and pine, spruce or willow are available in much of the Arctic for
longitudinals. Bent frames are commonly of willow. Scarphing in the
framework of kayaks was far less common than in umiaks; the scarphs
when found are only in the gunwales. All scarphs are of the hooked type
and are usually quite short (the hooked scarph is the best one when
the fastenings are lashings). Sinew is generally used in all lashings
and for sewing material. The heads of frames are commonly tenoned into
the underside of the gunwales and are then either lashed or pegged
with treenails of wood or bone to hold them in place. In the joining
of frames and longitudinals, the lashings are commonly individual,
but in some types of kayak continuous lashings (connections in series
using one length of sinew) are occasionally found. Where possible,
the lashings are turned in so that the turns cross right and left. In
some parts of the framework two pieces of timber are "sewn" together;
holes are bored along the edges to be joined and a lacing run in with
continuous over-and-over turns. These laced joints are common in the
stems of the Alaskan kayaks. Gunwales and battens are most commonly
lashed through holes bored in them and in the bow and stern members.
Care is taken that all lashings are flush on the outside, so that the
skin cover is smooth and chafing will be avoided. Bone knobs at stem
and stern heads are used in the Coronation Gulf kayaks in the west and
in many Greenland models. Bone stem bands are more widely employed,
however, being in use at Kodiak and Nunivak Islands, in the Aleutians,
at Norton Sound in Alaska, and in Greenland and Baffin Island in the
east. It is probable that these bands were once in wider use than thus
indicated. Strips of bone are also used to prevent chafing at gunwale
in paddling and for strengthening scarphs in the manhole rim.
[Illustration: Figure 175
FRAME OF KAYAK AT NUNIVAK ISLAND, Alaska, 1927. _Photo by Henry B.
Collins._]
It will be noted that all Eskimo skin boats have a complete framing
system, which is first erected and then fitted with the skin cover.
This is a method of construction very different from that of the
birch-bark canoes of the Indians living to the southward of the
American Eskimo. The birch-bark canoe is built by forcing a framing
system into an assembled cover and holding it in place there by a
rigid gunwale structure, to which the bark cover is lashed. This
basic structure is used even in the Alaskan area, where there are
birch-bark canoes that in hull form and proportions strongly resemble
the flat-bottom kayak. The basic difference between the two craft is
illustrated by the fact that whereas the removal of the skin cover of
the kayak leaves the frame intact, the removal of the bark cover of
the kayak-like birch-bark canoes would result in the collapse of the
framework, except for the gunwale-thwart structure or, in a few, the
chine-floor structure. Because of this basic difference the superficial
resemblance of some Indian bark canoes to kayaks has no meaningful
relationship to the possibility of the influence of the kayak on the
bark canoe, or vice-versa. Some Indian tribes have in fact built
skin-covered canoes, as will be seen in chapter 8, but the framework
and structural system used is always that of the bark canoe, never that
of the Eskimo skin boat. Nor is there evidence that the Eskimo ever
used the bark canoe frame-structure in their kayaks or umiaks. Hence,
in spite of contact between these peoples, the watercraft of each
remains basically different in structural design.
The almost universal method of constructing the kayak is first to shape
and fasten together the gunwales and thwarts, with stem and stern
pieces fitted as required, then to fit and place a few transverse
frames to control the shape of the craft. Next the longitudinals are
fitted and, finally, the remaining transverse frames are put in place.
In some types the manhole rim is now fitted but in others the manhole
rim is put on after the skin cover is in place, as some kayaks (the
Alaskan) have the skin cover placed over the manhole rim and others
have it passed under. The skin cover is stretched and sewn over the
frame and is rarely secured to it by lashings except at the manhole.
Due to the shape of bow and stern, in some types, difficult and tedious
sewing is required to stretch the skins over the ends of the hull.
Much of the sewing is completed after the skins are stretched over the
hull and held by temporary lacings. The blind seam is used but in many
kayaks the lap is very short, about ⅜ inch being common.
The covering most widely used in Alaskan kayaks was the bearded seal
skin and with the Aleuts the skin of the sea lion was the most popular.
