A
=NARRATIVE=
OF
=TRAVELS IN NORTHERN AFRICA,=
IN THE YEARS 1818, 19, AND 20;
ACCOMPANIED BY
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF SOUDAN,
AND OF
THE COURSE OF THE NIGER.
WITH
A CHART OF THE ROUTES, AND A VARIETY OF COLOURED PLATES,
ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE COSTUMES OF THE SEVERAL NATIVES OF NORTHERN AFRICA.
* * * * *
BY CAPTAIN G. F. LYON, R. N.
COMPANION OF THE LATE MR. RITCHIE.
* * * * *
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
* * * * *
1821.
LONDON:
PRINTED BY THOMAS DAVISON, WHITEFRIARS.
TO
HIS MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY
=GEORGE THE FOURTH.=
* * * * *
SIRE,
For the gracious condescension of Your Majesty, in permitting me
to place the following pages under Your Royal Patronage, I shall
ever be impressed with the most sincere gratitude.
That Your Majesty may long, happily, and uninterruptedly reign
in the hearts and over the destinies of your faithful people,
is the constant and fervent prayer of,
Your Majesty’s
Most dutiful and most devoted
Subject and Servant,
GEORGE FRANCIS LYON.
MARCH, 1821.
=PREFACE.=
* * * * *
The situation of an author, when he presents himself to the
scrutinizing observation of the public, must ever be one of the
greatest doubt and anxiety; but as the following pages are
intended only to detail facts in the plainest manner, without
attempt at embellishment of any kind, it is hoped that they will
not only meet with indulgence from the general reader, but escape,
without very severe comment, from the examination of the critic.
All that can be said in their recommendation is, that they adhere
strictly to truth, and that not a single incident described by
the author is in the slightest degree exaggerated; on the contrary,
he has not only abridged but, in some instances, entirely omitted
to mention circumstances which occurred to him, fearing either
to excite doubt in the minds of his readers, or by too long
details to trespass on their patience.
The Tour is divided into two parts. The first comprizes the
original progress of the mission from Tripoli to Morzouk, where
the unfortunate Mr. Ritchie died: the second embraces the author’s
examination of the remainder of the kingdom of Fezzan, from the
death of his companion, until the final return of the mission to
Tripoli; it being deemed too hazardous to attempt advancing
farther into the interior, without fresh authority and additional
pecuniary supplies from Government.
In that part of the journey which was undertaken after the death
of Mr. Ritchie, the state of the temperature is, by a thermometer,
graduated according to Reaumur.
In consequence of Mr. Ritchie’s frequent and debilitating attacks
of illness, and his having relied too much on a singularly retentive
memory, he had, from time to time, delayed committing his remarks
to paper, in the delusive anticipation of ease and leisure, which,
unhappily, he was destined never to enjoy; and it was thus owing
to an unfortunate procrastination, that much valuable information
has been lost to the world.
The present journal, therefore, although regularly kept, must
necessarily be very inferior to that which would have been produced
by Mr. Ritchie, had he been blessed with better health and prolonged
life; but, however great his loss may be considered in a scientific
point of view, this circumstance, it is earnestly hoped, will
operate as an additional claim, on the part of the author, to the
kind consideration of the public, to whom he offers his little work
only as an humble substitute for one which would have been far better
arranged; trusting that in his total want of pretension and ready
admission of its defects, it may meet the general indulgence,
which he can claim on no other account.
The author is indebted to the kindness of the Rev. W. Buckland,
Professor of Mineralogy at Oxford, for the interesting paper on
the geology of the kingdom of Fezzan.
DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER,
FOR PLACING THE PLATES.
* * * * *
Map to face the title-page. PAGE
Costume of Tripoli 7
Tripoli Costume 17
Triumphal Arch 18
Arabs exercising 46
Bonjem 67
Sand Wind 70
Piper and Dancer 75
Castle of Morzouk 98
Tuarick in a Leather Shirt 110
Tuarick of Ghraat 113
Costume of Soudan 161
Negresses of Soudan 182
Tibboo Woman—Full Dress 225
Tibboo of Gatrone 235
Tuarick on his Maherry 293
Camel conveying a Bride 299
Slave Kafflé 325
=CONTENTS.=
* * * * *
CHAPTER I.
The Author’s Departure from Malta — Arrival at Tripoli —
Character of Mohammed el Mukni, Bey of Fezzan — Equipment
of Mr. Ritchie and the Author — Costume of the Natives of
Tripoli — Character of the Marāboots, and Celebration of
their annual Festival — The Natives of Tripoli — Their
Habits, Customs, &c. — Public Baths — Punishments — Costumes
of the Women — Tripoline Marriages and Funerals — Funeral
of the Bashaw’s Grand-daughter — Resignation of M. Dupont —
Journey to the Gharian Mountains and Benioleed, in Company
with Mr. Ritchie — General Appearance of the Country —
Arrival at the Gharian Mountains — Visit to the Sheikh —
Short Account of the Passes — Roman Tomb — Castle of Gharian
— Distressed State of Usadena — Account of the People of
Gharian — Set out for Benioleed, through the gravelly Desert
— Arrival at Benioleed — Character of the Inhabitants — Its
Population — Description of the Arabs — Their Religion,
Manners, Habits, &c. Page 1
CHAPTER II.
JOURNEY FROM TRIPOLI TO MORZOUK.
Preparations for their Departure, in Company with Mohammed
el Mukni — Encampment in the Mountains of Terhoona, and at
the Wells of Melghra — Arrival at Benioleed — Interview with
the Wife of the Sheikh, of the Kafflé — Their Christian
Friends return to Tripoli — Punishment of an Arab for Theft
— Journey over the Desert — Remains of a Roman Castle —
Continuation of the Journey, until their Arrival at Sockna —
Entry into that City — Description of it — Manner of raising
the Tribute Money — Accompany the Sultan’s Son to Hoon and
Wadan, to receive the Taxes — Account of those Places —
Return to Sockna — Leave Sockna — Singular Custom imposed
on Travellers in passing the Soudah Mountains — Arrival at
Nufdai — Clear the Soudah Mountains — And travel over the
gravelly Plain, through the Pass of Kenair, to the Well of
Om el Abeed — Visit the Towns of Zeighan and Samnoo, famed
for their Marāboots — Encamp at Temenhint — Arrival at
Sebha, where the Black Population commences — Pass on to
Ghroodwa — Entry to Morzouk, the Capital of Fezzan 58
CHAPTER III.
ARRIVAL AT MORZOUK.
Mode of travelling across the Desert — Interview with the
Sultan — Description of Morzouk — Population — Castle of
the Sultan — Illness and severe Distress of the Author and
his Companions — Arrival of a Kafflé of Tuarick — Fast of
Rhamadan — Departure of an Expedition to obtain Slaves
from the Country of Borgoo — Diseases of the Inhabitants,
and the Native Methods of Cure — Feast of Aidel Shraya
— Observations on the Tuarick — Their Religion, Dress,
Customs, and Language — Ghraat — Its Government, Laws, and
Trade — Market there — Arrival of a Kafflé from Bornou with
Slaves — Information respecting Bornou and the surrounding
Countries, as collected from the Traders — Of Kashna and
Soudan, in general — Account of Hornemann and his Death
— Tembuctoo — General Remarks on the Geography of the
Interior, and probable Course of the Niger — Vocabulary of
the Fellātta Language — Conjectures on the Fate of Park 89
CHAPTER IV.
Articles of Commerce between Fezzan and the Interior, as
well as to Egypt, Bornou, and Waday — Gonja — Description
of Ghadams — Benewaleed and Benewazeed — Reports of a
Successor to Mukni — His Illness — Gardens — Costumes of the
Natives — Their Amusements — Visits to the Sultan’s Family
— Celebration of the Feast of Aid el Kebire — Sickness and
Sufferings of the Author and his Companions — Education of
the Children of Morzouk — Revenues of the Sultan of Fezzan
— Illness and lamented Death of Mr. Ritchie — His Funeral —
Determination of the Author to penetrate to the Southward of
Morzouk 152
CHAPTER V.
Departure for Tegerry, through Zuela and Gatrone — Arrival
at Zaizow — Pass on to Traghan — Visit Gardens and Springs
— Arrival at Zaitoon and Touela — Pass Villages of Maghwa
and Taleb — Arrival at Hamera — Illness — Leave Hamera —
Bearings of its neighbouring Villages — Large Salt Plain —
Arrival at Zuela — Description of Inhabitants — Author’s
Illness — Ancient Buildings — Hospitality of the Shreefs
— Leave the Town — Arrival at Terboo — Its Wretchedness —
Curious Story of Marāboot — Arrival at Mejdool — Journey
across the Desert, and Arrival at Gatrone — Feast of Milood
— Costume, Character, and general Description of the Tibboo
— Description of Gatrone — Accounts of Tibesty and Waday,
from a Tibboo Trader — Tibboo Language — Leave Gatrone in
order to meet the Grazzie — El Bakkhi — Tibboo Manner of
making Tar — Arrival at Tegerry 202
CHAPTER VI.
Castle of Tegerry — Description of the Town — Some Accounts
of the Desert of Bilma — Salt Lake of Agram — Ride out
on the Desert — Leave Tegerry — Belford’s dangerous
State — Return to Gatrone — Arrival of the Grazzie, or
Slave-hunters, with many Captives and Camels — Account
of their Excursion, and of Borgoo and Wajunga — Manner
of making Captives — Leave Gatrone in Company with the
Grazzie — Mestoota — Reception at Deesa — Feast at Zaizow
— Return to Morzouk — Go out to witness the Triumph of the
Slave-hunters — Sultan’s Reception of his Son — Remarks
on Grazzies — Accounts of Slave-markets — Arrival of Aboo
Becker, and Continuation of Mukni in Command — Further
Accounts of the Countries of the Tibboo — Arrangements in
the Sale of Slaves, so as to ensure the Sultan his Share 239
CHAPTER VII.
OF FEZZAN.
Aspect of the Country — State of Cultivation — Minerals —
Animals — Birds — Vegetable Productions — Fruits — Esculents
— Time and Manner of cultivating Grain — Water — Towns —
Food of Inhabitants — Possibility of improving Agriculture
— Tenure of Lands — Weights and Measures — Government —
Principal People — Character of the Natives — Inroads into
the Negro Countries — State of the Slave Trade — Crimes and
Punishments — Character of the Natives — Religion — State of
Literature and Ingenuity — Language — State of the Women —
Records — Slavery and the Slave Trade — Laws relative to the
Issue of Slaves 270
CHAPTER VIII.
Arrangements for our Departure from Morzouk — Parting with
the Sultan — Leave Morzouk to return to Tripoli — Sleep at
Dgleim — Mode of conducting a Kafflé of Slaves — Arrival
at Ghroodwa — Pass two Days at Sebha — Are joined by more
Kafflés — Marriage of an Arab — Account of the Wadey Shati
— Arrive at Temenhint — Zeghen Om el Abeed — Pass of Kenair
— Pass over the five Days Desert to Sockna — Troubles at
Sockna — Further Description of that Place 290
CHAPTER IX.
Leave Sockna — Stop at Hammam — Well of Temedd — Sufferings
of the Slaves — Arrive at Bonjem — Danger on the Desert —
Zemzem — Sofageen — Storm in the Mountains — See two Roman
Ruins — Arrive at Zleetun — Description of that Place —
Leave Zleetun — Visit Lebida — Illness — Arrival at Tripoli
— Account of the Negroes of the Kafflé — General Notices
of the Desert — Belford’s bad State of Health — Departure
from Tripoli — Pass Quarantine at Leghorn — Return over the
Continent to England 323
[Illustration: _MAP_ of a Route through the REGENCY OF TRIPOLI طربلس
_AND_ KINGDOM OF FEZZAN فزّان
Performed in the Years 1818-19 & 20.
_BY CAPTN. G. F. LYON. R.N._
_Engraved under the direction of A. Arrowsmith._
_London, Published by John Murray, 50 Albemarle Strt. March, 1821._]
=TRAVELS=
FROM
=TRIPOLI TO MOURZOUK.=
* * * * *
CHAPTER I.
The Author’s Departure from Malta — Arrival at Tripoli —
Character of Mohammed el Mukni, Bey of Fezzan — Equipment of
Mr. Ritchie and the Author — Costume of the Natives of Tripoli
— Character of the Marāboots, and Celebration of their annual
Festival — The Natives of Tripoli — Their Habits, Customs,
&c. — Public Baths — Punishments — Costumes of the Women —
Tripoline Marriages and Funerals — Funeral of the Bashaw’s
Grand-daughter — Resignation of M. Dupont — Journey to the
Gharian Mountains and Benioleed, in Company with Mr. Ritchie
— General Appearance of the Country — Arrival at the Gharian
Mountains — Visit to the Sheikh — Short Account of the Passes
— Roman Tomb — Castle of Gharian — Distressed State of Usadena
— Account of the People of Gharian — Set out for Benioleed,
through the gravelly Desert — Arrival at Benioleed — Character
of the Inhabitants — Its Population — Description of the Arabs
— Their Religion, Manners, Habits, &c.
