No. 1 gun fires, elevation 4400 yds., P.S., round observed -

No. 2 " " " 4700 " " " " +

B.C. orders "4500-4600."

No. 1 gun fires, elevation 4500 yds., P.S., round observed -

No. 2 " " " 4600 " " " " +

The 100 yds. bracket appears to be 4500-4600. B.C. orders: "Remainder

4500 time shrapnel," and gives the ranging section 4500-4600 to

"verify." Guns 3, 4, 5, 6 set fuzes for 4500 with correctors 150, 160,

170, 180.

No. 1 gun fires, elevation 4500 yds., P.S., round observed -

No. 2 " " " 4600 " " " " +

B.C. orders: "Remainder 4500, one round gun fire, 3 seconds."

No. 3 elevation 4500 yds. T.S. corrector 150 air

No. 4 " " " " " 160 air

No. 5 " " " " " 160 graze

No. 6 " " " " " 180 "

B.C. selects corrector 160 and goes to "section fire."

The battery now begins to fire "for effect."

No. 1 elevation 4500 yds. T.S. corrector 160 air

No. 3 " " " " " "

followed by Nos. 5, 2, 4 and 6.

There is another method of ranging, viz. with time shrapnel only. In

this the principle is that several shells, fired with the same corrector

setting, but at different elevations, will burst in air at different

points along one line. Bursts high in the air cannot be judged, and it

is therefore necessary to bring down the line of bursts to the target,

so that the bursts in air appear directly in front or directly in rear

of it. Rounds are therefore fired (in pairs owing to possible

imperfections in the fuzes) to ascertain the corrector which gives the

best line of observation. This found, the target is bracketed by bursts

low in the air observed + and -, as in the ordinary method with

percussion shrapnel.

The operations of finding the "line of fire" and the proper elevation

may be combined, as the shells in ranging can be made to "bracket" for

direction as well as for elevation. The line can be changed towards a

new target in any kind of direct and indirect laying, in the latter case

by observing the angle made with it by the original line of fire and

giving deflection to the guns accordingly. Further, the fire of several

dispersed batteries may be concentrated, distributed, or "switched" from

one target to another on a wide front, at the will of the commander.

31. _Observation of Fire_, on the accuracy of which depends the success

of ranging, may be done either by the battery commander himself or by a

special "observing" party. In either case the shooting is carefully

observed throughout, and corrections ordered at any time, whether during

the process of ranging or during fire for effect. The difficulties of

observation vary considerably with the ground, &c., for instance, the

light may be so bad that the target can hardly be seen, or again, if

there be a hollow in front of the target, a shell may burst in it so far

below that the smoke appears thin, the round being then judged "over"

instead of "short." On the other hand, a hollow behind the target may

cause a round to be lost altogether. Ranging with time shrapnel has the

merit of avoiding most of these "traps." The "French system of fire

discipline," referred to below, has this method as the usual procedure.

32. _Fire._--Field Artillery ranges are classed in the British service

as: "distant," 6000 to 4500 yds.; "long," 4500 to 3500; "effective,"

3500 to 2000: and "decisive," 2000 and under. The actual methods of

fire employed are matters of detail; it will be sufficient to say that

"section fire," in which the two guns of a section are fired alternately

at a named interval, usually 30 seconds, and "rapid fire," in which two,

three or more rounds as ordered are fired by each gun as quickly as

possible, are the normal methods. Each battery usually engages a portion

of the objective equal in length to its own front, owing to the spread

of the cone of shrapnel bullets (see below). The fire is, of course,

almost always frontal, though enfilade and oblique fire, when

opportunities occur for their employment, are more deadly than ever,

because of the depth of the cone. As for the general conduct of an

artillery action, accurate fire for effect, at a medium rate, is used in

most armies, but in the French and, since 1906, in the British services

a new method has arisen, in consequence of the introduction of the

modern quick-firer and the perfection of the time shrapnel. The French

battery (1900 Q.F. equipment) consists of four guns and twelve wagons.

The gun is shielded, as also are the wagons; the high velocity and flat

trajectory give a maximum depth to the cone of shrapnel bullets. In the

hope of obtaining a rapid and overwhelming fire, the French artillery

ranges only for a long bracket, and once this bracket is found, the

ground within its limits is swept from end to end in a burst of rapid

fire. This is termed a _rafale_ (squall or gust), and technically

signifies "a series of eight rounds per gun, each two rounds being laid

with 100 metres more elevation than the last pair, the whole fired off

as rapidly as possible." The cone of time shrapnel being assumed as 300

yds. (or metres), it is clear that four pairs of rounds, bursting, say,

at 1000, 1100, 1200 and 1300 yds. (adding, for the last, 300 yds. for

its forward effect), sweep the whole ground between 1000 and 1600 yds.

from the guns. The maximum depth would, of course, be obtained with four

elevations differing by the depth of the cone; in such a case the space

from 1000 to 2200 yds. would be covered, though much less effectively,

since the same number of bullets are distributed over a larger area. On

the other hand, the _rafale_, at a minimum, covers 300 yds., all the

guns in this case being laid at the same elevation throughout. Here the

maximum number of bullets is obtained for every square yard attacked.

Between these extremes, a skilful artillery officer can vary the

_rafale_ to the needs of each several case almost indefinitely.

"Sweeping" fire is a series of three rounds per gun, one in the original

line, one to the right and one to the left of it; this is significantly

called "mowing" (_tir fauchant_). A further refinement in both services

is the combined "search and sweep." Forty-eight rounds, constituting in

the French army a series of this last kind, can, it is said, be fired in

1 minute and 15 seconds, without setting fuzes beforehand, to cover an

area of 600 X 200 metres. The result of such a series, worked out

mathematically, is that 19% of all men and 75% of all horses, in the

area and not under cover, should be hit by separate bullets (Bethell,

_Modern Guns and Gunnery_, 1907). Even allowing a liberal deduction for

imperfect distribution of bullets, we may feel certain that nothing but

shielded guns could live long in the fire-swept zone. This is, of

course, a rate of fire which could not be kept up for any length of time

by the same battery. A French battery, firing at the maximum rate, would

expend every available round in 13 minutes.

33. _Projectiles Employed._--"Time shrapnel," say the German Field

Artillery regulations, "is the projectile _par excellence_ ... against

all animate targets which are not under cover." It achieves its purpose,

as has been said, by sending a shower of bullets over an area of ground

in such quantity that this is swept from end to end. These bullets are

propelled, in a cone, forward from the point of burst of the shell, and

the effective depth of this cone at medium ranges with a fairly high

velocity gun may be taken at 300 yds. Further, the corrector enables the

artillery commander to burst his shells at any desired point; for

example, a long fuze may be given, to burst them close up when firing

upon a deep target (such as troops in several lines, one behind the

other), and thereby to obtain the maximum searching effect, or to obtain

direct hits on shielded guns, while a short corrector, bursting the

shell well in front of the enemy, allows the maximum lateral spread of

the bullets, and therefore sweeps the greatest front. The number of

bullets in the shell is such that troops in the open under effective

shrapnel fire must suffer very heavily, and may be almost annihilated.