Throughout the eastern Arctic seal skin was the preferred covering
though caribou skin was occasionally used by the caribou Eskimos in the
central Arctic. The heavy, thick hides were first piled and "sweated,"
until the hair became loose then the skins were scraped until they were
clean. They were thin and light and could be air dried and stored until
ready for use. The skins had to be well soaked before being stretched
over the frame of a kayak or umiak. When dried out on the boat frame
they were oiled in the usual manner. It is claimed by the Eskimos that
walrus skin, though strong, is not as good as the bearded seal or the
sea-lion skin for boat covers, as the latter two held the oil longer
and did not become water soaked as quickly as the walrus hide.
The paddler's seat in most kayaks consists of a portion of heavy skin
with fur attached. Sometimes this is supported by a few short, thin
battens laced loosely together. These, and the fur seat sometimes are
as long as the paddler's legs. No back rest is known to be used. The
seat, and any batten supports, are loosely fitted and are not part of
the permanent kayak structure.
The kayak is usually entered by floating the boat near a stone or low
bank and stepping into it with one foot, which has first been carefully
wiped. With the body steadied by placing the paddle upright on the
shore, or outside the kayak, the other foot is then wiped and placed
in the boat. The paddler then slides downward and works his legs under
the deck until he is seated with his hips jammed into the manhole rim.
Getting out of a kayak is almost the reverse of this process. Great
care is exercised to avoid getting dirt into a kayak, as it might chafe
the hide cover. Hence the care in wiping the feet before entering. The
practice of entering the boat ashore and throwing man and kayak into
the water, undoubtedly very rare, is said to have been practiced not
only at King Island but in some parts of Greenland. Both Alaskan and
Greenland hunters often lashed two kayaks together, in order to rest in
rough weather. Many kayakers using the narrow models laid the paddle
athwartships across the deck to help steady the kayak when resting or
throwing a weapon; this is basically the same as holding the sculls of
a racing shell in the water, to steady the boat. Lashing two kayaks
side by side, or parallel with spacing rods, was commonly done to
enable the craft to ferry persons or cargo across streams. Some Alaskan
Eskimo thus converted kayaks into catamarans and then fitted a mast and
sail, but such an arrangement was never used in rough water.
The methods used by a paddler to right a capsized kayak, without aid
and while he was still in the cockpit, have aroused the interest of
many canoeists. It was used by the King Islanders, some of the Aleuts,
and the Greenlanders, who at times, it is said, would deliberately
capsize their kayak to avoid the blow of a heavy breaking sea, then
right it when the sea had passed. The Eskimo are reported to be
gradually losing this skill, but in late years European and American
kayakers have learned this method, called the "kayak roll," of
righting a decked canoe with paddler in place. It follows in general
the Greenland method. In the Appendix (p. 223) is an illustrated
description of the kayak roll, supplied by John Heath.
Traditionally, the weapons used by kayakers were darts and harpoons,
the bow not being employed, since wetting would damage the weapon.
Various forms were used, and many were thrown with the "throwing-stick"
to increase the range and force. An inflated bladder or skin was
often carried to buoy the harpoon line and tire the game. Bolas and
knives were also carried. All eastern kayaks appear to have been
propelled with the double-blade paddle, but folklore suggests that the
single-blade kayak paddle may have once been used. Greenland kayaks
have been reported as carrying a small square sail, but this was
actually a hunting screen, or camouflage, to hide the paddler and cause
the seal to mistake the canoe for a cake of ice. It was a 19th-century
addition, as was a fin attached to the kayak to counteract the effect
of the screen in a beam wind. Any effect it had as a sail in a kayak
was unintentional, of course: it was dismounted in strong winds or when
not required for hunting.
[Illustration: Figure 176
KORYAK KAYAK, drawn from damaged kayak in the American Museum of
Natural History, 1948.]
Shown above is the plan of an Asiatic Koryak kayak. This type, used
in the Sea of Okhotsk and on the Siberian coast of Bering Sea, is the
only distinctive Asiatic type; the Chukchi of the Siberian side of
Bering Strait uses a kayak that is on the same model as the one found
at Norton Sound, in Alaska. The Chukchi kayak differs only in the ends,
which are wholly functional and without the handgrips that distinguish
the Alaskan type. There is also a crude Chukchi river kayak, covered
with reindeer skin, but its design is not represented in an American
museum.