In the month of September, 1818, Mr. Ritchie, a gentleman of great
science and ability, employed by the British government on a mission
to the interior of Africa, arrived at Malta from Marseilles, attended
by M. Dupont, a Frenchman in his pay, whom he had engaged for the
purpose of collecting and preparing objects of natural history. It
was understood that Captain Marryat, of the Royal Navy, was also to
have accompanied Mr. Ritchie; but that circumstances had occurred
which induced that gentleman to relinquish his intention of joining
the mission. Soon after Mr. Ritchie’s arrival in Malta, I was
fortunate enough to become acquainted with him, and hearing him
express his disappointment at having failed to obtain Captain Marryat
as his companion on the proposed expedition, I ventured to offer my
best endeavours to supply his place, and although conscious that I
had but little talent to boast, I yet hoped that the zeal by which
I was actuated would in some degree make amends for my deficiencies
in other respects. Mr. Ritchie, without hesitation, accepted my
proposal, and in consequence lost no time in applying to Admiral Sir
C. V. Penrose, Commander-in-Chief in the Mediterranean, to solicit
the necessary leave for my quitting the Albion. Sir C. Penrose,
in the kindest and most flattering manner, acceded to the request,
and immediately wrote in my favour to the Lords of the Admiralty,
to obtain permission for me to belong to the mission. Mr. Ritchie
in the meantime occupied himself in making preparations for his
departure; and, as an addition to his small party, engaged a
ship-wright from the dockyard, Malta, named John Belford (who, as
well as myself, was a volunteer), to accompany him. His arrangements
thus made, Mr. Ritchie, on the 10th October, sailed for Tripoli in
the Admiral’s schooner, leaving me behind, anxiously awaiting an
answer from England to the application made for me. I employed this
period of suspense in acquiring the Arabic alphabet, and in otherwise
preparing myself for the object in view. On 19th November the wished
for permission arrived, and on November 21st I sailed from Malta
in the tender for Tripoli, at which place I arrived on the 25th
of November, 1818. I found Mr. Ritchie still there, and likely to
remain sometime longer. He was residing in the house of the British
consul, Colonel Warrington, who received me most hospitably, and
invited me to take up my quarters under his roof. Mr. Ritchie’s
intention being to proceed to Mourzouk, مرزوك the capital of
Fezzan فزّان with the Sultan of that country, his motions were
to be regulated by the departure of this person, who, as we learned,
was about to take with him a large body of men, for the purpose of
waging war on the inhabitants of Waday, واداي (the Borgoo of
Brown) which is to the southward and eastward of Fezzan; but as
the people of Tripoli were by no means alert in coming forward,
and as the Bashaw did not appear much inclined to compel them, no
just idea could be formed as to the probable time of our setting off.
Mohammed el Mukni محمد المكني who at Tripoli is called the
Bey of Fezzan, (but who takes the title of sultan on entering his
own territories), is a man of about fifty years of age, of a fine
martial appearance, and of great personal strength; but withal of
an insatiable ambition and excessive avarice. He was one of the
chief supporters and friends of the Bashaw during the reign of
his father, and was afterwards of considerable assistance to him
in quelling the disturbances which took place on his usurping the
throne. Mukni was at this time in great favour, and considered
as a person of much consequence. After his father’s death
he became Bey el Noba, or collector of the Bashaw’s tribute
from the Sultan of Fezzan, and went thither annually to receive
it. Though the tribute was trifling, the office of Bey el Noba was
held of great importance. It was while acting in this capacity that
Horneman accompanied him to Fezzan. Mukni’s frequent visits to
that country gave him opportunities of ascertaining that the sum
paid as the tribute was but a very small part of the immense gains
of the reigning Sultan; and having once determined on getting the
kingdom into his own hands, he soon found means to influence the
Bashaw to permit his removing the reigning family, under pretence
that such a change would be for the Bashaw’s sole emolument. In
1811, therefore, he took a body of men by the Gharian mountains,
and succeeded in reaching Mourzouk undiscovered. The detail of his
proceedings would be wholly uninteresting; suffice it to say, that
his ambitious views were fully accomplished. He caused the Sultan
and his brother to be strangled, as well as the principal Mamluke
and his two eldest sons; and pretending that it was unsafe to leave
Mourzouk immediately after these acts of cruelty and injustice, he
had the address to persuade the Bashaw to appoint him his viceroy,
promising to increase the tribute to 15,000 dollars annually,
whereas that of the former Sultan did not exceed 5000. Having thus
established himself, he waged war on all his defenceless neighbours,
and annually carried off 4000 or 5000 slaves. From one of these
slave-hunts into Kanem he had just returned to Tripoli, with a
numerous body of captives and many camels, and was, in consequence,
in the highest favour with the Bashaw.
I learnt on my arrival that Mr. Ritchie had several times had
interviews with the Bashaw, to whom he made many valuable presents;
and that His Highness was fully informed of his proposed journey
and plans respecting the interior. Though Mr. Ritchie himself never
communicated with me on this subject, or made known what occurred
at these interviews, I have every reason to conclude they were
favourable to the object he had in view, and that the protection
of the Bashaw, as far as his power extended, was fully ensured to
the mission. The Sultan of Fezzan also on his side made the most
flattering promises of protection; declaring that he only awaited
the opportunity of showing his good will, and that, when arrived in
his own dominions, he would act towards Mr. Ritchie as a brother,
and assist him in all things to the utmost of his power. After
my own introduction to Mukni, I frequently heard him repeat these
expressions of regard towards Mr. Ritchie, and they extended also
to myself, whom he promised equally to protect and assist.
With so powerful and friendly an ally as we had every reason to
consider Mukni, we of course felt perfect security and confidence in
the future, and we remained in the firm hope and assurance that all
these flattering professions would be fully realised on our arrival
in the kingdom of Fezzan. In a few days after I reached Tripoli I
was introduced by the British Consul to the Bashaw; but as it was
a private audience only, I had no opportunity of witnessing the
splendour of his court. As neither Mr. Ritchie nor myself were
yet equipped in our Moorish costume, which we were particularly
advised by the Bashaw to adopt, we did not appear much in public;
but having procured the Consul’s permission to reside in a house
once belonging to the Portuguese consulate, we removed there in
order to prepare ourselves for our outfit. I furnished myself with
a horse and the greater part of my equipments, Mr. Ritchie not
possessing sufficient funds for that purpose.
When presented to the Bashaw, it was thought absolutely necessary,
by way of adding consequence and respectability to the mission,
that I should be styled captain. I was therefore introduced as a
Rais, or commander of a ship of war. Had I been supposed to have
held an inferior rank, my reception by the great man would not have
been so flattering, there being no intermediate gradation known in
that country.
On the 5th of December, 1818, having accepted an invitation to pass
the evening at the house of the Sheikh el Bled, or Governor of the
town, we sent for an old barber to shave our heads; and our beards
(which we had suffered to grow, and which now made a respectable
appearance), were put in order for the occasion.
Our costume was that of the better class of Tripolines, who have
two kinds of dresses; the one long, and worn chiefly by elderly
men and persons of great consequence; the other short, and worn
generally. For the information of future travellers, I shall
enumerate the different articles of clothing.
_Short Dress._
_Sidrea._—A waistcoat fitting tight to the body, without any
opening in front, having only holes for the neck and arms. It is
pulled on in the same manner as the Guernsey frock used by seamen.
_Farmela_ is a second waistcoat, open in front, and having broad
gold lace and buttons, but no button-holes. It hangs over the sidrea.
_Zibboon._—A jacket, the sleeves of which are embroidered. These
first three dresses are confined round the waist by the band of the
trowsers, which come outside them. A broad belt of silk or gold
is then passed round the body. Over the jacket is an embroidered
waistcoat without sleeves, called
_Bidrïah._—All these dresses may be of different colours, the
most brilliant and gaudy being chiefly in request. On walking out,
a hooded cloak of very finely spun white wool is thrown over all,
and on great occasions a cloth one of the same form, bordered with
rich gold lace, is used. This cloak is called Bornouse. The trowsers
are immense, and of silk or cloth, according to the pleasure of
the wearer.
_The Long Dress_
Consists of the two under waistcoats: over them is worn a caftan,
which is a long gown or robe, embroidered in front and at the
sleeves. Over this is worn a
_Beneish_, which resembles a caftan in shape, but differs in the
disposition of the ornaments.
_Jerba_ is a caftan with short sleeves, and is often worn in lieu
of the Beneish.
[Illustration:
_Drawn from Nature by G. F. Lyon._
_On Stone by M. Gauci._
COSTUME OF TRIPOLI.
_London. Published by J. Murray Albemarle St. Feb.1.1821._
_C. Hullmandel’s Lithography._]
Over these dresses woollen and cloth Bornouses are worn. The turbans
are various, according to fancy: shawls of Cashmere, or imitations
of those of Europe, are considered as the most splendid. Green
turbans, it is well known, can be worn by none who are not shreefs,
or descendants of the prophet. Blue, being the colour confined to
the Jews, is of course not used in the turbans of the Mohammedans.
In riding out, boots of red, and sometimes yellow Morocco leather
are worn, a pad being closely tied round each ankle before putting
them on, in order to prevent the large stirrups from hurting the
leg. When not riding, yellow slippers, with soles of the same kind as
the upper leathers, are used, and are slipped into large solid ones
of the same colour with thick soles when walking out. These last are
always left at the door on entering a room. Red shoes are also worn
by the middle class. The Jews are restricted to black. The trappings
of the horse are gaudy, and as cumbrous as those of its rider. The
saddles are high before and behind, much the same as those used in
Spain. Under them, on the back of the horse, are five or six cloths
of different colours, which are so arranged that the edges of each
are shown. The saddles are frequently covered with highly embroidered
velvet, or richly embossed gilt cases. Over the seat is thrown a
saddle-cloth, bordered with gilt lace and embroidery. The stirrups
are from a foot to twenty inches in length, and are generally gilt.
Having thus given a sketch of the costume of the Tripoli men, I
conceive it necessary to mention that we fully adopted the dress
and appearance of Moslems, using all our endeavours to become
acquainted with their manners. Mr. Ritchie assumed the name of
Yussuf el Ritchie, يوسف الريتشي Belford was called Ali,
Dupont Mourad, and I was styled Said ben abd Allah سعيدبن
عبدالله. We found no difficulty in procuring a fighi
(or clerk) of one of the mosques to visit us at stated periods
to instruct us in reading. He also, at my particular request,
gave me all the requisite information respecting the ceremonies
used in prayer; and when I became perfect in them, I taught them
to Mr. Ritchie.
Every thing now seemed to promise well, as far as our residence in
Tripoli was concerned; but Mr. Ritchie felt much anxiety respecting
a further allowance from government, as we had scarcely more than
money sufficient to pay the hire of our camels to Mourzouk, and
beyond that place we were uncertain how we could procure a fresh
supply for the use of the mission. Mr. Ritchie had brought with him
a good deal of merchandize; but, from what he learnt at Tripoli,
it was likely to be of little service to us, as it consisted of few
or none of the articles of trade most commonly used in the interior.
Sidi Mohammed d’Gheïs, formerly minister to the Bashaw, but who
had retired some years since on account of total blindness, showed
us every attention, and by his kind assistance afforded us most
useful information. He had travelled much in Europe, and was well
acquainted with our customs, so that he was perfectly qualified
to caution us on many points which, had we remained in ignorance
of them, would inevitably have betrayed us to be Christians to the
people in the interior.
It would be useless to attempt giving any description of the city of
Tripoli, as it has already been done by far more able pens than mine;
but of any particular occurrences which attracted my attention during
my residence there, I conceive I may be allowed to make mention. The
most extraordinary characters are the Marāboots, مرابوت a set
of people much spoken of in all Moslem countries; but it strikes me
that the requisites necessary to constitute one of these saints are
not every where the same. In the interior they consist in keeping up
the outward show of sanctity, in abstaining from proscribed liquors,
in avoiding improper or profane expressions, in being faithful to
the limited number of wives (namely four), and in not intriguing
with the wives of other men; whilst in Tripoli such forbearance
is by no means considered necessary. The Marāboots there, are of
two classes: idiots, who are allowed to say and do whatever they
please; and men possessed of all their senses, who, by juggling and
performing many bold and disgusting tricks, establish to themselves
the exclusive right of being the greatest rogues and nuisances to
be met with. There are mosques in which these people assemble every
Friday afternoon, and where they eat snakes, scorpions, &c. affecting
to be inspired, and committing the greatest extravagancies.