If the enemy is close behind good cover, the bullets, indeed, pass

harmlessly overhead. This, however, leads to a very important fact, viz.

that artillery can keep down the fire of hostile infantry, "blind" the

enemy, in Langlois' phrase, by _pinning it down_ to cover. Under cover

the men are safe, but if they raise their heads to take careful aim,

they will almost certainly be hit. Their fire under such conditions is

therefore unaimed and wild at the best, and may be wholly ineffective.

_Common_ shell and _high-explosive_ shell (see AMMUNITION) belong to

another class of projectile. The former is now not often used, but a

certain proportion of H.E. shell is carried by the field artillery in

many armies (see table in ORDNANCE: _Field Equipments_). This has a very

violent local effect within a radius of 20 to 25 yds. of the point of

burst (see AMMUNITION, fig. 10). It therefore covers far less ground

than shrapnel, and is naturally used either (a) against troops under

substantial cover or (b) to wreck cover and buildings. In the former

case the shell is supposed to send a rain of splinters vertically

downwards. This it will do, provided the fuze is minutely accurate, and

a burst is thus obtained exactly over the heads of the enemy, but this

is now generally held to be unlikely, and in so far as effect against

_personnel_ is concerned the H.E. shell is not thought to be of much

value. Indeed, in the British and several other services, no H.E. shells

at all are carried by field batteries, reliance being placed upon

percussion shrapnel in attacking localities, buildings, &c., and for

ranging. Experiments have been made towards producing a "H.E. shrapnel,"

which combines the characteristics of both types (see, for a

description, AMMUNITION). For the projectiles used in attacking shielded

guns, see section on "field howitzers" below. _Case shot_ is now rarely

employed. In the war of 1870-71 Prince Kraft von Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen,

who commanded the Prussian Guard artillery, reported the expenditure of

only one round of case, and even that was merely "broken in transport."

The close-quarters projectile of to-day is more usually shrapnel with

the fuze set at zero. Langlois, however, calls case shot "the true

projectile for critical moments, which nothing can replace."

34. _Tactics of Field Artillery._--On the march, the position and

movement of the guns are regulated by the necessity of coming quickly

into action; the usual place for the arm is at or near the heads of the

combatant columns, i.e. as far forward as is consistent with safety.

Safety is further provided for by an "escort," or, if such be not

detailed, by the nearest infantry or cavalry. In attack, the role of the

field artillery is usually (1) to assist if necessary the advanced guard

in the preliminary fighting--for this purpose a battery is usually

assigned to that corps of troops, other batteries also being sent up to

the front as required, (2) to prepare, and (3) to support or cover the

infantry attack. "Preparation" consists chiefly in engaging and subduing

the hostile artillery. This is often spoken of as the "artillery duel,"

and is not a meaningless bombardment, but an essential preliminary to

the advance. Massed guns with modern shrapnel would, if allowed to play

freely upon the attack, infallibly stop, and probably annihilate, the

troops making it. The task of the guns, then, is to destroy the opposing

guns and artillerymen, a task which will engage almost all the resources

of the assailant's artillery in the struggle for artillery superiority.

Shielded guns, enhanced rate of fire, perfection in indirect laying

apparatus, and many other factors, have modified the lessons of 1870,

and complicated the work of achieving victory in the artillery duel so

far that the simple "hard pounding" of former days has given way to a

variety of expedients for inflicting the desired loss and damage, as to

which opinions differ in and within every army. One point is, however,

clear and meets with universal acceptance. "The whole object of the duel

is to enable the artillery subsequently to devote all available

resources to its principal task, which is the material and moral support

of the infantry during each succeeding stage of the fight" (French

regulations). One side must be victorious in the end, and when, and not

until, the hostile artillery is beaten out of action, the victor has

acquired the power of pressing home the attack. The British regulations

(1906), indeed, deal with the steps to be taken when, though the

artillery of the attack is beaten, the infantry advance is continued,

but only so as to order the guns to "reopen at all costs," in other

words, as a forlorn hope. The second part of the preparation, the

gradual disintegration of the opposing line of infantry, has practically

disappeared from the drill books. The next task of the guns, and that in

which modern artillery asserts its power to the utmost, is the _support_

of the infantry attack. The artillery and infantry co-operate, "the

former by firing rapidly when they see their own infantry ... press

forward, and the latter by making full use of the periods of intense

artillery fire to gain ground" (British _F.A. Training_, 1906). Thus

aided, the infantry closes in to decisive ranges, and as it gains ground

to the front, every gun "must be at once turned upon the points selected

... the most effective support afforded to the attacking infantry by the

concentrated fire of guns and field howitzers. The former tie the

defenders to their entrenchments (for retreat is practically impossible

over ground swept by shrapnel bullets), distract their attention and

tend to make them keep their heads down, while the shell from the field

howitzers searches out the interior of the trenches, the reverse slopes

of the position, and checks the movement of reinforcements towards the

threatened point." In these words the British Field Artillery drill-book

of 1902 summarizes the act of "covering" the infantry advance.

Unofficial publications are still more emphatic. The advance of the

infantry to decisive range would often be covered by a mass of one

hundred or more field guns, firing shrapnel at the rate of ten rounds

per gun per minute at the critical moment. Against such a storm of fire

the defending infantry, even supposing that its own guns had refitted

and were again in action, would be powerless. It is in recognition of

the appalling power of field artillery (which has increased in a ratio

out of all proportion to the improvements of modern rifles) that the

French system has been elaborated to the perfection which it has now

attained.

With modern guns and modern tactics artillery almost invariably fires

over the heads of its own infantry. The German regulations indeed say

that it should be avoided as far as possible, but, as a matter of fact,

if the numerous guns of a modern army (at Koniggratz there were 1550

guns on the field, at Gravelotte 1252, at Mukden 3000) were to be given

a clear front, there would be no room for deploying the infantry.

Consequently the French regulations, in which the power of the artillery

is given the greatest possible scope, say that "it almost always fires

over the heads of its own infantry." With field guns and on level ground

it is considered dangerous that infantry in front of the guns should be

less than 600 yds. distant--not for fear of the shells striking the

infantry, but because the fragments resulting from a "premature" burst

are dangerous up to that distance. The question of distance is more

important in connexion with the "covering" of the assault. Up to a

point, the artillery enables the attacking infantry to advance with a

minimum of loss and exhaustion, and thus to close with the enemy at

least on equal terms, if not with a serious advantage, for the fire of

the guns may shake, perhaps almost destroy the enemy's power of

resistance. But when the infantry approaches the enemy the guns can no

longer fire upon the latter's front line without risk of injuring their

friends. All that they can do, when the opposing infantries can see the

whites of each other's eyes, is to lengthen the fuze, raise the

trajectory and sweep the ground where the enemy's supports are posted.

Under these circumstances it is practically agreed that the risk should

be taken without hesitation at so critical a moment as that of a

decisive infantry assault which must be pushed home at whatever cost.

"It will be better for the infantry to chance a few friendly shells than

to be received at short range with a fresh outburst of hostile rifle

fire" (Rouquerol, _Tactical Employment of Quick-firing Field

Artillery_). Thus, the distance at which direct support ceases, formerly

600 yds., has been diminished to 100, and even to 50 yds. Howitzers can,

of course, maintain their fire almost up to the very last stage, and, in

general, high-explosive shell, owing to its purely local effect, may be

employed for some time after it has become unsafe to use shrapnel.