The Koryak kayak is a hunting boat well designed for use in protected
waters, but is rather weakly built. In general form it is much like the
hunting and fowling skiffs formerly used in America. The plan idealizes
the kayak somewhat, for the boat is crude in finish. The only example
available for study, in the American Museum of Natural History, is in
poor condition. The hull is short, wide and shallow, rather ~V~ in
cross section, and there is a slight camber in the deck. The length
of the Koryak kayak rarely exceeds 10 feet, the beam is from 24 to 26
inches, and the depth between 8 and 9½ inches. The manhole rim is of
large diameter, high and without rake. The gunwales, although rather
slight, are the strength members. The keelson, a thin, flat batten,
forms the stem and stern posts; it is stiffened amidships by a short
batten lashed inside the frames. The chine battens are also slight
and do not reach the stem and stern. The frames are widely spaced
and are wide and thin, in one piece from gunwale to gunwale. There
are but two thwarts; these are strong and support the manhole rim,
showing inside the cockpit. Two thin longitudinal battens afore and
abaft the manhole, support the deck, in addition to a light centerline
ridge-batten. On the kayak illustrated the outboard battens appear to
have had additional support at one time from two pairs of stanchions
standing on frames at the chines, with their heads secured to the deck
battens; a pair being placed before and abaft the manhole. A small
plank seat appears to have been used and the boat was propelled by
two short one-hand paddles, secured to the manhole rim by lanyards
made of thongs; these would be only efficient in smooth water. The
cover is made from bearded seal skins and passes under the manhole
rim being sewn to the rim on the inside at the top, by coarse sewing
passed through holes bored in the manhole rim. There are two thong
lifting handles or loops, one at bow and stern. This kayak is the most
primitive of all types and the smallest as well. The Koryaks are not
daring canoemen and do not venture into rough water. Nevertheless, this
type of kayak is said to be fast and highly maneuverable.
Compared to the Koryak, the Alaskan kayak is tremendously advanced.
The Aleuts are daring and accomplished kayakers, and their craft are
among the finest in the Arctic. The Kodiak Island kayak of 1885, shown
above, represents one type used in this area and that from Unalaska,
shown below, the other. The Kodiak boat is rather short and wide,
measuring 15 feet 1 inch in length, 29 inches beam and 14 inches depth
to ridge batten of the deck just forward of the manhole. The boat has
the humped sheer found in many Alaskan kayaks and is intended for use
in stormy waters. Its large manhole, also a feature of the Nunivak
Island kayak, permits two persons to be carried, one facing forward to
paddle and the passenger facing aft, or the space can be used to carry
cargo. The drawing shows the construction and requires no detailed
explanation. Kayaks from the Aleutian Islands eastward to Kodiak use
rod battens; only the gunwales and keelson are rectangular in section.
The frames are thin flat strips bent in one piece from gunwale to
gunwale. The ridge-batten of the deck is laminated, in two pieces. The
deck beams and thwarts are notched into the ridge-batten and lashed.
The bow piece is carved from a block, and the longitudinals are lashed
to it, each in a carefully fitted notch. The sternpost is formed of a
plank. The skin cover passes over the manhole rim and a line passed
outside the rim holds the skin down enough to form a breakwater. The
skin cover is sewn to the inside lower edge of the rim, thus covering
it almost completely.
[Illustration: Figure 177
KODIAK ISLAND KAYAK, 1885, in U.S. National Museum (USNM 76285). The
identification of this kayak has been questioned by Henry B. Collins
and John Heath, but it may represent an old form out of use in the
twentieth century.]
[Illustration: Figure 178
ALEUTIAN KAYAK, Unalaska, 1894, in U.S. National Museum (USNM 76282).]