On the 9th of January, 1819, their annual festival began, and
continued for three days, with all its barbarous ceremonies. On, or
rather before this day, the great Marāboot is supposed to inspire
those who are to appear in the processions, and who, according to
their abilities, are more or less mad and furious. The natural fools
are always ready for the exhibition; and it is amusing to observe
their looks of astonishment at being on that day, more than any
other, brought into notice. During the time the Marāboots (who
are guarded and attended by a great number of people) are allowed
to parade the streets, no Christians or Jews can with any safety
make their appearance, as they would, if once in the power of these
wretches, be instantly torn to pieces; indeed, wherever they show
themselves on their terraces or from windows, they are sure of a
plentiful shower of stones from the boys who are in attendance.
As I was in the dress of the country, and very anxious to witness
the whole of the ceremonies, I ventured to go out with our Dragoman,
and to make my way to the mosque from which the procession was to
set out. I certainly felt that my situation was a very dangerous one;
but being resolved on the attempt, and telling the man to follow me
closely, I dashed in with the crowd, and succeeded in getting near
the Saints, who, with dishevelled hair, were rapidly turning round,
and working themselves into a most alarming state of frenzy. A
band of barbarous music was playing to them, while several men
were constantly employed in sprinkling them with rose-water. Had I
been discovered, my life would have been in very great jeopardy;
but fortunately I was able to keep my countenance, and to pass
unnoticed; and when the performers were sufficiently inspired,
sallied out with them, and followed through the streets. One had a
large nail run through his face from one cheek to the other; and all
had bitten their tongues in so violent a manner as to cause blood
and saliva to flow copiously. They were half naked, at intervals
uttering short groans and howls; and as they proceeded (sometimes
three or four abreast leaning on each other,) they threw their heads
backwards and forwards with a quick motion, which caused the blood
to rise in their faces, and their eyes to project from the sockets to
a frightful degree. Their long black hair, which grew from the crown
of the head (the other parts being closely shaven), was continually
waving to and fro, owing to the motion of the head. One or two,
who were the most furious, and who continually attempted to run at
the crowd, were held by a man on each side, by means of a rope,
or a handkerchief tied round the middle. As we passed through
one of the streets, a party of Maltese and other Christians were
discovered on a terrace, and were instantly assailed by showers of
stones. I observed that whenever the Marāboots passed the house
of a Christian, they affected to be ungovernable, and endeavoured
to get near it, pretending they made the discovery by smelling out
Unbelievers. After following for an hour or two, during which I
witnessed the most horrible and revolting scenes, I returned home,
when, to my great amusement, I learnt that a rumour prevailed of
my having been attacked and very ill treated; and that I had,
in defending myself, stabbed a Marāboot, and ran away, no one
knew whither. I was happy to be enabled in person to contradict
these reports, and to prove that I had escaped not only unhurt,
but unobserved. There were two parties who traversed the town;
but from their being of opposite sects, and at war with each other,
it was so arranged that they should take different routes.
That which I did not see was the superior one, and took its
departure from under the walls of the castle. It was headed by
a man named Mohammed, who had been much at our house, going on
errands, and attending our horses. I did not, until afterwards,
know he was so celebrated a character. Before the time of the
procession he was confined in a dungeon, in consequence of his
becoming very furious. When all was in readiness for the ceremony,
the Bashaw took his station in the balcony overlooking the Arsenal,
and this man was set at liberty, when he rushed on an ass, and with
one thrust pushed his hand into the animal’s side, from which he
tore its bowels, and began to devour them. Many eat dogs, and other
animals; and on that day a little Jew boy was killed in the street,
either by the Marāboots or their followers.
As the power of taking up serpents and scorpions is supposed to
constitute a Marāboot, I determined on acquiring that honorable
title. Mr. Ritchie bought some snakes, which we all learnt to handle,
and I soon found out an effectual way of taking up the largest
scorpions without the slightest chance of being stung. However,
in order to observe the ceremonies practised by these pretended
saints, I sent a servant in search of one of the most celebrated,
under pretence of wishing myself to become a Marāboot. This fellow
went through numberless prayers and ceremonies, spitting in my hands,
taking rose-water in his mouth, and sprinkling my face with it,
reciting occasional prayers, and then washing his own mouth and
hands in rose-water. After bottling up this sacred fluid, he told me
to drink it on a particular day, which he named, and I then should
be as highly gifted as himself; thus concluding his instructions,
which, of course, I did not think myself bound to observe.
There are two grand markets held weekly, one on the sands behind
the town every Tuesday, and the other on Fridays, about four miles
distance, amongst the gardens of the Meshea مشيه which form a
stripe of about three or four miles in breadth, between the beach
and the desert.
In the town are Bazaars, which are open every day. These are
streets, covered in overhead. The shops of merchants are ranged on
each side, and are very small. Slaves and goods are carried about
before the traders by auctioneers, who keep up a continual din,
each calling the price last bidden. The Jews have a quarter of
the town expressly to themselves, where they have their shops,
and in which they are shut up every evening at sunset. This place
is called Zanga t’el Yahood زنقامتا اليحود. These
people are much persecuted, yet they contrive to engross all the
trade and places of profit. They are forbidden, as I before observed,
to wear gaudy clothes, and are only allowed turbans of blue.
Several houses set apart for the reception of merchants and their
goods are called Fondook, فندوك and answer to the description
given of the Caravanseras of the East. There are a few schools at
which reading and writing, though to no great extent, are taught
in a very noisy manner. A knowledge of letters, however, is by no
means necessary to constitute a great man, or to advance him to
any post of trust: of this there exists an example in the present
minister, Sidi Hamet (who was formerly Rais el Marsa, or Captain
of the port), and who can neither read nor write. We had often
heard this circumstance, and one day put into his hands the Koran,
with the wrong side uppermost, begging him to repeat to us a few
lines of it. He evaded our request by pretending to read to himself
for a short time, with the book still turned the wrong way; when
assuming a very sagacious look, he returned it to us, observing,
that “it was very well written,” and thus convincing us we had
not been misinformed respecting his ignorance. The Sheikh el Bled,
or Governor of the town, is considered a very good scholar, and
ready accountant, though he was once a boatman in the harbour. The
contrast between the rigidity of some Moslems, and the indifference
of others respecting association with Christians, is curiously
exemplified in this man. He had sent his son to learn Italian under
a Roman Catholic priest, without at all disguising the circumstance.
Drunkenness is more common in Tripoli than even in most towns in
England. There are public wine-houses, at the doors of which the
Moors sit and drink without any scruple; and the Saldanah, or place
of the guard, is seldom without a few drunkards. The greater part of
the better sort of people also drink very hard; but their favourite
beverage is Rosolia, an Italian cordial, and it is not uncommon
for visitors, when making calls, to give unequivocal hints that a
little rum would be well received. Prostitutes are in large numbers,
and are obliged (if known to be such) to live in a particular part
of the town (called Zanga t’el Ghaab زنقامت الغعب or
quarter of the prostitutes), under a Chowse, or superintendent,
appointed expressly for that purpose. These women are obliged daily
to supply food for the Bashaw’s dogs which guard the Arsenal.
A kind of bad Italian is generally spoken by the Inhabitants of the
town; so that Christians have not much difficulty in transacting
business.
I observed a singular custom to be prevalent amongst all Moors and
Arabs, from the Bashaw down to the poorest camel-driver, which is
that of eructation, and which they perform as often and as loudly as
possible. Great men go through this ceremony with a solemnity and
dignity altogether imposing; stroking their beards, and thanking
God for the great relief they have obtained. Mukni was quite a
professor in this way; and his little son Yussuf (a boy of about
eight years of age,) promised fair to be equally accomplished. Both
of the last mentioned personages had also a peculiar way of blowing
their noses in the ends of their turbans.
Mamlukes (who are either renegades, or purchased slaves from Georgia
or Circassia), enjoy the highest offices; and the Bashaw’s
daughters are not permitted to marry any others. The Admiral of
the fleet is a Mamluke, a Scotchman by birth, and now named Mourad
Rais. He was in banishment during our stay at Tripoli; but we learnt
from the Consul and chief people that he bore an excellent character.
The public Baths are of the same kind as those said to be used in
Turkey and Egypt; although not so magnificent in point of ornament
or size. The bather, on stripping, is girded round the middle with
a linen cloth, and one also is thrown over the shoulders, which is
taken off on entering the vapour chamber. This is a large circular
room, having a dome, through which the light is admitted by many
small holes well stopped with glass, and by which means the air is
entirely excluded. The light is much obscured by the vapour, which
constantly rises; lamps are therefore kept burning, those who first
enter being for a time unable to see their way. Round the sides of
the chamber are raised broad stone benches, and a large square place
of the same description is in the centre; under these are the fires
which heat the bath, and it is necessary to lie down on them in
order to become ready for the operations of the men whose business
it is to rub and clean the bathers. Water is then thrown over the
body, so as to induce a quicker perspiration. The heat is excessive,
and we had no Thermometer highly enough graduated to ascertain the
temperature. When a sufficient time has elapsed to produce languor
and strong perspiration, an assistant approaches and rubs the skin
with a glove of hair, in such a way as to cause the cuticle to peel
off in large dark rolls, however clean and white the skin may have
appeared previously to this operation. He then proceeds to shampooing
(called Temerse تمرس). The operations having thus finished,
some soap is brought to the bather, and he remains sitting under
a spout of warm water as long as he pleases. Dry cloths are then
brought to him, and being well wrapped up, he is conducted to an
outer room, where pipes and coffee are placed before him, with
incense to perfume the beard, after which he dresses and sallies
out. The price for the bath alone, without soap, is about five pence;
though it was always more expensive to us than to the natives. The
men come in the morning, and the women in the afternoon.
When the Bashaw rides to the Messhia, or gardens behind the town, he
is accompanied by his sons, and a large troop of horsemen, consisting
of Mamlukes and the principal people of his court, well mounted and
splendidly attired. They ride in a confused body round his person,
and have no idea of regularity in their motions. A few occasionally
leave the main troop at full speed, screaming and making flourishes
with their muskets, which they discharge, and then return to their
ranks. On re-entering the town, the whole party charge in groups
of ten or twelve, each firing while the horses are in full speed,
which has an exceeding pretty effect. The horses (who are trained
to the practice), as soon as they hear the explosion, turn suddenly
round on their haunches, and canter back to the place from which
they started. The beach being of hard sand, is admirably adapted
for these manœuvres.
More than half of the guards are black, and as they are all dressed
differently, their appearance is very curious. No uniformity is
observed either in the shape or colour of their horses, whose
bits are so severe, that they are seldom without raw and bleeding
mouths. The stirrups (which act as spurs) are used so roughly as
frequently to leave large gashes in the poor animal’s flanks. It
is considered highly ornamental to brand the thighs of horses with
lines and stars.
The mode of punishment at Tripoli (and, I believe, all other
Mohammedan towns), is totally different from any of those practised
by Europeans. Some crimes are considered capital by law; but
many are rendered so by the whim of the Bashaw, in which case,
hanging, decapitating, and strangling are used. The Moors are never
employed as hangmen; but the first Jew who happens to be at hand
has that office conferred upon him, and is obliged to accompany
the culprit to the ramparts over the town gate, attended by the
guards and mob, when he puts on the rope well or ill according
to his ability, attaching it to a bolt fixed in the wall for that
purpose. The unfortunate victim is then forced through an embrazure,
and suspended by the side of the gateway, so as to be seen by all
who enter or leave the town. When decapitation is the punishment,
the head alone is exposed to public view.
Torture is not unfrequently made use of; but as all punishments
of that kind are confined to the dungeons of the castle, no one
can or dares give any description of the nature of it. Theft (as
presented by the Koran) is punished by cutting off a hand, and, if
to a very great extent, a foot also; but repeated offences of this
kind extend sometimes to an amputation of the other hand or foot,
and I once saw a man, who, for a capital crime, had been mutilated
in this manner. The operation is performed with a razor. The limb
is first tied tight above the joint with a piece of cord, and
the hand or foot is taken out of the socket of the wrist or ankle
joint. The stump is then dipped into hot pitch, and the sufferer
is permitted to go away with his friends; and it is astonishing
how soon he recovers without any other dressing than the one
which I have mentioned. Beating with a stick on the posteriors or
soles of the feet is the general punishment for minor offences;
although in some cases it is so severe as to occasion death. Four
or five hundred lashes are frequently given; but fifty is about the
general allowance. Some culprits, who, by bribery, or other means,
are able to influence the persons employed to see the sentence
executed, contrive to stuff their trowsers so as to escape without
much suffering. This punishment is inflicted equally on all ranks,
at the pleasure of the Bashaw; and should even his own sons, his
Minister, or the Sheikh of the town, displease him, they would be
obliged to submit to it, as well as the lowest of his subjects;
nor would they consider themselves at all degraded, or their dignity
in any degree lessened by it.