35. Field artillery in _defence_, which would presumably be inferior to

that of the attack, must, of course, act according to circumstances. We

are here concerned not with the absolute strength or weakness of the

passive defensive, which is a matter of tactics (q.v.), but with the

tactical procedure of artillery, which, relatively to other methods, is

held to offer the best chance of success, so far as success is

attainable. On the defensive in a prepared position, which in European

warfare at any rate will be an unusually favourable case for the

defender--the guns have two functions, that of engaging and holding the

hostile artillery, and that of meeting the infantry assault. The dilemma

is this, that on the one hand a position in rear of the line of battle,

with modern improvements in communicating and indirect laying apparatus,

is well suited for engaging the hostile guns, but not for meeting the

assault; and on the other, guns on the forward slope of the defender's

ridge or hill can fire direct, but are quickly located and overwhelmed,

for they can hardly remain silent while their own infantry bears the

fire of the assailant's shrapnel. Thus the defender's guns would, as a

rule, have to be divided. One portion would seek to fight from rearward

concealed positions, and use every device to delay the victory of the

enemy's guns and the development of the battle until it is too late in

the day for a serious infantry attack. Further, the enemy's mistakes and

the "fortune of war" may give opportunities of inflicting severe losses;

such opportunities have always occurred and will do so again. In the

possible (though very far from probable) case of the defender not merely

baffling, but crushing his opponent in the artillery duel, he may, if he

so desires, himself assume the role of assailant, and at any rate he

places a veto on the enemy's attack.

The portion told off to meet the infantry assault would be entrenched on

the forward slope and would take no part in the artillery duel. Very

exceptionally, this advanced artillery might fire upon favourable

targets, but its paramount duty is to remain intact for the decisive

moment. Here again the defender is confronted with grave difficulties.

It is true that his advanced batteries may be of the greatest possible

assistance at the crisis of the infantry assault, yet even so the

covering fire of the hostile guns, as soon as the hostile infantry had

found them their target, may be absolutely overwhelming; moreover, once

the fight has begun, the guns cannot be withdrawn, nor can their

positions easily be modified to meet unexpected developments. The

proportion of the whole artillery force which should be committed to the

forward position is disputed. Colonel Bethell (_Journal Royal

Artillery_, vol. xxxiii. p. 67) holds that all the mountain guns, and

two-thirds of the field guns, should be in the forward, all the

howitzers and heavy guns and one-third of the field guns in the retired

position. But in view of the facts that if once the advanced guns are

submerged in the tide of the enemy's assault, they will be

irrecoverable, and that a modern Q.F. gun, with plenty of ammunition at

hand, may use "rapid fire" freely, artillery opinion, as a whole, is in

favour of having fewer guns and an abnormal ammunition supply in the

forward entrenchments, and the bulk of the artillery (with the

ammunition columns at hand) in rear. But the purely passive defensive is

usually but a preliminary to an active counter-stroke. This

counter-attack would naturally be supported to the utmost by the

offensive tactics of the artillery, which might thus at the end of a

battle achieve far greater results than it could have done at the

beginning of the day. In _pursuit_, it is universally agreed that the

action of the artillery may be bold to the verge of rashness. The

employment of field artillery in _advanced_ and _rear guard actions_

varies almost indefinitely according to circumstances; with _outposts_,

guns would only be employed exceptionally.

36. _Marches._--The importance of having the artillery well up at the

front of a marching column is perhaps best expressed in the phrase of

Prince Kraft von Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, "save hours and not minutes."

The Germans in 1870 so far acted up to the principle that Prince

Hohenlohe, when asked, at the beginning of the battle of Sedan, for a

couple of guns, was able to reply, "You shall have ninety" (see, for

details of the march of the Guard artillery, his _Letters on Artillery_,

6th letter). The German regulations for field service say, very plainly,

"the horses have not done their work until they have got the guns into

action, even at the cost of utter exhaustion." A notable march was made

by the 62nd battery, R.F.A., in the South African War. On the day of the

battle of Modder River, the battery marched 32 m. (mostly through deep

sand) arriving in time to take part in the action. Such forced marches,

if rare, are nowadays expected to be within the power of field artillery

to accomplish. Horse artillery is capable of more than this, and as to

pace, manoeuvring at the cavalry rate. Heavy guns are the least mobile,

and would rarely be able to keep pace with infantry in a forced march.

Field artillery walks 4, trots 9, and gallops at the rate of 15 m. an

hour. A fair marching pace (trot and walk) is 4 m. an hour for field, 5

for horse batteries. A march of 14 m. would, according to the German

regulations, be performed by

a field battery in 5 hours,

a horse battery in 4 hours,

under favourable circumstances (Bronsart von Schellendorf).

37. _Power and Mobility._--It will have been made clear that every gun

represents a compromise between these two requirements, and that each

type of artillery has been evolved in accordance with the relative

requirements of these conditions in respect of the work to be performed.

The classification which has been followed in this article represents

the practically unanimous decision of every important military state.

Still, there has always been controversy between the individual

adherents of each side, and the Boer War experiences raised the question

as to whether field artillery, as the term is usually understood, should

not be abolished, with a view to having only heavy guns and horse

artillery with a field army.

38. _Concentration and Dispersion._--The use of their artillery made by

the Boers in the South African War led to the revival of the idea of

"dispersing" guns instead of "concentrating" them. It would be more

accurate to say that military thinkers had, after the introduction of

the quick-firing gun, challenged every received principle, and amongst

others the employment of artillery in masses, which, as a result of the

war of 1870, "had become almost an article of faith." The idea was to

make use of the increased power of the guns to gain equally great

results with the employment of less material than formerly. Thus the

dispersion of guns is bound up with the passive defensive. The first

editions of the British _Field Artillery Training_ and _Combined

Training_, strongly influenced as they were by South African experience,

did not legislate, even in dealing with defence, for "dispersion" in the

Boer manner, but only for adaptability (see _Field Artillery Training_,

1902, p. 15). In the Boer War, whilst the Boers nearly always scattered

their guns, almost the only occasion upon which their artillery played a

decisive part was at Spion Kop, where its fire was concentrated upon the

point of assault. At Pieter's Hill, the fire of seventy guns covered the

British infantry assault in the Napoleonic manner. On the whole it may

be accepted as a general truth that guns are safe, and may be locally

effective, when dispersed, but that they cannot produce decisive effect

except when used in masses. It must, however, be clearly understood that

a "mass" in this sense means a large number of guns, under one command,

and susceptible of being handled as a unit, so far as the direction and

effectiveness of their fire is concerned. _This being secured_, and on

that condition only, it does not matter whether the actual gun positions

are scattered over a few square miles, or are closed in one long line

and using direct fire--they are still a mass, and capable of acting

effectively as such. While there are undoubtedly grave dangers in using

the indirect method too freely, technical improvements in laying,

telephones, &c., have had much to do with the possibility, at any rate

under favourable circumstances, of a concentration which may be

described as one of shells rather than of guns, and the reader is

reminded in this connexion that the work formerly done by the gun is now

performed by the shell.