The Unalaska kayak of 1894 (below) is a better known type. This design
is used throughout the Aleutians and on the adjacent mainland as far
east as Prince William Sound. It was also employed in the Pribilof
Islands and at St. Matthew, having been used by Aleuts engaged in
sealing expeditions there. All kayaks of this type do not have the same
bow and stern profiles as the example; some have the bifid bow built
with the portion above the slit arched upward higher than the outer
stem-piece and so more prominent; there are also minor variations in
the stern. The shape of the hull, however, is consistently maintained
throughout the area in which this type is used. Though the deck is
ridged, it is relatively low compared to that of the Kodiak kayak, and
the thwarts supporting the manhole are heavily arched and in one piece
from gunwale to gunwale. The construction is like that of the Kodiak
kayak, but the gunwales and upper longitudinal battens, instead of
meeting the stern post, end on a crosspiece well inside the stern to
give the effect of a transom stern. However, some Aleut kayaks have the
normal sharp stern after the fashion of the Kodiak kayak, but without
the projecting tail or handgrip, and nearly all have two thwarts
between the after manhole thwart and the stern and three forward of
the fore manhole thwart. The skin cover passes over the manhole rim
as in the Kodiak type. The bow block is sometimes built up of two
blocks sewn or laced together. Strengthening pieces of light plank are
sometimes fitted from the bow block aft; these are laced to the top
inside edge of the gunwales and pinned to the stem block to form long
breast-hooks. In some kayaks with the square stern, only the gunwale is
supported by the crosspiece on the stern, the two battens on each side
being supported by the last frame only, about 6 inches inboard of the
crosspiece.
[Illustration: Figure 179
KAYAK FROM RUSSIAN SIBERIA, 2-hole Aleutian type, in Washington State
Historical Society and Museum. Taken off by John Heath, 1962.]
This type of kayak is the only one known to have been built with more
than one manhole. The two-hole kayak is an Aleut development used in
whaling and sea-otter hunting, so far as is known; the paddler sits
in the after manhole. Measurements of a two-hole kayak in the United
States National Museum show it to be 20 feet 7¼ inches long, 23 inches
beam, and 9½ inches deep to top of gunwale. The manholes are about 46
inches apart edge to edge and the foremost is about 8 feet from the bow.
The three-holer, commonly believed to have been introduced by the
Russians, was used by Russian officers, inspectors, and traders in
their explorations and travels on the Alaskan coast. One of these boats
measures 24 feet 8⅜ inches long, 30 inches beam, and 10½ inches deep
to top of gunwale. The center manhole is commonly larger in diameter
than the other two and is used for either a passenger or cargo. The
fore edge of the fore manhole is 8 feet to 8½ feet from the bow and
the other manholes are from 4 to 4½ feet apart edge to edge. A large
example of this class of kayak measures 28 feet 1½ inches long, 38½
inches beam and 12 inches deep to top of gunwale. Probably none exceed
30 feet in length. Both the single-and the double-blade paddle are used
by the Aleuts, but the double blade is preferred in hunting. The paddle
blades are rather narrow and leaf-shaped, with pointed tips.
[Illustration: Figure 180
NUNIVAK ISLAND KAYAK, ALASKA, 1889, in U.S. National Museum (USNM
160345), showing painted decoration of the mythological water monster
Palriayuk.]
[Illustration: Figure 181
KING ISLAND KAYAK, Alaska, 1888, in U.S. National Museum (USNM 160326),
collected by Capt. M. A. Healy, U.S. Revenue Steamer _Bear_.]
[Illustration: Figure 182
NORTON SOUND KAYAK, Alaska, 1889, U.S. National Museum (USNM 160175).]
The plan of a kayak from Nunivak Island (about due north of Unalaska
and roughly halfway to St. Lawrence Island) is shown on page 198
(fig. 180). This type of kayak is obviously related to that of Kodiak
Island, for it has approximately the same lines and proportions. Only
the profiles of bow and stern exhibit marked differences. Perhaps the
most striking feature of the Nunivak kayak is its bow, which might
represent a seal's head; a hole through the whole bow structure forms
the eyes and also serves functionally as a lifting handle. The stern
profile is simpler than that used in the Kodiak kayaks. The example
shows the mythological water monster Palriayuk, a painted totem that
once distinguished the Nunivak kayaks; missionary influence has long
since erased such decorations from Alaskan kayaks. Whereas the Kodiak
kayak has eleven battens (including the keelson) in its frame, the
Nunivak kayak has nine, and all the longitudinals in it are rectangular
in section. Differences in dimensions of Nunivak and Kodiak kayaks are
remarkably slight, the greatest length reported for either type is
about 15 feet 9 inches and the greatest beam is about 32 inches. Both
types have a large manhole and carry a passenger back-to-back with
the paddler. The single-bladed paddle is used. The kayak is sometimes
transported over ice by means of a short sledge, by one man, but it is
otherwise rather heavy to portage. Highly regarded by all who have had
contact with it, this is generally considered one of the safest and
most useful of the Alaskan kayaks.