[Illustration:
_Drawn from Life by G. F. Lyon._
_On Stone by M. Gauci._
TRIPOLI COSTUME.
_London. Published by J. Murray Albemarle St. Feb.1.1821._
_C. Hullmandel’s Lithography._]
We had resided some time in Tripoli before I had an opportunity of
seeing any other costume of the women than their walking dress. This
consists of a Barracan (or wrapper, like that which the Arabs
wear, and which I shall describe when speaking of the costume of
those people), so arranged as to envelope the body and head, and
merely to show one eye; they also wear red boots, and yellow or red
slippers when in their houses. The dress of the women of the better
class is magnificent; consisting of a silk shirt of many colours
in stripes, a highly embroidered waistcoat, silk trowsers, and a
Barracan also of silk or fine cotton of the most gaudy colours,
which is so put on as to form a species of petticoat, as well as
to hang gracefully over the head and shoulders. A cap of cloth of
gold is worn with many rich ornaments on the head. The eyelids are
stained with Antimony, which gives an enlarged appearance to the
eye, and increases its brilliancy. The brows are plucked so as to
be quite straight, and squared off at each end. Much rouge is used;
and gold and silver ornaments of great weight are worn in the ears,
and suspended from the head, as well as large bracelets and anklets
of the same metals. The garb of the Jewish women varies but little
from that of the Moslems; their full dress is exactly the same, but
their walking dress, instead of showing one eye, exhibits both. They
can wear only black or yellow slippers, and boots are prohibited.
The coin, which is now and has for some years been current in
Tripoli, has only fourteen per cent. of silver in it, and is daily
decreasing in value.
Near the sea gate are the remains of a fine square Roman building,
which now has its arches filled up, and is used as a store-house[1].
The Tripoline Marriages are, I understand, (for no man is allowed
to see them,) conducted with great splendour; the night is the time
chosen for the bride to be conveyed to the house of her husband,
when she is attended by a large troop of women, who carry torches,
and utter loud and repeated cries of joy.
[Illustration:
_Drawn from Nature by G. F. Lyon._
_On Stone by G. Harley._
TRIUMPHAL ARCH, TRIPOLI.
_London. Published by J. Murray Albemarle St. Feb.1.1821._
_C. Hullmandel’s Lithography._]
Their Burials have nothing remarkable; the body being merely put
into a shell, which is covered with a cloth, having sentences of the
Koran worked round the edges. The friends of the deceased follow
in a hurried manner, singing verses and religious sentences. The
grave of a man is as usual distinguished by a pillar of stone,
having a turban carved on it, placed at the head. The funerals of
women are in some cases far more interesting, and are conducted
with a considerable degree of pomp and ceremony. One instance of
this, I witnessed myself. It was the daughter of the Minister, and
grand-daughter of the Bashaw, whom I saw carried to the grave. Her
coffin was covered with a rich purple cloth, embroidered with gold,
and having large golden characters from the Koran sewed on it. At the
head was placed a large nosegay of the choicest and most beautiful
flowers; the clothes and many costly ornaments of the deceased were
laid on the coffin; and the accumulation of rich waistcoats, shirts,
caps, &c. had a most splendid effect. The mourners carried bunches of
flowers in their hands, and, in contrast to the shining decorations
of the bier, were dressed in soiled and old clothes, without antimony
on their eyelids, and, in fact, studiously avoiding the use of any
ornaments. The Minister himself headed the procession, and although
not in general considered a man of very acute feelings, appeared
in this instance much affected. It is the custom at all funerals to
liberate one or more slaves, who may at the time belong to the family
of the departed; and it is equally a rule to distribute food amongst
the poor, who, on these occasions, never fail to attend in great
numbers. These offerings are of course regulated by the comparative
wealth or poverty of the donors; but those persons are considered
as most meritorious who incur the greatest expense in honour of
their deceased relative. There are women whose sole employment
it is to attend the house of mourning, where they howl, lament,
and tear their hair and faces in a barbarous manner. Their cries
continue with very little intermission during three days, and the
additional din occasioned by their repeatedly beating wooden boxes
or pots is truly horrible. The customs and ceremonies used on these
occasions, with many other interesting subjects relating to Tripoli,
are so faithfully and pleasingly described in Tully’s narrative[2],
that they render any further observations on my part unnecessary.
Mr. Ritchie, finding that Mukni still delayed his departure, and
that some weeks might yet elapse before he commenced his journey,
determined on employing the intermediate time in visiting Benioleed
and the Gharian mountains. For this purpose he procured a Chowse,
a person employed by the Bashaw to collect the revenues, and hired
two camels to carry our provisions and baggage.
At this time M. Dupont thought fit to resign the office which
he had pledged himself to fulfil, and abruptly left Mr. Ritchie,
influenced, as we had reason to think, by the advice and suggestions
of some of his supposed friends. Not wishing to revive a subject so
little creditable to those who influenced the conduct of M. Dupont,
I shall only observe, that the petty intrigues which were carried on
in order to detract from the merits of the mission, and eventually
to obstruct its progress, were most disgraceful.
JOURNEY TO THE GHARIAN MOUNTAINS AND BENIOLEED.
Sunday, February 7th, 1819.—Leaving Belford in charge of our
house, we quitted Tripoli at 10.5. A.M. and after passing through
the gardens of the Meshea مشيه at eleven arrived on the desert to
the southward of them, near the tomb of the Marāboot Seyd سعيد
who is spoken of in the “Letters from Tripoli.” The sand here
rises in irregular hills, and is totally barren, not the slightest
traces of vegetation being perceptible. We continued travelling
over this until five o’clock, when we came to small spots of
grass and shrubs, on which flocks were feeding, and where a few
Bedouins had pitched their tents. We waited here for our camels,
having directed our course south south-west about fifteen miles, and
on their coming up, pitched our tents near a well on the plain. The
Chowse ordered us a supper, from the Sheikh of the Arabs, and we
soon had a smoking bowl of Bazeen and lamb. All the young girls
came to stare at us and our tents, as something quite new to them.
Monday, 8th February.—At eight we started, and travelled
south-west by south over a country nearly desert, until ten, when
we passed a few corn-fields, and a pretty plain covered with tents
and flocks. Here we stopped to examine the ruins of the Castle of
Mejnine مجنين. This was once used as a frontier post for the
troops of the Bashaw, who kept the rebel Arab tribes in check;
but having been built of mud and small stones, the rains have
now washed it nearly away: part of the walls only and a gate are
still standing. From this place we had a fine view of the Gharian
mountains, and observed that several hills in the range were in a
conical form. On leaving it, we proceeded until 1.30. P.M. when we
stopped at a tent by the invitation of an Arab, who had ridden the
preceding day in our company. He gave us a hearty welcome, and set
before us a large wooden bowl of dates, mashed up with hot oil, which
we found very good; its appearance was not unlike soft soap. The
women sat behind a carpet, and peeped at us through a small hole
in it. After quitting our kind host, we crossed the broad bed of
a water-course, when our road lay between two mountains, the right
hand one being called Smeeran سميران and that on the left Batus
بتس distant from each other about one mile and a half. Here the
ground began to rise a little, and greater quantities of herbage
appeared. We travelled on in hopes of finding a well until 4.30.,
but without success; we therefore pitched our tents on a little
rising ground, near some Arabs, and after much trouble, succeeded in
purchasing a skin or two of water for our horses. The Sheikh provided
an excellent supper of Bazeen and stewed lamb for us; and we had a
full tent of Arabs squatted on their heels, who came to look at us
whilst we were eating. After our dinner we made a little coffee,
which, as well as our European cups, excited much astonishment. We
offered some to the Sheikh, who not knowing what it was, suspected
some treachery, and at first refused to take it; however, by a little
persuasion, we overcame his prejudice, and seeing that we ourselves
drank some, he at length swallowed it with confidence. One of the
party, on tasting some, spat it out in horror, calling loudly on
the Prophet, “Ya Rassoul Illa يارسول الله Oh, Prophet of
God!” A third was so much pleased with it, and became so great a
connoisseur, that he absolutely refused a second cup, because it
was too cold. A Kaleidoscope was handed round to the visitors,
and excited general admiration and amazement; like children,
they quarrelled for their turns to look through it, and if I might
judge from the repeated laughter and exclamations made use of, many
extraordinary observations were made on the subject. The old Sheikh
in particular would scarcely bear to have it taken out of his hand.
Jackals and hyænas are very numerous here; but the quantity of
noisy dogs which attend the flocks keep them in awe, whilst they
also kept us half the night awake.
Tuesday, 9th February.—At 7, A.M. we struck our tents, and went on
for Gharian. The country here had quite changed its appearance. The
paths, which in many places were covered with broken basalt, were
uneven and difficult; and the ground became steep and irregular as
we approached the foot of the mountains. At three we rode a little
to the left of the track, and fastening our horses, climbed a small
conical mountain of basalt, having very little earth at the top
of it, and called El Kelb Assoud اكلب اسود or “the Black
Dog.” Near this were two or three smaller hillocks, also entirely
of basalt. Our road was through a barren, but beautiful and romantic
valley, at the foot of the mountains. At ten we arrived at the
foot of the Gharian Pass. This spot is encompassed on three sides
by lofty mountains, and opens to the north-east. There are some
scattered palms here, and a clear stream winds among them. Here
a small Kafflé passed us, consisting of ten or twelve camels,
and amongst them one or two Maherries, laden with Trona, or soda,
الطرون from Fezzan. Their owners were brown, wild looking men,
and appeared of a different cast from the Arabs of Tripoli. In this
little valley, about ten years since, the Hasnadar, or Treasurer
of the Bashaw, was murdered. He was on his way to collect tribute
from the mountaineers (which, in those days, was rarely obtained
but by force); and, as the Bashaw had newly made peace with them,
he was but poorly attended. Whilst performing his ablutions and
shaving his head, he was fired at and killed by some men stationed
on the rocky pass, who again ascended their mountain. His party
returned to Tripoli, and war was immediately declared. The Bashaw
caused a numerous army to be fitted out to quell the insurgents,
who, being joined by other discontented tribes, prepared for a
vigorous resistance. Owing to the bravery of these people, and the
natural strength of their passes and fastnesses, the Bashaw’s
army were some weeks before they could ascend the mountains, and
during that period many of them were killed. When at last they
succeeded in taking possession, they exercised on the poor wretches
every species of cruelty, suffocating them in their subterraneous
habitations, by throwing into them heaps of wood and straw,
and then setting fire to them. Twelve camels, laden with heads
to the amount of two thousand, were sent into Tripoli as a token
of triumph. These mountaineers have since conducted themselves
peaceably; though before their defeat they were so much dreaded,
that all communication through their country to the interior was
cut off, and few people would venture amongst them. We were an hour
in ascending the pass, which was the most difficult and dangerous I
ever saw. The rocks were worn so smooth as to render it necessary
for us to bestow constant attention on our horses, which we were
obliged to lead; one false step would otherwise, in some places,
have precipitated them down the side of the mountain. The camels,
however, with their persevering pace, arrived at the top as soon as
we did. Near the place where we stopped was a Tower, with loopholes
for musketry. This, with many others of the same description, was
erected by the Bashaw on the conquest of the mountain, that his
troops might be enabled to overawe the natives; but as he never
stations any forces there, his purposes will only operate against
himself, and enable the Arabs to defend their mountains with greater
obstinacy, should they ever so far recover from their defeat as
again to resist his unjust demands. We stopped at a nest, I cannot
call it village, where all the habitations are under-ground. The
Sheikh, on hearing we were under the protection of the Bashaw,
came to welcome us, and gave us the only hut the place afforded,
in which we placed our people and camel loads. As for ourselves, we
preferred clearing part of the farm yard, and pitching our tent in
it, surrounded by our horses and camels. This place is called Beni
abbās بني ابّعس. As the natives live, as I have observed,
under-ground, a person unacquainted with the circumstance might cross
the mountain without once suspecting that it was inhabited. All the
dwelling-places being formed in the same manner, a description of
the Sheikh’s may suffice for the rest. The upper soil is sandy
earth, of about four feet in depth; under this sand, and in some
places limestone, a large hole is dug, to the depth of twenty-five
or thirty feet, and its breadth in every direction is about the
same, being as nearly as can be made, a perfect square. The rock
is then smoothed so as to form perpendicular sides to this space,
in which doors are cut through, and arched chambers excavated, so
as to receive their light from the doors. These rooms are sometimes
three or four of a side, in others a whole side composes one; the
arrangements depending on the number of the inhabitants. In the open
court is generally a well, water being found at about ten or twelve
feet below the base of the square. The entrance to the house is at
about thirty-six yards from the pit, and opens above ground. It is
arched overhead; is generally cut in a winding direction, and is
perfectly dark. Some of these passages are sufficiently large to
admit a loaded camel. The entrance has a strong wall built over it,
something resembling an ice-house. This is covered overhead, and
has a very strong heavy door, which is shut at night, or in cases of
danger. At about ten yards from the bottom is another door, equally
strong, so that it is almost impossible to enter these houses,
should the inhabitants determine to resist. Few Arab attacks last
long enough to end in a siege. All their sheep and poultry being
confined in the house at night, the Bashaw’s army, when here, had
recourse to suffocating the inmates, being unable to starve them out.