39. _Horse Artillery_ is to be regarded as field artillery of great

mobility and manoeuvring power. Its value may be said, in general terms,

to lie in augmenting the weak fire-power of the mounted troops, and in

facilitating their work as much as possible. Thus, when cavalry meets

serious opposition in reconnoitring, the guns may be able to break down

the enemy's resistance without calling for assistance from the main body

of the cavalry, and, in the action of cavalry _versus_ cavalry, the

"paramount duty of the horse artillery is to shatter the enemy's

cavalry" (_Field Artillery Training_, 1906), i.e. to "prepare" the

success of the cavalry charge by breaking up as far as possible the

enemy's power of meeting it. In the cavalry battle, covering fire is

practically impossible, owing both to the short distances separating the

combatants and to the rapidity of their movements, but steps are taken

"to enable all the guns to bear on the enemy's cavalry at the points of

collision." The ideal position for the horse artillery is out to a

flank, the cavalry manoeuvring so as to draw the enemy's cavalry under

enfilade fire, and at the same time to force them to mask the fire of

their own horse artillery. Another and a most important function of the

horse batteries is to reinforce, with the greatest possible speed, any

point in the general line of battle which is in need of artillery

support. For this reason the corps artillery generally includes horse

batteries.

40. _Field Howitzers_ are somewhat less mobile than field guns; they

have, however, far greater shell power. The special features of the

weapon are, of course, the product of the special requirements which

have called it into existence. These are, briefly (a) the necessity of

being able to "search" the interior of earthworks, a task which, as has

been said, is beyond the power of high-velocity field guns, and (b)

demolition work, which is equally beyond the power of even a H.E. shell

of field-gun calibre. The first of these conditions implies a steep

"angle of descent," which again implies a high angle of elevation. The

second requires great shell power but does not call for high velocity.

The howitzer, therefore, is a short gun, firing a heavy shell at high

angles of elevation. Howitzers almost always are laid by the indirect

method of fire from under cover, since it is clear that, with high

angles of elevation, the gun may be brought close up to the covering

mass, and still fire over it. Ranging must be done very accurately and

yet economically, as but few of their heavy shells can be carried in the

wagons and limbers, and the shells descending upon an enemy almost

vertically lose the long sweeping effect of the field shrapnel which

neutralizes minor errors of ranging. The projectiles employed are high

explosive and shrapnel, the latter for use against _personnel_ under

cover, the former for demolition of field works, casemates or buildings.

It is very generally held that howitzer time shrapnel is the best form

of projectile for the attack of shielded guns. Here it may be said that

no completely satisfactory method of dealing with these has yet been

discovered. The best procedure with field guns is said to be lengthening

the fuze to obtain a high percentage of bursts on graze. A shell

striking the face of the shield will penetrate it, and should kill some

at least of the gun detachment behind. The high-explosive shrapnel

alluded to above is designed primarily for the attack of shielded guns.

41. _Heavy Field Artillery_, alternatively called _Artillery of

Position_, as has been said, includes all guns of 4-in. calibre and

upwards, mounted on travelling carriages. In South Africa, where firm

soil was usually to be found, 6-in. guns were employed as heavy field

guns, but in Europe even the 5-in. (British Service) is liable to sink

into the ground. In Great Britain, guns only are used by this branch;

abroad, the "heavy artillery of the field army," the "light siege

train," &c., as it is variously called, is as a rule composed of

howitzers of a heavier calibre than the field howitzer, the 15-cm.

(6-in.) howitzer being most commonly met with. This artillery has,

however, a different tactical role from the heavy field artillery of the

British service; and it is always with a view to the attack of permanent

or semi-permanent fortifications that the _materiel_ is organized. In

Great Britain, heavy batteries armed with the 5-in. gun are considered

as "an auxiliary to the horse and field artillery" (_Heavy Artillery

Training_). Ranging is conducted with greater deliberation than ranging

with the lighter guns, though upon the same general lines. Parts of the

process may, however, be omitted in certain circumstances. Heavy guns

use high-explosive (lyddite) shells and time shrapnel, the former for

ranging and for demolishing cover, the latter against _personnel_.

Laying is usually indirect. The tactical principles upon which heavy

artillery does its work are based, in the main, on the long range (up to

10,000 yds.) and great shell-power of the guns. This power enables the

artillery to reach with effect targets which are beyond the range of

lighter ordnance, and it is, therefore, considered possible to disperse

the guns in batteries, and even in sections of two guns, along the front

of the army, without forfeiting the power of concentrating their fire on

any point--a power which otherwise they would not possess owing to their

want of mobility. At the same time it is not forbidden to bring them

into line with the rest of the artillery, in order to achieve a decisive

result. In the _attack_, beside the general task of supplementing the

effect of other natures of ordnance, heavy artillery may demolish cover,

buildings, &c., held by the enemy, and during the infantry assault they

may do excellent service in sweeping a great depth of ground, their

smaller angle of descent, and the greater remaining velocity and heavier

driving charge of their shrapnel, as compared with field guns, enabling

them to do this effectively. In the _defence_, long-range fire has great

value, especially in sweeping approaches which the enemy must use. In

_pursuit_, the heavy artillery may be able to shell the main body of the

enemy during its retreat, even if it has left a rearguard. In _retreat_,

the want of mobility of these guns militates against their employment in

exposed positions, such as rearguards usually have to take up.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.[6]--Amongst general historical works may be mentioned

Napoleon III. and Col. Fave, _Etudes sur le passe et l'avenir de

l'artillerie_ (Paris. 1846-1871); C. von Decker, _Geschichte des

Geschutzwesens_ (Berlin, 1822); H.W.L. Hime, _Stray Military Papers_

(London, 1901); _Die Beziehung Friedrichs des Grossen zu seiner

Artillerie_ (Berlin, 1865); H. von Muller, _Die Entwickelung der

Feldartillerie, 1815-1892_ (Berlin, 1893-1894); J. Campana,

_L'Artillerie de campagne, 1792-1901_ (Paris, 1901); v. Reitzenstein,

_Das Geschutzwesen, &c. in Hannover und Braunschweig 1365 bis zur

Gegenwart_ (Leipzig, 1900); Kretschmar, _Gesch. d. sachsischen

Feldart. 1620-1878_ (1879); Schoning, _Gesch. des brandenbg.-preuss.

Art._ (1844-1845); Schneller, _Litteratur d. Artillerie_ (1768); v.

