to build a temporary canoe, one that could be utilized for a limited
water passage and then abandoned. Since such a limited use did not
warrant expenditure of much time or labor on construction, the canoe
was prepared quickly from readily available material and in order
to meet these requirements many Indian tribes developed canoe forms
and building techniques somewhat different from the more elaborate
construction using birch or spruce bark.