The mountain top spreads from this village on to a fine plain,
of a mile or two in length, which is in the highest state of
cultivation. Corn and saffron fields covered with venerable olive
trees yield a delightful and novel prospect, to which the wildness
of the surrounding mountains contributes its share. The elevated
situation of these mountains prevents the cultivation of palms. Apple
and almond trees were planted in such little ledges of the rocks
as were too narrow for grain, and were at this time covered with
blossoms. From a crag above the pass we had a most extensive view of
the country over which we had travelled in coming from Tripoli. The
Kelb Assoud, or Black Dog, lay north-east of us, about six miles on
the plain below. All the remarkable places which we had traversed
were quite distinguishable, and even a part of the sandy desert
behind Tripoli; but the sea, which the natives said was often
discernible, was hidden from us by the vapour arising from the sands.
The young men of the Douar, or village, took great delight in doing
the honours of their beautiful country, jumping from rock to rock
like goats, and appearing a most active, hardy set of people. My
very limited knowledge of the language was a source of continual
regret to me; and I believe the trip to these mountains caused me
afterwards to apply with more assiduity to improve myself in it.
We returned with a keen appetite to our dinner, which consisted of
bazeen, hard eggs, and mutton, and at which the Sheikh waited on
us. The Chowse and our servant impudently volunteered their company,
and became our messmates for the rest of the journey. The mutton
and eggs being despatched, the broth, seasoned with plenty of red
pepper, was poured scalding over the bazeen, and every one fell to
work with extraordinary activity.
It is a point of great politeness with the Arabs to tear the meat for
a stranger, as well as to squeeze up the bazeen with the sauce for
him; and as this is sometimes done with rather unsavoury fingers,
hunger becomes an absolute requisite to induce a novice to touch
an Arab meal.
Our tent was in the evening filled by visitors, who squatted down,
and were much delighted with what few wonders we had to exhibit
to them. The principal of these was a loadstone, which drew a
penknife out of its case, and which was consequently a subject of
much speculation and whispering.
The Sheikh, who really appeared a superior kind of man, was all
attention and kindness; but whether from fear of the Bashaw’s
Chowse, or a real wish to be of service to us, I know not. I rather
suspect the former motive, since dread of their masters, and love
of presents, operate equally on the mind of Arabs. We had for our
supper a kind of paste called Hatria, which resembles macaroni,
and is considered a dish of honour.
In the evening we were joined by a fine, bold, soldier-looking man,
who was on a visit, and who was Sheikh of Battus, (a mountain,
mentioned in a former page), inhabited during a few months in
the year by shepherds, and those who go there to gather in their
harvest. This person and myself became great friends, and from
our conversation being chiefly in pantomime, we afforded no little
amusement to the rest of the party. He invited us to go and hunt
on his mountain, promising me a truly Arab present, viz. a young
wolf and fox. He told us that a thousand years ago the Christians
established themselves on his mountain, but were unable to remain
there more than forty days; an evident proof of their inferiority to
his tribe, which was commanded by one of his ancestors, and which
then lived on Battus, though they have since become wanderers. My
new acquaintance was elegantly armed, having an embroidered belt,
silver scabbarded sword, and well mounted pistols. He had received
a wound in his arm in the mountain wars (when his tribe resisted
the Bashaw), and imagined this to be the cause of a cough which at
times troubled him. He was not well pleased with our laughing at
his way of accounting for his complaint.
All the dogs here being white, the liver-coloured pointers which
had followed us from the Consulate caused the women and children
to fly on their approach, from the idea that they were wolves.
There are many Jews living in these mountains, whose dwellings
are much cleaner and better excavated than those of the Arabs,
and are also neatly whitewashed. These people, as in Tripoli, are
the only handicraftsmen, and seem here to be rather better treated
than elsewhere.
It rained very hard this night, and was very cold; but under shelter
of our tent we kept ourselves warm and dry. From the village we had
observed a mountain called Tekoot طكوت, to bear south 23° west.
Wednesday, February 10th.—At 7.10. A.M. we left Beni
abbās, and went on for the Castle of Gharian, or Gusser Turk
قسرطيرك. After having proceeded over the plain, and reached
the mountains that rise from it, we climbed a steep peak, and
making our way along a sharp ledge on its top, again ascended to the
mountain of Tekoot, the principal of the range. From this point we
took the bearings of the following remarkable objects: Beni abbās,
north 33° east. Gusser Turk, south 35° west. A mountain called
Meroobi, south 55° east, and another mountain, west 5° south,
distant about twenty-five miles, inhabited at this time by a rebel
tribe under a chief called Kalēefa. Owing to the height of the spot
on which we stood, we found it difficult to distinguish many objects,
which from the plain had appeared very conspicuous. Unfortunately,
before we ascended this mountain we had broken our Barometer,
and were thence unable to ascertain its precise elevation. Here
is the tomb of a Marāboot, whose sanctity is the subject of many
extraordinary stories.
It was from hence that the Arabs, when they declared war against the
Bashaw (which formerly happened very frequently), announced their
rising to their allies and neighbouring tribes, by signals of a
fire at night, and a smoke by day. Three poor Arabs followed us up
the mountain, pointing out to us the most remarkable surrounding
objects: they gathered for us some small black berries from a
low thorny tree, with yellow flowers, which they called Dummagh
ظمّاح or “brains,” and which had an astringent taste,
somewhat resembling that of a ripe sloe, but the fruit was much
smaller. They told us that the Arabs of Gharian always spoke with
gratitude of the English Consul, who had once persuaded the Bashaw
not to increase their tribute, as he intended.
At noon we arrived at a cluster of nests called El Guasem
القاسو about six miles from Beni abbās: all the habitations
of this place are of the same kind as those already described; we,
however, found a small uninhabited shed above ground, situated at
the foot of a little turret, where we deposited our goods, and
determined on passing the night. From the inscriptions which we
found in this building, it must be about 150 years old. The present
Bashaw, his father, grand and great grandfather, had all slept in the
smoky corner, of which we now took possession. The turret itself is
constructed in a mode common to many others in these mountains. At
about half way down one of the subterranean passages, a hole is
cut upwards in an awkward way through the rock into the first floor
of the turret, which is even with the ground, and perfectly dark,
except where here and there a small stone is pushed out to make way
for the muzzle of a musket. From this floor is an ascent to one,
two, or three stories, by means of pieces of stick placed in the
walls. Each floor consists of branches of trees, most alarmingly
elastic, and the door of entrance from one to the other is a small
hole, through which a person has to force himself upwards. All these
military buildings manifest a noble contempt of architectural skill,
or neatness. On the side of a small hill near the village are caves
of some magnitude, from which good millstones are procured. At this
place we fared as we did the evening before, though the Chowse had
a most vociferous conversation with the Sheikh before he could get
any barley for the horses. We were well sheltered, and sufficiently
warm, for we had a good fire in the centre of the hut, and slept
at one end of it, while our people and the Chowse’s mare occupied
the other. It rained very hard all night.
Thursday, February 11th.—At 7 A.M. we started, after making
the Sheikh a present, and wound along amongst the mountains in
the direction of the castle. Tekoot, bearing north three miles,
we discovered a Roman building in the form of a tomb, or perhaps a
very large altar; it was about twelve feet square, standing on two
or three broad steps, which seem to have had a neat cornice. From the
present appearance of the ruins, the original building must have been
ten or twelve feet in height. We could discern no inscription. Our
road hence was once more over very difficult passes, from which we
expected to have had a delightful view, but the mountains, to our
great regret, became obscured by a thick mist.
These mountains separated into a deep romantic valley, which
appeared to run immediately down to the desert. The tops were
in a very superior state of cultivation; figs, olives, and vines
flourishing on every spot which had sufficient earth to nourish
them. We observed many of the trees ornamented with the skulls of
horses, camels, or sheep, to protect the tree and its fruit from
being blasted by the “Evil Eye.” At two we came to the castle,
an immense ill-constructed building of rough stones, having a turret
at each corner, an open court, and stalls for horses, embrasures
for cannon (closed up with mud), and here and there a loophole for
musketry. There are five or six six-pounders upset, and honeycombed,
to make a show; but I conceive the Bashaw would find no one daring
enough to fire them. The key of the castle (which is never used
but by the Kaid when he comes to collect tribute for the Bey, to
whom Gharian belongs), is kept by a neighbouring Sheikh. Our Chowse
was here of great importance, for being in the service of the Bey,
all the Arabs came to kiss his hands, and bring him presents, and he
consequently assumed a very dignified and solemn demeanour. At night
one of our camel boys, who had the office of porter assigned to him,
brought the key of the gate to the Chowse, and reported all right. We
were informed very seriously, that the room in which we slept was
haunted by a Ghole, and several devils, in consequence of some
prisoners having had their throats cut there a short time before.
Friday, February 12th.—Our porter had been so very careful over
night, that we were half an hour unlocking, unbarring, and unbolting,
before we could get out. Mr. Ritchie and myself then sallied forth,
he to botanize, and I with my gun in search of animals called Gundy
قندي. After lying down flat in the rain for three or four hours,
I was fortunate enough to shoot three, which I prepared, in order
that they might be sent to the British Museum, and I believe they
will be the first of the species known in Europe. These animals
resemble very much a Guinea pig in form, but are of a light-brown
mouse colour. The fur is longer than that of a rat, and is very
silky; the eyes are black, large, and prominent; the orifices
of the ears (which are quite flat against the side of the head)
are also black, and free from hair; the tail, or rather a little
stump resembling one, is just perceptible to the touch, and from it
grows a bunch or tuft of long black hair. The body is very round and
fat, and particularly broad at the shoulders. These animals burrow
amongst the rocks. They are eaten with great relish by the Arabs,
and no doubt are very good, as the flesh is exceedingly white and
fat, and resembles that of a rabbit.
At about half a mile from the castle is a place called Tghrasat
تغراسات at which a Bazaar is held weekly, and whither all
the mountaineers resort. At two we passed this place, and went about
four miles south to a village called Tegerinna طجرنّه, where
the inhabitants live above as well as under ground. We pitched
our tents in a saffron field, and had our horses shod by a Jew
blacksmith. He afterwards prepared in his house a fine lamb, and
very white bread, for our dinners, of which the Chowse pocketed
all we did not eat. We made the poor man a present, to his great
astonishment; for no one, if he can avoid it, performs any act of
kindness to these persecuted people. In the evening we had many
visitors, amongst others the Sheikh, who was all curiosity, and
ready for as many presents as we chose to make him.
From this place, three other above-ground villages bore south by
west two miles. They were called Usadena. The inhabitants, male
and female, had all been murdered on the Bashaw’s conquering the
country, and the buildings were entirely ruined.
Gharian is famed for the excellence of its oil, the richness of its
saffron, which is produced in great quantities, and the goodness
of its corn. The people are fine, well made men, and have an air
of freedom, which their change of circumstances has not been able
to conquer. In collecting the tribute for the Bey, each man pays
in kind a certain portion of his harvest. The Jews are employed to
weigh and prepare the Bey’s share, and are well paid by the Arabs,
in order that they may give short measure; for although using false
weights is by the law of Mohammed a heinous crime, yet they fancy
the sin is not incurred if the Jews defraud for them.
Of the dress, food, &c. of the Arabs, I shall treat more fully in
a future page.
Saturday, 13th February.—At seven A.M. we left this delightful
spot for Benioleed. Our road was through very difficult passes in
the mountains, where we found some rain water, with which we filled
our gerbas, or water-skins, with a sufficient supply for three days.