Tempelhof, _Gesch. d. Artillerie_ (1797); Duncan, _Hist. of the Royal

Artillery_. A complete bibliography and criticism of the artillery

works of the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries will be found in Max Jahns,

_Geschichte der Kriegswissenschaften_, pp. 221-236, 382-424, 621, 658

and 747-752. For the early 17th century, Diego Ufano, _Tratado de la

Artilleria_ (1613) is a standard treatise of the time, but the mystery

preserved by artillerists in regard to their arm is responsible for an

astonishing dearth of artillery literature even in the time of the

Thirty Years' War. In 1650 appeared Casimir Simienowicz' _Ars magnae

artilleriae_, an English translation of which was published in London

in 1729, and in 1683 Michael Mieth published _Artilleriae Recentior

Praxis_. The first edition of Surirey de S. Remy, _Memoires

d'Artillerie_, appeared in Paris in 1697. With the reorganization of

the arm in the early 18th century came many manuals and other works

(see Jahns, _op. cit._ pp. 1607-1621 and 1692-1698), amongst which may

be mentioned the marquis de Quincy's _Art de la guerre_ (1726). From

1740 onwards numerous manuals appeared, mostly official

_reglements_--see French General Staff, _L'Artillerie francaise au

XVIII^e siecle_ (1908); and the tactical handling of the arm is

treated in general works, such as Guibert's, on war. See also de

Morla, _Tratado de la Artilleria_ (1784), translated into German by

Hoyer (_Lehrbuch der Art.-Wissenschaft_, Leipzig, 1821-1826); _Du

Service de l'artillerie a la guerre_ (Paris, 1780, German translation,

Dresden, 1782, and English, by Capt. Thomson, R.A., London, 1789),

Bardet de Villeneuve's _Traite de l'artillerie_ (Hague, 1741), and

Hennebert, _Gribeauval, Lieut.-General des armees du Roy_ (Paris,

1896). Important works of the period 1800-1850 are Scharnhorst,

_Handbuch der Artillerie_ (Hanover, 1804-1806, French translation by

Fourcy, _Traite sur l'artillerie_, Paris, 1840-1841); Rouvroy,

_Vorlesungen uber die Artillerie_ (Dresden, 1821-1825); Timmerhans,

_Essai d'un traite d'artillerie_ (Brussels, 1839-1846); C. v. Decker,

_Die Artillerie fur alle Waffen_ (1826); Griffiths, _The Artillerist's

Manual_ (Woolwich, 1840); Piobert, _Traite d'artillerie_ (Paris,

1845-1847); Taubert (translated by Maxwell), _Use of Field Artillery

on Service_ (London, 1856); Capt. Simmonds, R.A., _Application of

Artillery in the Field_ (London, 1819); Gassendi, _Aide-memoire a

l'usage des officiers d'artillerie_ (Paris, 1819). See also Girod de

l'Ain, _Grands artilleurs, Drouot, Senarmont, Eble_ (Paris, 1894).

Among the numerous works on modern field artillery may be mentioned

Prince Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, _Briefe uber Artillerie_ (Berlin, 1887,

2nd ed., English translation by Col. Walford, _Letters on Artillery_,

Woolwich, 1887); Hoffbauer, _Taktik der Feldartillerie, 1866 und

1870-1871_ (Berlin, 1876), and _Applikatorische Studie uber Verwendung

der Artillerie_ (Berlin, 1884); Erb, _L'Artillerie dans les batailles

de Metz_ (Paris, 1906); Leurs, _L'Art. de campagne prussienne

1864-1870_ (Brussels, 1874); v. Schell, _Studie uber Taktik der

Feldartillerie_ (quoted above); Hennebert, _Artillerie moderne_

(Paris, 1889); and for quick-firing artillery, Langlois, _Artillerie

de campagne en liaison avec les autres armes_ (Paris, 1892 and 1907);

Wille, _Feldgeschutz der Zukunft_ (Berlin, 1891); _Waffenlehre_ (2nd

ed., 1901); and _Zur Feldgeschutzfrage_ (Berlin, 1896); Rohne, _Die

Taktik der Feldartillerie_ (Berlin, 1900), _Studie uber d.

Schnellfeuergeschutze in Rohrrucklauflafette_ (Berlin, 1901), _Die

franzosische Feldartillerie_ (Berlin, 1902); _Entwicklung des

Massengebrauchs der Feldartillerie_ (Berlin, 1900); and articles in

_Jahrbucher f. d. Deutsche Armee und Marine_ (October 1901 and January

1905); Hoffbauer, _Die Frage des Schnellfeuerfeldgeschutzes_ (Berlin,

1902), and _Verwendung der Feldhaubitzen_ (Berlin, 1901); Wangemann,

_Fur die leichte Feldhaubitze_ (Berlin, 1904); von Reichenau, _Studie

uber ... Ausbildung der Feldart_. (Berlin, 1896), _Einfluss der

Schilde auf die Entwicklung des F.-A. Materials_, and _Neue Studien

uber die Entwicklung der Feldart._ (Berlin, 1902 and 1903); Smekal,

_Fuhrung und Verwendung der Divisions-Artillerie_ (Vienna, 1901);

Korzen and Kuhn, _Waffenlehre_ (Vienna, 1906); G. Rouquerol, _Emploi

de l'artillerie de campagne a tir rapide_ (Paris, 1901), and

_Organisation de l'artillerie de campagne_ (Paris, 1903);

Girardon-Lagabbe, _Organisation du materiel de l'artillerie de

campagne_ (Paris, 1903); and in English, Capt. P. de B. Radcliffe's

translation of Rouquerol's work (_The Tactical Employment of

Quick-firing Field Artillery_, London, 1903), and especially Lt.-Col.

H.A. Bethell, _Modern Guns and Gunnery_ (Woolwich, 1907). See also the

current drill manuals of the British, French and German artillery.

(C. F. A.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Napoleon's maxim, quoted above, reappears in spirit in the

British F.A. Training of 1906 (p. 225).

[2] The old smooth-bore mortar for high-angle fire has of course

disappeared, but the name "mortar" is still applied in some countries

to short rifled howitzers.

[3] Though not of course against the direct impact of shrapnel or

H.E. shells.

[4] Finding the line is also an integral part of ranging. When an

aiming point is used, the angle at which the guns must be laid with

reference to it is calculated and given out by the battery commander.

The modern goniometric sight permits of a wide angle (in England 180

deg. right or left) being given. "Deflection" is a small angular

correction applied to individual guns.

[5] The "corrector" is an adjustment on the sights of the gun used

to determine the correct fuze. In the British Q.F. equipment, a

graduated dial or drum shows the elevation of the gun above the line

of sight. The fuze lengths are marked on a movable scale opposite

the range graduations to which they apply, and the "corrector" moves

this fuze scale so as to bring different fuze lengths opposite the

range graduation. For example, a certain corrector setting gives

11-1/2 on the fuze scale opposite 4000 yds. on the range scale, and

if the shells set to 11-1/2 burst too high, a new corrector setting

is taken, the fuze length 12 is now opposite to the 4000 range

graduation, and this length gives bursts closer up and lower. In the

German service a corrector (_Aufsatzschieber_) alters the real

elevation given to the gun, so that while throughout the battery all

guns have the same (nominal or ordered) elevation shown on the

sights, the real elevations of individual guns vary according to the

different corrector settings. Thus bursts at different heights and

distances from the target are obtained by shifting the trajectory of

the shell. The fuze, being set for the nominal elevation common to

all the guns, burns for the same time in each case, and thus the

burst will be lower and closer to the target with a less (real)

elevation, and higher and farther from it with a greater.

[6] Most of the works named deal with technical questions of

equipment, ammunition, ballistics, &c.