[Illustration: Figure 183
NUNIVAK ISLAND KAYAK with picture of mythological water monster
Palriayuk painted along gunwale. (Photo by Henry B. Collins.)]
[Illustration: Figure 184
NUNIVAK ISLAND KAYAK in U.S. National Museum (USNM 76283) with cover
partly removed to show framework. Collected by Ivan Petroff, March 30,
1894.]
King Island, at the entrance to Bering Strait, is the home of the
kayak shown on page 198 (fig. 181). The King Islanders are noted
as skillful kayakers and their kayak generally follows the Nunivak
pattern, but is narrower and more ~V~-shaped in cross section, and
the stem and stern are also distinctly different. The King Island
craft has a bold upturned stem ending in a small birdlike head, with
a small hole through it to represent eyes and to serve for a lifting
grip; the stern is low and without the projections seen in the Nunivak
type. The fitting of the cockpit rim of the U.S. National Museum kayak
is unusual; the rim is not supported by thwarts but rather is made
part of the skin cover and therefore can be moved. This seemed to be
intentional, for there is no evidence of broken or missing members,
but John Heath considers this not typical. A watertight jacket with
the skirt laced to the manhole rim is worn by the kayaker to prevent
swamping. This practice was common among Eskimo working in stormy
waters. A warm-weather alternate was a wide waistband, with its top
supported by straps over the shoulders and the bottom laced to the
manhole.
[Illustration: Figure 185
WESTERN ALASKAN KAYAK, Cape Prince of Wales, 1936. (_Photo by Henry B.
Collins._)]
A somewhat similar but slightly smaller kayak was used at Cape
Espenberg; in these the upturned bow ended in a simple point. The
sterns were alike in both types. The Cape Espenberg kayak had a fixed
cockpit rim however, as in the Nunivak type. Both types employed the
single-bladed paddle.
A little to the South, in Norton Sound, the long narrow kayak shown on
page 198 (fig. 182) is popular. These are somewhat like the Nunivak
kayaks in cross section but with far less beam. They have a slight
reverse, or humped, sheer and are very sharp ended. The peculiar
handgrips at bow and stern are characteristic, though the shape and
size of the grips vary among the villages; the style shown is that of
St. Michaels. A single-bladed paddle is used. This type is very fast
under paddle, but requires a skillful user in rough water. The Norton
Sound kayaks are very well finished and strongly built.
From Kotzebue Sound, at Cape Krusenstern, along the north coast
of Alaska to near the Mackenzie Delta, the kayaks are very low in
the water, long, narrow, and spindle-shaped at the ends. They are
distinguished by a very strong rake in the manhole rim, with an
accompanying prominent swell in the deck forward of the manhole. They
are built with seven longitudinal battens (including the keelson) in
addition to the gunwales. In several examples seen, the latter are
sometimes slightly channelled on the inside, but this may have been the
result of shrinkage in the pith of the timber used and not intentional.
These kayaks are very light and easily carried. Both single-and
double-blade paddles are employed; the single blade is usually used in
travelling.
On page 201 are shown a kayak from Cape Krusenstern (fig. 186) and one
from Point Barrow (fig. 187). It is reported that these types have
now gone out of use. In these boats no stem or stern posts exist,
these usually being replaced by small end blocks. The only important
difference in the two types shown is in the style of crowning the
deck, which is ridged in the Cape Krusenstern kayak but more rounded
in the Point Barrow kayak. In spite of their narrow beam and obviously
unstable form, these kayaks are said to have been used by rather
unskillful paddlers. In general, they were not employed in rough
weather but were seaworthy in skillful hands.
Though the North Alaska type of kayak, as illustrated by the Point
Barrow model (fig. 187), may be said to represent the structural design
of kayaks to the eastward as far as Foxe Basin, the Mackenzie Delta
kayaks are on an entirely different model. Due to migration of numerous
groups of Eskimo to this area in the last seventy years, the design of
kayaks here has undergone a great change. In figure 188 appears the
plan of a modern Mackenzie Delta kayak.
[Illustration: Figure 186
KOTZEBUE SOUND KAYAK (Cape Krusenstern), Alaska, formerly in U.S.
National Museum, now in Mariner's Museum.]
[Illustration: Figure 187
POINT BARROW KAYAK, Alaska, 1888, in U.S. National Museum (USNM 57773).]
[Illustration: Figure 188