Our road the latter part of this day lay over a barren, stony
plain; and having proceeded south 40° east twenty-five miles, we
encamped at sunset in a small valley amongst some bushes. Our fellow
travellers, after prefacing their stories by boasting of their own
courage and expertness in fighting, gave us most frightful accounts
of the banditti who were said to frequent this track; but how these
rogues, or any one else, could manage to exist at all in such a
place, was a riddle which our friends could not explain. Muskets
and pistols were laid at the Chowse’s head, and two bottles of
wine were drank to fortify his stomach, so that he slept undisturbed
through the night.
Sunday, 14th.—The country onward presented one unvaried scene of
desolation: not a living creature appeared during the day; but at
night the jackals kept up a continual howling. At noon, we passed
a deep ravine, for about eight miles, of basalt, which appeared as
if it had been rent open by some convulsion of nature. At five, we
crossed a dry water-course, and stopped on its bank for the night
amongst some stunted bushes. We made this day, south 40° east,
thirty miles.
Monday, 15th February.—At four A.M. made on for Benioleed. We
passed occasionally over mountains and gravelly plains, generally
coming again to the side of a large Wadey, or ravine, in which
there was some appearance of verdure. Many coveys of red-legged
partridges flew by us. After winding along a Wadey for an hour
or two, we arrived at Benioleed بنيوليد, at two P.M.,
ourselves and animals much fatigued: we had made, south 50° east,
twenty-five miles. We took up our quarters in the house, or rather in
the stable of the house, of the Sheikh. Here we paid our guide, who
came with us from Gharian, and who was a feeble man in appearance,
but a most persevering walker. He never would sleep in our tent,
but preferred lying in the open air, though the Thermometer was
generally at the freezing point, with no other covering than his
Barracan, not even a shirt.
Tuesday, 16th February.—We walked out to see the houses, which
are built on each side of the Wadey of rough stones: none are above
eight feet in height; they have no windows, but receive their light
through the doors; and all look like heaps of ruins. The inhabitants
are Arabs of the tribe Orfilly الفلّي, and are a fine handsome
race of people. The young girls are really beautiful.
These poor Arabs are dreadfully oppressed by the Bashaw, who has
reduced them all to a most miserable state of poverty. Those who
remain in the country are in rags; the others who let their camels
out to hire, and accompany traders to the interior, are somewhat
better off. They were once a brave daring set of men, who defied the
government of Tripoli; and, during the youth of the present Bashaw,
fully protected him from his father’s troops. Their services to
him have, however, been but ill requited; for he persecutes them
more than any others of his subjects. They have (and I believe not
without deserving it) the character of being the greatest robbers
and rogues in the neighbourhood of Tripoli.
The Wadey produces but little corn, as the crops are all sown in
the desert to the eastward; and in harvest time the owners go in
bodies to bring in the grain. Much oil is made here, and the palms
and olive-trees are very flourishing. We observed that of the latter
there were no young trees, and learnt that the Bashaw taxed them,
wherever found, as large ones,—a system, which, if pursued, will
in a few years more destroy all the olive groves in his dominions.
The water here is excellent; the wells are of great depth, many
being 100 feet, and others above 200 feet: in fact, the labour
requisite in drawing water, makes it a scarce article. This is
the most southerly town in the Bashaw’s dominions on the road to
Fezzan, to which it is nearer than the other routes.
I took a drawing of the valley, which very much amazed the Arabs,
and collected round me an immense crowd. We here discovered that
our living amongst these people had not contributed much to our
cleanliness, and that one of Pharaoh’s curses was but too evidently
upon us.
Wednesday, 17th.—We removed from our stable to a building dignified
by the name of a castle, in which the Kaid resides during his too
frequent visits to these parts. We had a dozen negroes turned out to
make way for us, the only good room being occupied by a Chowse, who
in the Kaid’s name was collecting money. He was all day surrounded
by poor wretches, entreating that his master would spare them,
and that something might be left to assist in supporting their
families. It was really melancholy to witness the misery which
prevailed amongst them; for they were called upon to answer the
exactions of three masters, none of whom would leave them even a
sheep, if their extortions were not complied with. Thus it is: the
Bashaw demands a certain sum of money, and sends a Kaid to collect
it. This man doubles the requisition, in order to enrich himself;
and it not unfrequently happens that he goes away, and leaves a
Chowse to act for him, who in his turn drains them still more and
more; and thus their victims are reduced to utter ruin. There were
in the castle slaves, camels, sheep, goats, and grain in quantities,
which had all been lately extorted from these unhappy people. Eight
poor prisoners were confined under-ground, and had not been fed
during the time we were there; and finally, the Chowse had an
order to cut their throats, which we understood was executed the
day after we left the castle. A market is held here weekly, to
which the necessaries of life are brought with fear and trembling,
lest any one should appear too rich.
Thursday, 18th February.—This being market day, a few sheep and
goats were brought on the plain before the gate. There were also
dates, corn, and gunpowder, but in small quantities. We bought
a sheep and some dates. It rained the whole of this day; but at
night it cleared up. The Sheikh came to see us, and brought us a
bowl of Bazeen, in return for which we gave him some powder. The
Population amounts to about 2000, as near as I could judge; but
the habitations are so scattered along the sides of the Wadey,
that no very just estimate can be given.
Mr. Ritchie was requested to obtain the pardon of the prisoners in
the castle, who had been guilty of resisting an attempt to drive
off their flocks for the service of the Bashaw, and he promised to
intercede for them; but we were overtaken, when on our return to
Tripoli, by a man, who informed us that they had all been killed.
Mr. Ritchie, by two observations, made the latitude of Benioleed,
31°. 45′ north.
Friday, 19th February.—Having somewhat refreshed ourselves and
cattle, we left this place at eight A.M.; and, ascending the side
of the Wadey, proceeded during the whole day over a rocky flat,
perfectly barren, until six P.M., when we stopped, having made,
north 20° west, thirty miles. We saw this day two large vultures,
but scarcely within shot of us.
Saturday, 20th February.—Our road this day improved, and we went
through several fertile Wadeys, and over plains of fine grass. We
passed also several herds of female camels, with their young, and
many flocks of sheep. At three, our road began to rise, and we saw
many tents of the Arabs of Terhoona ترحونه, who were attending
their flocks: some of them were changing their quarters, and we
were much amused by different parties, who were travelling on the
same road as ourselves. Women and children were riding the camels,
which were also laden with their tents and furniture. At seven, we
came amongst the mountains, and arrived at the wells of Melghrā
ملغرا, which have excellent water. There are several little
streams from the sides of the hills, which run through the valley;
and there is much game here, principally partridges and snipes.
Sunday, 21st February.—At eight A.M., we left the wells, and
passed through winding defiles at the foot of the mountains until
noon, when we cleared them, and opened on a sandy plain, covered
in some places with verdure, and having great quantities of the
Khandal حندل or Colycynth. On passing some Arab tents, the
children brought us small roots, of the shape of young potatoes;
but resembling mushrooms in taste, smell, and tenderness. They grow
in the sand, and the Arabs call them Terfaas ترفاس. We here
drank some camel’s milk for the first time. It is much less rich
than that of a cow, and saltish to the taste. We also procured a
skin full of sour butter-milk, which is much esteemed by the Arabs,
who call it Libban لبّان. It is never drank in a sweet state;
but is allowed, after the butter is made, to stand until it tastes
and smells very sour.
In the afternoon, the country over which we passed had many bushes;
and at five, we came to a well, near a Marāboot’s tomb, having
made, north 43° west, twenty-four miles. The well, near which
we were, was 288 feet in depth, and the water brackish. In the
evening a man came to request Mr. Ritchie to take an Arab under
his protection to Tripoli, and endeavour to procure for him the
Bashaw’s pardon, he being the only one remaining of a rebel tribe,
which had been destroyed. The offender was in the Marāboots’
tombs, which was considered a sanctuary; but, on our mounting our
horses in the morning, he was to follow us at full speed, and claim
the protection of the British flag.
Monday, 22d.—We waited some time for this man, and at last were
obliged to proceed to Tripoli without him. Our road was over very
steep and irregular sand hills. At three P.M. we arrived, having
made, north-west, twenty miles. As I now had many opportunities
of seeing the Arabs amongst their own tribes, and had greatly
familiarised myself with them, I obtained some knowledge of their
manners and customs, which I will endeavour to describe in giving
an account of this extraordinary race of people.
OF THE ARABS.
The Arabs are, generally speaking, tall, straight, and well
formed, and inclined, from their manner of living, to be thin and
muscular. Their countenances are expressive and handsome, their form
of face oval, and their noses aquiline. Although naturally white,
their complexion becomes dark from continual exposure to the sun,
and from not being very particular in their ablutions. They are
active; capable of undergoing great fatigue and abstinence from
food; lively in their manners; daring, and possessed of much
cunning: though generous, they are great beggars; revengeful and
unforgiving. The general costume of the men is a large loose shirt
and trowsers of cotton, sandals, or tight half boots of red leather,
which lace in front, fit close round the ankle, and rise as high
as the calf of the leg. On their heads they wear a red cap, which
is long enough to hang a little down on one side; from the top of
it falls a tassel of blue silk. A wrapper of woollen (from about
twenty to twenty-five feet in length, and five or six in breadth),
woven rather more compactly than flannel, is thrown round the body
in folds, part being placed over the head in the manner of a hood,
while the end is thrown over the left shoulder, and hangs down behind
the back. This article of dress has several names, according to
its texture. The most coarse and heavy is called Aba. That between
this and the finest (called Jereed) is named Kholi; but in Tripoli,
all three are known under the appellation of Barracan. A large
cloak, having a hood, and no sleeves, and composed of closely and
well-woven wool without a seam, is used in rainy or cold weather
over the Barracan, and is called Bornouse. The dress of the females
differs but little from that of the men in materials, but they
put it on in a different manner. The poorest class wear only the
Barracan, which is passed over the head and fastened at the waist;
others have a shirt in addition to this. Young women wear their hair
in tresses, to which they attach beads, pieces of coral, silver,
or any other gaudy thing which they can procure; and they have one
or two large silver ornaments in the form of crescents, fastened
on the right side of the head, on which they also frequently wear a
large woollen turban of blue, wrapped carelessly round. From their
ears are suspended a multitude of silver rings, and round their
necks they hang rows of beads of various colours. The old women
frizzle their hair over the forehead, so as to make it project to
some distance; and they dye it of a dull red, with the leaves of a
plant called Henna, which gives it the appearance of red wool. All
the females have a practice of tattooing their chins, the tips of
their noses, and between the eyebrows. Their necks and arms are also
frequently marked. The favourite figure is that of a hand, which is
intended to avert the “Evil Eye.” They wear red lacing boots,
in the same manner as the men. When young (that is to say, fifteen
or sixteen), they have fine figures, and are exceedingly handsome;
but they soon lose their good looks and pleasing form, and become as
ugly as they were before beautiful. Their eyes are black and large;
their noses straight and well proportioned; they have small lips,
and their teeth are exquisitely white. Nothing, in fact, can exceed
in prettiness an Arab girl; but the old women are, without exception,
the most disgusting and hideous creatures I ever beheld. Both sexes
blacken their eyelids with Kohol, or lead ore powdered, which adds
much to the brilliancy of the eye, and makes it appear larger than
it really is. They all wear an immense quantity of Agebs عجب,
or Charms, against disorders and misfortunes.
The arms of the Arabs are the same as those of the natives of
Tripoli, viz. guns, pistols, swords, and daggers. They are good
shots, when able to rest their guns; but otherwise cannot easily
manage them. The gun is slung over the shoulders, and the pistols
are worn in a belt, which is hung round the body, and which contains
the ammunition. They are constantly armed with both these weapons;
but the sword is seldom carried, unless when they ride on horseback;
it is then suspended by the side of the saddle, in such a way as
to remain under the left leg, with the hilt near the pommel. They
generally procure their powder and lead from Tripoli, though
some possess the art of making a kind of inferior powder amongst
themselves.
In the Tripoline dominions, and in Fezzan also, there are two kinds
of Arabs, one wanderers, the other fixed residents in towns; those
in towns (as Benioleed for example) travel much about the country,
but always return to what they consider as their home. The wanderers
have no permanent place of abode, but remove their tents as pasturage
or circumstances require. These tents are made of woollen, coarsely
woven in long pieces and sewn together. They spread to a great
breadth, but are not high; the entrance being about six feet,
and the top sloping gradually down till it is fastened to the
ground. They are so divided by means of mats or carpets, that the
women have a separate place from the men, and can be hidden from the
gaze of strangers: they, however, so manage it, as to see without
being themselves observed. These dwellings of the Arabs are called
by their inhabitants, Beit el Shar, بيت الشار, or “hair
houses,” and Nejja also. By means of bushes, almost every tent has
an inclosure adjoining it, for securing sheep or goats at night; and
stakes are driven in the ground, to which the horses are fastened,
though sometimes these animals are allowed a portion of the tents
of their masters. The Arabs are generous to their own kinsmen; and
should a stranger come amongst them, they never deny him the rights
of hospitality, provided they are themselves eating; but should that
not be the case, they make no attempt to prepare food expressly for
him: an acquaintance, however, is always sure of a good reception.