ARTIODACTYLA (from Gr. [Greek: artios], even, and [Greek: daktylos], a

finger or toe, "even-toed"), the suborder of ungulate mammals in which

the central (and in some cases the only) pair of toes in each foot are

arranged symmetrically on each side of a vertical line running through

the axes of the limbs. As contrasted with the Perissodactyla living, and

in a great degree extinct, Artiodactyla are characterized by the

following structural features. The upper premolar and molar teeth are

not alike, the former being single and the latter two-lobed; and the

last lower molar of both first and second dentition is almost invariably

three-lobed. Nasal bones not expanded posteriorly. No alisphenoid canal.

Dorsal and lumbar vertebrae together always nineteen, though the former

may vary from twelve to fifteen. Femur without third trochanter. Third

and fourth digits of both feet almost equally developed, and their

terminal phalanges flattened on their inner or contiguous surfaces, so

that each is not symmetrical in itself, but when the two are placed

together they form a figure symmetrically disposed to a line drawn

between them. Or, in other words, the axis or median line of the whole

foot is a line drawn between the third and fourth digits (fig. 1). Lower

articular surface of the astragalus divided into two nearly equal

facets, one for the navicular and a second for the cuboid bone. The

calcaneum with an articular facet for the lower end of the fibula.

Stomach almost always more or less complex. Colon convoluted. Caecum

small. Placenta diffused or cotyledonary. Teats either few and inguinal,

or numerous and abdominal.

Artiodactyla date from the Eocene period, when they appear to have been

less numerous than the Perissodactyla, although at the present day they

are immeasurably ahead of that group, and form indeed the dominant

ungulates. As regards the gradual specialization and development of the

modern types, the following features are noteworthy.

1. As regards the teeth, we have the passage of a simply tubercular, or

bunodont ([Greek: bounos], a hillock) type of molar into one in which

the four main tubercles, or columns, have assumed a crescentic form,

whence this type is termed selenodont ([Greek: selaenae], the new moon).

Further, there is the modification of the latter from a short-crowned,

or brachyodont type, to one in which the columns are tall, constituting

the hypsodont, or hypsiselenodont, type. It is noteworthy, however, that

in some instances there appears to have been a retrograde modification

from the selenodont towards the bunodont type, the hippopotamus being a

case in point. Other modifications are the loss of the upper incisors;

the development of the canines into projecting tusks; and the loss of

the anterior premolars.

2. As regards the limbs. Reduction of the ulna from a complete and

distinct bone to a comparatively rudimentary state in which it coalesces

more or less firmly with the radius. Reduction of the fibula till

nothing but its lower extremity remains. Reduction and final loss of

outer pair of digits (second and fifth), with coalescence of the

metacarpal and metatarsal bones of the two middle digits to form a

cannon-bone. Union of the navicular and cuboid, and sometimes the

ectocuneiform bone, of the tarsus.

3. Change of form of the odontoid process of the second or axis

vertebrae from a cone to a hollow half-cylinder.

4. Development of horns or antlers on the frontal bones, and gradual

complication of form of antlers.

5. By inference only, increasing complication of stomach with ruminating

function superadded. Modification of placenta from simple diffused to

cotyledonary form.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Bones of Right Fore Feet of existing

Artiodactyla.

A, Pig (_Sus scrofa_). l, Lunar.

B, Red deer (_Cervus elaphus_). s, Scaphoid.

C, Camel (_Camelus bactrianus_). u, Unciform.

U, Ulna. m, Magnum.

R, Radius. td, Trapezoid.]

c, Cuneiform.

In the Sheep and the Camel the long compound bone, supporting the two

main (or only) toes is the cannon-bone.

The primitive Artiodactyla thus probably had the typical number (44) of

incisor, canine and molar teeth, brachyodont molars, conical odontoid

process, four distinct toes on each foot, with metacarpal, metatarsal

and all the tarsal bones distinct, and no frontal appendages.

Pecora.

As regards classification, the first group is that of the Pecora, or

Cotylophora, in which the cheek-teeth are selenodont, but there are no

upper incisors or canine-like premolars, while upper canines are

generally absent, though sometimes largely developed. Inferior incisors,

three on each side with an incisiform canine in contact with them.

Cheek-teeth consisting of p.3/3, m.3/3, in continuous series. Auditory

bulla simple and hollow within. Odontoid process of second vertebra in

the form of a crescent, hollow above. Lower extremity of the fibula

represented by a distinct malleolar bone articulating with the outer

surface of the lower end of the tibia. Third and fourth metacarpals and

metatarsals confluent into cannon-bones (fig. 1 B), and the toes

enclosed in hoofs. Outer toes small and rudimentary, or in some cases

entirely suppressed; their metacarpal or metatarsal bones never

complete. Navicular and cuboid bones of tarsus united. The skull

generally lacks a sagittal crest; and the condyle of the lower jaw is

transversely elongated. Horns or antlers usually present, at least in

the male sex. Left brachial artery arising from a common innominate

trunk, instead of coming off separately from the aortic arch. Stomach

with four complete cavities. Placenta cotyledonous. Teats 2 or 4.

The group at the present day is divided into _Giraffidae_ (giraffe and

okapi), _Cervidae_ (deer), _Antilocapridae_ (prongbuck), and _Bovidae_

(oxen, sheep, goats, antelopes, &c.). (See PECORA.)

Tylopoda.

The second group is represented at the present day by the camels

(_Camelus_) of the Old, and the llamas (_Lama_) of the New World,

collectively constituting the family _Camelidae_. They derive their name

of Tylopoda ("boss-footed") from the circumstance that the feet form

large cushion-like pads, supporting the weight of the body, while the

toes have broad nails on their upper surface only, instead of being

encased in hoofs. The cheek-teeth are selenodont, and one pair of upper

incisors is retained, while some of the anterior premolars assume a

canine-like shape, and are separated from the rest of the cheek-series.

Auditory bulla filled with honeycombed bony tissue. Odontoid process of

second vertebra semi-cylindrical; skull with a sagittal crest; and the

condyle of the lower jaw rounded. Third and fourth metacarpals and

metatarsals (which are alone present) fused into cannon-bones for the

greater part of their length, but diverging inferiorly (fig. 1, C) and

with their articular surfaces for the toes smooth, instead of ridged as

in the Pecora. Navicular and cuboid bones of tarsus distinct. No horns

or antlers. Stomach, although complex, differing essentially from that

of the Pecora. Placenta diffuse, without cotyledons. Teats few. (See

TYLOPODA.)

In the same sectional group is included the North American family of

oreodonts (_Oreodontidae_), which are much more primitive ruminants, with

shorter necks and limbs, the full series of 44 teeth, all in apposition,

and the metacarpal and metatarsal bones separate, and the toes generally

of more normal type, although sometimes claw-like. (See OREODON.) The

Eocene American genus _Homacodon_ is regarded as representing a third

family group, the _Homacodontidae (= Pantolestidae_), in which the molars

were of a bunodont type, and approximate to those of the Condylarthra

from which this family appears to have sprung, and to have given origin

on the one hand to the _Oreodontidae_, and on the other to the

_Camelidae_. The family is represented in the Lower, or Wasatch, Eocene

by _Trigonolestes_, in the Middle (Bridger) Eocene by _Homacodon_

(Pantolestes), and in the Upper (Uinta) Eocene by _Bunomeryx_.

Tragulina.