The Bedouins of Barbary are not to be compared with those of Egypt,
either for enterprise, ingenuity, or good qualities; since whatever
they may have been, they are now, by the tyranny of their masters,
fallen from their once high character, and are not in any respect
better than slaves. One or two tribes are yet independent, but are
likely soon to fall. Each tribe, or even set of tents, is governed
by a Sheikh, who, being an old man, or one appointed by the Bashaw,
is looked up to as a superior; though his business is chiefly to
collect the requisite sums of money from his people. Some years back,
these Sheikhs commanded their tribes in the wars of plunder, or in
defence of their liberties, and were then chosen by the voice of
the people, for their courage and military skill; but all offensive
or defensive wars being now at an end, in consequence of their
repeated and bloody overthrows by the Bashaw, the name of Sheikh
has no honour attached to it. In some cases, indeed, individuals
refuse to undertake the office, lest the Bashaw should make them
responsible for any faults committed by their followers.
In their Religion, the Arabs are great bigots, very superstitious,
and easily alarmed about the enchantments and wiles of Iblis
(or the devil), to whom they attribute many of their misfortunes
and illnesses. To the prayers enjoined by the Koran they are very
attentive, and, unless in travelling, never omit repeating them at
the appointed periods. Of the name and attributes of God they never
speak without reverence; and they have a profound respect for Idiots,
whom they consider as people beloved of Heaven, and totally unable
to think of the things of this world.
Marriages are contracted in most instances without either party
having seen the other, the agreement being entirely on the part
of the parents of the bride, and the bridegroom, the consent of
the females never being asked. There are certain marriage presents
which are always given by the husband to the relations of his wife,
so that he may be said to purchase her of them. Though four wives
are allowed to all Mohammedans, the Arabs very rarely possess
so many, few having more than two, and some only one. It is not
their custom to have Negresses living with them, which may be
accounted for by their dislike to being considered as the fathers
of children of colour. The settled Arabs are not so scrupulous; but
are, notwithstanding, more so than the Moors. The ceremony observed
in conducting a bride to her husband is very singular; and having
myself been an eye-witness of it, I made a drawing representing
the camel used on such occasions, with its gay trappings.
A frame being fixed on the back of the animal, the bride is placed in
it, and, while thus sitting, is housed over with carpets, shawls, and
ostrich feathers. In travelling from place to place, or in searching
for pasture ground, the people make use of these frames; but they
are in such cases generally uncovered, and have baskets, or other
frame-work, attached to their sides, in which the young children are
placed. An Arab family on its march presents a very extraordinary
appearance, the camels being laden with tents, cooking utensils,
women, and children. The men walk, driving their flocks before them,
or ride their horses, frequently without bridle or saddle. Should
the journey exceed one day, a temporary tent is erected at night;
and at the dawn of morning, all is again placed on the camels. The
operation of erecting or taking down one of their hair houses does
not occupy much time, as the women always assist the men on these
occasions. The dogs guard the flocks during the night, and are
very fierce. In colour they are white, resembling wolves in form,
and having long bushy tails. They howl rather than bark, and with
great apparent courage attack every stranger who approaches them,
though when threatened with a stick or stone, they run yelping
away. It frequently happens, that the spot fixed on as a temporary
residence is far distant from any well, sometimes even three days
of the ordinary march of flocks; yet this does not dishearten the
persevering Arab, who, notwithstanding, drives his sheep once a
week to drink. They feed as they go and come, and therefore do
not suffer much on their long journey. The wants of the people
are easily supplied; a few skins of water being brought at stated
times by a camel, and economised with great care. I have remarked,
that not only the Arabs and their camels, but all animals in this
country have the power of remaining a great length of time without
water. Sheep, (provided they have tolerable herbage), will pass
even a month without drinking. Antelopes and buffaloes, I should
conceive, in some cases never taste water, none being found on the
surface of the desert, and they are unable to obtain that which is in
the wells. On the other hand, wolves, hyænas, foxes, and jackals,
are less capable of enduring thirst. They descend such wells (or
more properly pits) as are not deep; and the vicinity of one of
these places is frequently ascertained from observing the tracks
of animals, which, during the night, go there to drink.
The Bedouins sow their scanty stock of corn, after turning up
the earth with a rude plough, or more generally with a hoe. These
cultivated spots are respected by other wanderers, and the corn is
rarely stolen; should the Bashaw, indeed, be at war with the Arabs,
he never fails to destroy their crops. When a sufficient time has
elapsed to allow of the grain being in a state of maturity, those
to whom it belongs come and gather in their harvest (sometimes
before it is perfectly ripe), lest the Bashaw should be informed
of the circumstance, and deprive them of a larger portion than
they can afford; emissaries, indeed, are never wanting, who make
it their business to ascertain the exact time when the corn is
to be cut, and then pounce on the poor Arabs for the Bashaw’s
share of it. To avoid such taxes, therefore, they sometimes gather
it so prematurely, that it will not serve as seed for the ensuing
year. When the date season commences, many families come and pitch
their tents in the Meshea of Tripoli, in order to purchase dates
for their future subsistence; these they deprive of the stones,
and when kneaded together, keep them in skins, so as to preserve
them from insects or wet: these form their chief support, assisted
by the milk of their sheep and camels. That of the camel, as I have
before noticed, is thin, of a bluish colour (resembling cow’s
milk mixed with water), and rather salt to the taste; it throws
up no cream, but soon coagulates like new curds. The ewe milk is
excellent, but is never drank fresh, the Arabs preferring it sour,
or, more properly, as butter-milk. The flocks are milked morning
and night into large bowls, and when a sufficient quantity is thus
collected, it is poured into skins, without much attention being
paid to its cleanliness, when by shaking and rolling it about,
butter is procured, and generally attaches itself to the side of
the skin; the milk being then strained from it into other vessels,
is allowed to grow sour, and a quantity of butter being produced,
it is boiled with a little salt until it becomes like oil, and is
then poured into goat-skins, and is fit for use or market.
Cheese is procured by turning the milk with a certain herb (the
name of which I have forgotten), and the curds, being salted,
are spread out to dry in the sun, when they resemble little crums,
and are very pleasant to the taste. I did not see any other kind
of cheese than the one I have mentioned, and this is rather scarce,
and used as a luxury in many of their little messes. Sometimes it is
toasted, and has a very agreeable flavour. It is called Jibn, جبن.
A great article of commerce is the fat which the shepherds procure
from the sheep they kill. They cut it from every part of the body,
salt it, and lay it by until a large quantity is collected, when,
whether putrid or not, they boil it, until it bear some resemblance
to the grease used by tallow-chandlers; it is then poured into skins,
and is fit for use. In the interior it sells at about a shilling
a pound; but at Tripoli it is much cheaper. It is put into almost
every article of food by the Arabs, and though not very savoury, we
soon became accustomed to its taste. It is called Shahm شحامر.
From the wool of their sheep, the women make strong barracans,
carpets, shirts, turbans, and many ornaments. Their tents too are
made of wool and goats’ hair, as are also sacks, which are used to
carry corn and merchandize on the camels. Mats and ornaments of palm
leaves or grass are neatly made. Their dyes are generally brilliant;
black, blue, red, and orange; in fact, every colour excepting green,
which they find much difficulty in producing; though at Tripoli
the dyers succeed very well in it. The looms of the Arab women
are on the ground; they have no shuttles, but with much trouble
pass the threads through with their fingers, generally lightening
their labour with songs. The men seldom work while in their tents,
and their time seems to hang much heavier on their hands than that
of the women, who with cooking and other domestic employments are
generally pretty well occupied. No woman eats in the presence of
a man, and wives always wait on their husbands.
The domestic animals consist of poultry, sheep, goats, camels,
horses, and dogs: they all live under the same canopy as their
masters, and are on good terms amongst themselves. The horses
are perfectly quiet, being brought up with the children of the
family. They would be a fine race, but that the want of good food
prevents their acquiring a handsome appearance; add to which, the
ambition of possessing well fed and comely animals does not now
exist; for should any of the Bashaw’s people wish to appropriate a
fine horse, the owner dares not refuse to sell him, at whatever low
price may be offered. Still, however, many of the Arabs breed them
expressly for the market, bringing them while foals for sale. I have
seen some of them brought in this way, which, when taken care of,
became remarkably handsome, and unlike the generality belonging to
the Bedouins. In the bazaars at Tripoli I have sometimes observed
very fine ones, which were brought from the Desert, and sold for
forty or fifty dollars (about eleven or twelve pounds sterling)
a piece. All have long tails, and are entire; a great defect is,
however, almost general amongst them, in consequence of their being
mounted when too young; which is, that their backs are very hollow,
and their hind quarters appear higher than their fore. Colts of
twelve months are frequently seen, staggering beneath the weight
of a heavy man, his arms, water skin, and food. The Arabs consider
a large belly as very handsome; and some horses, from the nature
of their food, acquire such rotundity in this respect, that they
appear like mares in foal.
[Illustration:
_Drawn from Life by G. F. Lyon._
_On Stone by D. Dighton._
ARABS EXERCISING.
_London. Published by J. Murray Albemarle St. 1821._
_C. Hullmandel’s Lithography._]
A light mane and tail on a chesnut horse is considered unlucky;
the colour, though common, is not much admired, and the feet of
such animals are accounted soft and tender. Bay is the favourite
colour next to light grey, which is much in request, the Bashaw
generally riding horses of this description.
Much importance is attached to the manner in which the legs are
coloured, stockinged horses being in the extremes of good or bad
luck, according to the disposition of the white. If both forelegs
are marked, it is good; if one hind and one fore leg are marked
on the same side, it is very unlucky; or if one alone is white,
it is equally unfortunate; but if opposite legs (off fore and near
hind) are light, nothing can be more admired. Ridiculous as these
fancies may appear, they nevertheless influence the price of horses,
sometimes to even a sixth of their value.
In sandy parts of the desert shoeing is never used; but where the
animals are to pass over mountains, it is absolutely necessary. The
Arab shoes are thus formed, [Illustration] turning up behind;
and are, in general, so badly put on, that there are few horses to
be found which have not been injured in their feet. The Arab’s
forge is simple, and almost every man is his own blacksmith. A
small mud or clay wall is built to the height of a foot or eighteen
inches; a hole is then made even with the ground, and an iron pipe
introduced. To this are attached two skins, which open at the upper
end by means of two sticks, having a small leather handle on each:
the thumb is passed through one of these, and the fingers through
the other; so that the hand easily opens and shuts the skin. The
mouth being closed, the skin is pressed down, and throws a strong
blast through the pipe. It is again opened and lifted up, when it
is once more ready. Thus, alternately with each hand, the current of
air is kept up to the fire which lies over the pipe. Camel’s dung
is used when charcoal cannot be procured, and gives a very strong
heat. The anvil is a small square-ended piece of iron, which is sunk
in a log of wood, and partly buried in the sand. An ordinary hammer,
and a pair or two of pincers, complete the apparatus.
The mill is equally simple, being composed of two circular stones,
one of which lies flat on the other, and is turned by a small handle
placed on it; this is fixed by a pivot from the lower one, and has
a hole in the centre, through which it is supplied with grain.
The messes made with flour are few, and may be thus enumerated:
Cusscussou, Bazeen, Dweeda, Atila, Mogatta, Zūmeita, Bread,
Fetaat. Cusscussou being a dish very generally mentioned in all
books of travels, I shall attempt to describe the manner in which
it is made; and I trust I may be allowed, however trifling the
subject, to mention in the same manner the other articles of food,
as I believe they are at present only known by name.
The corn for Cusscussou is ground expressly to the state which
is called Semolina in Italy, and used also under that name in
England. The hand being clean washed, and a large wooden bowl
prepared, a portion of semolina is thrown into it with the right
hand; it is turned quickly round under the palm, while from the left,
water is occasionally sprinkled upon the mass, together with dry
semolina. In a short time, by turning it constantly the same way,
the flour adheres in little granules, like bread crums; and by a
dexterous motion of the hand, is prevented from forming into large
lumps. When finished, the grains resemble small shot in size, and
stick closely together, without danger of again falling into flour
on being dried. They will keep good in this state nearly as long as
corn. When Cusscussou is to be prepared for eating, it is put in a
basket, or tin vessel having holes in the bottom, and steamed over
meat, or boiling water, care being taken to stir it occasionally,
so as to prevent its caking. When sufficiently done, meat is poured
on with its gravy, or a little butter or grease mixed with it;
should meat be wanting, a good quantity of red pepper and salt are
frequently all its auxiliaries.
Bazeen (which in Fezzan is called Aseēda) is the most common food,
as being the easiest prepared. It is made of the flour of any grain
(Bishna and Barley are mostly used near Tripoli) in the following
manner. A large pot, of copper or iron, is placed on the fire,
with a little water in it, which is suffered to boil. Flour is then
thrown in, until it acquires the consistency of dough, when it is
stirred well about with a large stick (water being occasionally
added, if necessary,) until it is quite thick, and begins to assume
the appearance of a pudding, when it is taken out, and placed in a
bowl. After being beat into a circular shape, and having a hole made
in the centre, gravy, oil, butter, or grease, is poured on it, and it
is then ready for eating, which is done by pinching pieces out with
the right hand, and kneading them with the grease until they assume
the appearance of thick paste. Should there be no gravy or grease
to be procured, a little flour mixed with hot water is used instead
of it. It requires much strength of arm to make bazeen properly,
as the stick is wielded by both hands, and the pot is confined
on the fire by having a forked piece of wood placed against it,
on which the woman kneels while preparing the mess.
Dweeda is moulded in the shape of little seeds, not quite so large
as the grains of rice; but oblong, and much resembling them. A
stiff dough being prepared, the women very expeditiously pinch it
out between their fingers and thumbs into this form. It is then
allowed to dry; and is considered a great dainty when boiled,
and a little butter poured over it.
Atila is composed much in the same way; but is longer, and much
resembles small macaroni broken in pieces. It is also boiled in
the same manner as Dweeda.
Mogatta is made of paste, by being beaten and turned between the
hands, until it is as thin as a pancake; it is then laid in the sun
to harden a little. When it becomes sufficiently crisp to break, it
is crumbled in pieces, and boiled until it resembles thick porridge,
the larger pieces always remaining entire. A sufficient quantity
of fat and pepper completes it.
Zumeeta is made of barley, which has been a little malted; it is
then ground into flour, and sometimes dates are pounded with it. In
this state it remains until it is to be used; when a little cold
water being mixed with it until it becomes like dough, it is fit
for eating. Oil is much used with it, by dipping the Zumeeta in it
when formed into mouthfuls for eating. This is almost the only stock
which Arabs provide on going a journey, as it is easily prepared,
and very nourishing.
Bread is made as in Europe. It is leavened with flour, or
a preparation of dates, moulded into little cakes shaped like
buns. The ovens are generally formed in the ground: a hole is made
about two feet in depth, and in the shape of a large jar, contracted
at the mouth; it is then encrusted inside with clay. Wood is thrown
in and burnt, until a thick layer of glowing ashes is collected
at the bottom, and the oven is thoroughly heated; the loaves are
then put in by a woman, who bares and wets her arm, and sticks
them against the side with great dexterity: when done enough, if
not speedily taken off, they fall into the embers. Sometimes meat
is dressed in these ovens; a kind of crumpet, also, called Fetaat,
made in the same way as Mogatta, but without leaven, is slightly
baked in them; one of these crumpets is then placed in a bowl, and
soup and vegetables are poured over it; another is then put in,
and soup added as before, and so on in successive layers, until
the bowl is full. All these messes are eaten with the fingers.
There is great variety in the manner of dressing meat, which is
stewed, boiled, or baked; but for journeys the Arabs have a very
good way of preserving it, by cutting it into thin slices, drying it
in the sun, and afterwards stewing it in fat. I have often observed
them eating small grasses, which they found as they pursued their
journey; and to my inquiries how they knew them to be innoxious,
the general reply was, that whatever an animal which chewed its cud
could eat with safety, must be food for man. There is a species of
dandelion, very bitter, and exuding a white juice, which is much
liked by the sheep as well as their masters. The taste at first is
very unpleasant; but I soon became accustomed to it. The Colocynth
apple grows in great quantities in some parts of the Desert, and
is almost the only medicine used by the Arabs. Burning is always
had recourse to, and many of them are in consequence covered with
scars; it is also occasionally used to show the force of love;
and both sexes practise it when they wish to give proof of very
strong affection.
Wolves, young dogs, cats, and hedgehogs, though forbidden animals,
are not unfrequently eaten by sick persons, from a belief that their
flesh is medicinal, or, as they express it, “Doua.” Charms are
much worn, and are procured from such as are considered Marāboots
amongst themselves, or from the Scribes of Tripoli. It is not enough
that the man should be defended by these little prayers sewed up in
leather, and attached to his arms or body; but his horse, gun, sword,
and red cap must be equally protected with himself. The “Evil
Eye” is of all other mischiefs most dreaded, and for a stranger
to express particular admiration of a child, a horse, or any other
valuable, is to bring on it or its possessor certain misfortune; this
may, however, be averted by passing over the object a finger wetted
with saliva, or by the equally efficacious charm of an open hand,
either attached to the clothes as an ornament, or tattooed on the
skin. It is remarkable that no Arab will take a knife or scissars
from the hands of any one, as (from some superstitious prejudice)
such an action is considered highly unfortunate; but they require
that the instrument should be first laid on the ground, whence they
readily take it up without fear.
The Arabs have but few amusements beyond Dancing and a Game called
Helga, which resembles draughts, and is played with camels’
dung or date stones, in holes made in the sand. The noise uttered
by these people at their festivals, or on any joyful occasion,
is most extraordinary; and being very shrill, it may be heard at
a great distance, particularly if several persons join in chorus:
it is a piercing cry from the throat (the mouth being quite open),
to which a tremulous sound is given by a rapid motion of the tongue
from side to side; it is very enlivening, and when it becomes
familiar to the ear, far from disagreeable.
The manner of salutation used amongst the Arabs is particularly
striking, and certainly not ungraceful. Friends on meeting, seize
each the right hand of the other, then loosen and apply the tips of
their fingers to their mouths, afterwards laying the open hand on
the heart, they press it and gently incline the head at the same
time. Very intimate acquaintances mutually lift their joined right
hands in such a manner that each kisses the back of the other’s
hand, repeating with the greatest rapidity, “How are you? well, how
are you? Thank God, how are you? God bless you, how are you?” which
compliments in a well bred man never last less than ten minutes;
and whatever may be the conversation afterwards, it is a mark of
great good breeding occasionally to interrupt it, bowing solemnly
and asking, “How are you?” though an answer to the question
is by no means considered necessary, as he who asks it is perhaps
looking another way, and thinking of something else. I must not
omit to mention a particular instance of good breeding which I met
with amongst these people: a man begged me one day to reach him a
piece of straw which lay near me, that he might take out of a cup
of water a bird which had fallen into it. I perceived, however, that
it was only a Fly; and was afterwards informed that they consider it
disrespectful to make use of the word Fly in presence of a superior.
The questions asked and observations made by some of the inland Arabs
respecting our country were very curious; amongst other extraordinary
fancies, they have an idea, originating in the name given to the
Atlantic, Bahr el blem, باحرالظلا, sea of darkness, that
we have no Sun or Moon in the countries which are in the sea, and
in consequence, they imagine that our ships sail about with great
lanterns attached to them. They also believe that Christians use
the milk of pigs as a beverage, and in fact, that it forms their
chief subsistence. That we have horses, cows, and sheep, is not
at all credited by them; and that our country should be destitute
of dates excites their greatest commiseration. They cannot at all
conceive how we avoid falling off our islands and rolling into the
sea, or how, being surrounded by water, we have sufficient room for
animals to graze. There are some on the other hand who think highly
of our wealth and dignity, until they are told that our country is
an Island, when their admiration decreases considerably. Buonaparte,
or as the Arabs call him, Bono barto, is in great estimation amongst
them, not on account of his military achievements; but because they
have heard that he has 200,000 dollars an hour, and that he sits
on a golden throne.
The Arabs are good and bold horsemen, and though in general but
poorly provided with food for their horses, they make them perform
very long journeys. The inducement to all exertion, however, is now
nearly at an end, their wars having ceased; but in the time of the
Waled Suliman, اولاد سوليمان who infested the road from
Tripoli to Fezzan, and committed every excess, journeys were made
and difficulties overcome which equalled any of the stories of the
Arabs of old. This once powerful tribe had formerly possession of
every pass from Tripoli to the interior, and were so much dreaded,
that few traders would venture amongst them, even when they were
at peace with the Bashaw. These are the people whom Lucas mentions
as having declared war against Tripoli, and prevented the Kafflé,
to which he was attached, from proceeding from Mesurāta to Fezzan;
but they are now completely destroyed. About eight years since
the Bashaw in the regency of Tripoli, and Mukni, in the kingdom
of Fezzan, commenced so hot an attack upon them that they were
scattered, and being in small parties, easily fell a prey to the
troops employed against them. It was the custom during this war (as
in all previous wars) to give no quarter; all prisoners therefore
had their throats cut on being taken, and every species of cruelty
was practised on them. Two hundred and fifty, who were seized in a
town in the Wadey Shiati of Fezzan, were butchered in cold blood,
even though they had surrendered on condition of having their lives
spared. This tribe perhaps would still have flourished in Fezzan,
but that not expecting any attack from Mukni, they quitted for a time
their own territory and proceeded to Egypt, in order to wage war
on some other tribes who had offended them: this circumstance was
taken immediate advantage of by Mukni, who contrived before their
return to gain possession of Morzouk, which he could not otherwise
have done. They, however, besieged him there with great activity;
but leaving in the meantime their frontiers undefended, the Bashaw
poured his army into the country, and thus completely effected
their destruction as a tribe. The small number who escaped became
wanderers for a time, and were occasionally met with and killed,
until at last the remaining few incorporated themselves with other
tribes. That of the Waled Suliman, which does not now exist, is
celebrated in all the Arab stories; and there are few places in this
part of Africa which have not had ample occasion to remember them.
Wherever they removed, their families and immense flocks accompanied
them; and they were commanded by one or two Sheikhs of known
courage and experience. A friend of ours, who in the first wars had
spared the life of one of their chiefs, was, a few months after,
coming from Fezzan, in company with a large kafflé of merchants,
bringing slaves, when, in a part of the mountains, in which they
conceived there was no chance of encountering these people, they,
to their great dismay, were seized and conducted to the chief, in
full conviction that they should be murdered, and their slaves and
goods distributed amongst the captors; when, fortunately, one of the
party stepped forward, and suddenly recognised his deliverer. The
scene was immediately changed: eighteen sheep, as many goats, and
some cows were killed, and the whole kafflé feasted for three days;
their goods and their slaves were returned to them, and they were
suffered to depart.
* * * * *
On our return to Tripoli, we understood that it was not the intention
of the Bashaw to send, as he at first had given out, a force with
Mukni, into the interior. The latter was to be attended only by his
own followers; and we were desired to hold ourselves in readiness
to accompany him in a few days. In consequence of this, Mr. Ritchie
caused a variety of food, appropriate for a journey on the Desert,
to be provided. He bought Gerbas, or water skins; and in fact, made
every necessary preparation. Owing to the lowness of his funds,
he wrote to Lord Bathurst, soliciting a further supply; and I drew
money, on my own account, which I gave him for our general use. For
some articles which Mr. Ritchie procured for Mukni, from Malta,
he became our debtor to the amount of 300 dollars, which were to
be paid us on his arrival in Fezzan. On this small sum, and not
knowing when or how we were to procure more, was our journey to be
undertaken. Our camels were paid for in advance; but other expenses,
which were unavoidable, would, we had no doubt, extend far beyond
our narrow limits.
The allowance of £2000, which was made to Mr. Ritchie, had already
been expended, in buying Merchandize, Instruments, Arms, &c. and
otherwise making provision for the welfare of the Mission; but the
merchandize was selected in England, and unfortunately was such as
could be of little utility in the interior, of which circumstance we
were not aware until too late; for, with the exception of cutlery,
we had, in fact, nothing which would sell. We had Beads and
looking-glasses in abundance; but neither of these articles were
of the kind most in request amongst the Negroes, who, we learnt,
were as much wedded to fashion, as the inhabitants of more civilized
countries. Such was the inauspicious state of our affairs, when we
entered on our hazardous journey, determined at all events, that,
however unpromising in its commencement, its failure should not be
attributed to our want of zeal in the service we had undertaken.
On the 18th March, the Bashaw held a public audience; and Mukni,
in presence of the British consul, as well as ourselves, pledged
himself to assist us in all our difficulties.