The third group is that represented by the chevrotains or mouse-deer,

forming the family _Tragulidae_, with _Tragulus_ in south-eastern Asia

and _Dorcatherium_ (or _Hyomoschus_) in equatorial Africa. The

cheek-teeth are selenodont, as in the two preceding groups; there are no

upper incisors, but there are long, narrow and pointed upper canines,

which attain a large size in the males; the lower canines are

incisor-like, as in the Pecora, and there are no caniniform premolars in

either jaw. Cheek-teeth in a continuous series consisting of p. 3/3, m.

3/3. Odontoid process of axis conical. Fibula complete. Four complete

toes on each foot. The middle metacarpals and metatarsals generally

confluent, the outer ones (second and fifth) slender but complete, i.e.

extending from the carpus or tarsus to the digit. Navicular, cuboid and

ectocuneiform bones of tarsus united. Auditory bulla of skull filled

with cancellar tissue. No frontal appendages. Ruminating, but the

stomach with only three distinct compartments, the maniplies or third

cavity of the stomach of the Pecora being rudimentary. Placenta

diffused. (See CHEVROTAIN.)

Anoplotherina.

In this place must be mentioned the extinct Oligocene European group

typified by the well-known genus _Anoplotherium_ of the Paris

gypsum-quarries, and hence termed Anoplotherina, although the

alternative title Dichobunoidea has been suggested. It includes the two

families _Anoplotheriidae_ and _Dichobunidae_, of which the first died

out with the Oligocene, while the second may have given origin to the

Tragulina and perhaps the Pecora. There is the full series of 44 teeth,

generally without any gaps, and most of the bones of the skeleton are

separate and complete; while, in many instances at any rate, the tail

was much longer than in any existing ungulates, and the whole bodily

form approximated to that of a carnivore. The upper molars, which may

be either selenodont or buno-selenodont, carry five cusps each, instead

of the four characteristic of all the preceding groups; and they are all

very low-crowned, so as to expose the whole of the valleys between the

cusps. In _Anoplotherium_, some of the species of which were larger than

tapirs, there were either two or three toes, the latter number being

almost unique among the Artiodactyla. Allied genera are _Diplobune_ and

_Dacrytherium_.

The _Dichobunidae_ include the genus _Dichobune_, of which the species

were small animals with buno-selenodont molars. _Xiphodon_ and

_Dichodon_ represent another type with cutting premolars and selenodont

molars; while _Caenotherium_ and _Plesiomeryx_ form yet another branch,

with resemblances to the ruminants. The most interesting genera are

however, the Upper Oligocene and Lower Miocene _Gelocus_ and

_Prodremotherium_, which have perfectly selenodont teeth, and the third

and fourth metacarpal and metatarsal bones respectively fused into an

imperfect cannon-bone, with the reduction of the lateral metacarpals and

metatarsals to mere remnants of their upper and lower extremities. While

_Gelocus_ exhibits a marked approximation to the _Tragulidae,

Prodremotherium_ comes nearer to the _Cervidae_, of which it not

improbably indicates the ancestral type. The _Dichobunidae_ may be

regarded as occupying a position analogous to that of the

_Homacodontidae_ in the Tylopoda, and like the latter, are probably the

direct descendants of Condylarthra.

[Illustration: FIG 2.--Restoration of _Anoplotherium commune._]

Suina.

The last section of the Artiodactyla is that of the Suina, represented

at the present day by the pigs (_Suidae_), and the hippopotamuses

(_Hippopotamidae_), and in past times by the _Anthracotheriidae_, in

which may probably be included the _Elotheriidae._ In the existing

members of the group the cheek-teeth approximate to the bunodont type,

although showing signs of being degenerate modifications of the

selenodont modification. There is at least one pair of upper incisors,

while the full series of 44 teeth may be present. The metacarpals and

metatarsals are generally distinct (fig. 1 A), and never fuse into a

complete cannon-bone; and the navicular and cuboid bones of the tarsus

are separate. The odontoid process of the second vertebra is pig-like:

and the tibia and fibula and radius and ulna are severally distinct. The

stomach is simple or somewhat complex, and the placenta diffused. The

_Suidae_ include the Old World pigs (_Suinae_) and the American

peccaries (_Dicotylinae_), and are characterized by the snout

terminating in a fleshy disk-like expansion, in the midst of which are

perforated the nostrils; while the toes are enclosed in sharp hoofs, of

which the lateral ones do not touch the ground. There is a caecum. The

_Dicotylinae_ differ from the _Suinae_ in that the upper canines are

directed downwards (instead of curving upwards) and have sharp

cutting-edges, while the toes are four in front and three behind

(instead of four on each foot), and the stomach is complex instead of

simple. In the Old World a large number of fossil forms are known, of

which the earliest is the Egyptian Eocene _Geniohyus._ Originally the

family was an Old World type, but in the Miocene it gained access into

North America, where the earliest form is _Bothriolabis_, an ancestral

peccary showing signs of affinity with the European Miocene genus

_Palaeochoerus._ (See SWINE and PECCARY.)

The _Hippopotamidae_ are an exclusively Old World group, in which the

muzzle is broad and rounded and quite unlike that of the _Suidae_, while

the crowns of the cheek-teeth form a distinctly trefoil pattern, when

partially worn, which is only foreshadowed in those of the latter. The

short and broad teeth terminate in four subequal toes, protected by

short rounded hoofs, and all reaching the ground. The hinder end of the

lower jaw is provided with a deep descending flange. Both incisors and

canines are devoid of roots and grow throughout life, the canines, and

in the typical species one pair of lower incisors, growing to an immense

size. The stomach is complex; but there is no caecum. Although now

exclusively African, the family (of which all the representatives may be

included in the single genus _Hippopotamus_, with several subgeneric

groups) is represented in the Pliocene of Europe and the Lower Pliocene

of northern India. Its place of origin cannot yet be determined.

The extinct _Anthracotheriidae_ were evidently nearly allied to the

_Hippopotamidae_, of which they are in all probability the ancestral

stock. They agree, for instance, with that family in the presence of a

descending flange at the hinder end of each side of the lower jaw; but

their dentition is of a more generalized type, comprising the full

series of 44 teeth, among which the incisors and canines are of normal

form, but specially enlarged, and developing roots in the usual manner.

The molars are partially selenodont in the typical genus

_Anthracotherium_, with five cusps, or columns, on the crowns of those

of the upper jaw, which are nearly square. The genus has a very wide

distribution, extending from Europe through Asia to North America, and

occurring in strata which are of Oligocene and Miocene age. In _Ancodon_

(_Hyopotamus_) the cusps on the molars are taller, so that the dentition

is more decidedly selenodont; the distribution of this genus includes

not only Europe, Asia and North Africa, but also Egypt where it occurs

in Upper Eocene beds in company with the European genus _Rhagatherium_,

which is nearer _Anthracotherium._ On the other hand, in

_Merycopotamus_, of the Lower Pliocene of India and Burma, the upper

molars have lost the fifth intermediate cusp of _Ancodon_; and thus,

although highly selenodont, might be easily modified, by a kind of

retrograde development, into the trefoil-columned molars of

_Hippopotamus._ In the above genera, so far as is known, the feet were

four-toed, although with the lateral digits relatively small; but in

_Elotherium_ (or _Entelodon_), from the Lower Miocene of Europe and the

Oligocene of North America, the two lateral digits in each foot had

disappeared. This is the more remarkable seeing that _Elotherium_ may be

regarded as a kind of bunodont _Anthracotherium._ It shows the

characteristic hippopotamus-flange to the lower jaw, but has also a

large descending process from the jugal bone of the zygomatic arch of

the skull. Finally, we have in the Pliocene of India the genus

_Tetraconodon_, remarkable for the enormous size attained by the bluntly

conical premolars; as the molars are purely bunodont, this genus seems

to be a late and specialized survivor of a primitive type. (R. L.*)

ARTISAN, or ARTIZAN, a mechanic; a handicraftsman in distinction to an

artist. The English word (from Late Lat. _artitianus_, instructed in

arts) at one time meant "artist," but has been restricted to signify the

operative workman only.

ARTOIS, an ancient province of the north of France, corresponding to the

present department of Pas de Calais, with the exclusion of the

arrondissements of Boulogne and Montreuil, which belonged to Picardy. It

is a rich and well-watered country, producing abundance of grain and

hops, and yielding excellent pasture for cattle. The capital of the

province was Arras, and the other important places were Saint-Omer,

Bethune, Aire, Hesdin, Bapaume, Lens, Lillers, Saint-Pol and

Saint-Venant. The name Artois (still more corrupted in "Arras") is

derived from the Atrebates, who possessed the district in the time of

Caesar. From the 9th to the 12th century Artois belonged to the counts

of Flanders. It was bestowed in 1180 on Philip Augustus of France by

Philip of Alsace, as the dowry of his niece Isabella of Hainaut. At her

death in 1190, Baldwin IX., count of Flanders (d. 1206), and then his

son-in-law, Ferrand (Ferdinand) of Portugal, count of Flanders, disputed

the possession of the country with the king of France, Ferrand being in

the coalition which was overthrown by Philip Augustus at Bouvines

(1214). In 1237 Artois, which was raised to a countship the following

year, was conferred as an appanage by Saint Louis on his brother

Robert, who died on crusade in 1250. His son, Robert II., took part in

the wars in Navarre, Sicily, Guienne and Flanders, and was killed at the

battle of Courtrai in 1302. After his death, his son Philip having

predeceased him (1298), Artois was adjudged to his daughter Mahaut, or

Matilda, as against her nephew Robert, son of Philip, who attempted to

support his claim to the countship by forged titles. Banished from

France for this crime (1322), Robert of Artois took refuge in England,

where he became earl of Richmond, and incited Edward III. to make war

upon Philip of Valois. His descendants, the counts of Eu (q.v.),

continued to style themselves counts of Artois. By the marriage of

Mahaut (d. 1329) with Otto IV., Artois passed to the house of Burgundy,

in whose possession it remained till the marriage of Mary, the daughter

of Charles the Bold, to the archduke Maximilian brought it to the house

of Austria. Louis XI., however, occupied portions of Artois, and the

claims of Austria were contested by France until the treaty of Senlis

(1493). The emperor Charles V. established the council of Artois, with

sovereign authority. At the end of the Thirty Years' War Artois was

again conquered by the French, and the conquest was ratified in the

treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) by Spain, to whom the province had fallen

in 1634. During the war between France and Holland (1672-77) and that of

the Spanish Succession. Artois was invaded again, but the treaties of

Nijmwegen (1678) and of Utrecht (1713) confirmed the sovereignty of

France. The title of count of Artois was borne by Charles X. of France

before his accession to the throne. This new creation became extinct on

the death of the comte de Chambord in 1883.

ART SALES. The practice of selling objects of art by auction in England

dates from the latter part of the 17th century, when in most cases the

names of the auctioneers were suppressed. Evelyn (under date June 21,

1693) mentions a "great auction of pictures (_Lord Melford's_) in the

Banquetting House, Whitehall," and the practice is frequently referred

to by other contemporary and later writers. Before the introduction of

regular auctions the practice was, as in the case of the famous

collection formed by Charles I., to price each object and invite

purchasers, just as in other departments of commerce. But this was a

slow process, especially in the case of pictures, and lacked the

incentive of excitement. The first really important art collection to

come under the hammer was that of Edward, earl of Oxford, dispersed by

Cock, under the Piazza, Covent Garden, on 8th March 1741/2 and the five

following days, six more days being required by the coins. Nearly all

the leading men of the day, including Horace Walpole, attended or were

represented at this sale, and the prices varied from five shillings for

an anonymous bishop's "head" to 165 guineas for Vandyck's group of "Sir

Kenelm Digby, lady, and son." The next great dispersal was Dr Richard

Mead's extensive collection, of which the pictures, coins and gems, &c.,

were sold by Langford in February and March 1754, the sale realizing the

total, unprecedented up to that time, of L16,069. The thirty-eight days'

sale (1786) of the Duchess of Portland's collection is very noteworthy,

from the fact that it included the celebrated Portland vase, now in the

British Museum. Many other interesting and important 18th-century sales

might be mentioned. High prices did not become general until the

Calonne, Trumbull (both 1795) and Bryan (1798) sales. As to the quality

of the pictures which had been sold by auction up to the latter part of

the 18th century, it may be assumed that this was not high. The

importation of pictures and other objects of art had assumed extensive

proportions by the end of the 18th century, but the genuine examples of

the Old Masters probably fell far short of 1%. England was felt to be

the only safe asylum for valuable articles, but the home which was

intended to be temporary often became permanent. Had it not been for the

political convulsions on the continent, England, instead of being one of

the richest countries in the world in art treasures, would have been one

of the poorest. This fortuitous circumstance had, moreover, another

effect, in that it greatly raised the critical knowledge of pictures.

Genuine works realized high prices, as, for example, at Sir William

Hamilton's sale (1801), when Beckford paid 1300 guineas for the little

picture of "A Laughing Boy" by Leonardo da Vinci; and when at the

Lafontaine sales (1807 and 1811) two Rembrandts each realized 5000

guineas, "The Woman taken in Adultery," now in the National Gallery, and

"The Master Shipbuilder," now at Buckingham Palace. The Beckford sale of

1823 (41 days, L43,869) was the forerunner of the great art dispersal of

the 19th century; Horace Walpole's accumulation at Strawberry Hill, 1842

(24 days, L33,450), and the Stowe collection, 1848 (41 days, L75,562),

were also celebrated. They comprised every phase of art work, and in all

the quality was of a very high order. They acted as a most healthy

stimulus to art collecting, a stimulus which was further nourished by

the sales of the superb collection of Ralph Bernal in 1855 (32 days,

L62,690), and of the almost equally fine but not so comprehensive

collection of Samuel Rogers, 1856 (18 days, L42,367). Three years later

came the dispersal of the 1500 pictures which formed Lord Northwick's

gallery at Cheltenham (pictures and works of art, 18 days, L94,722).

Towards the latter part of the first half of the 19th century an

entirely new race of collectors gradually came into existence; they were

for the most part men who had made, or were making, large fortunes in

the various industries of the midlands and north of England and other

centres. They were untrammelled by "collecting" traditions, and their

patronage was almost exclusively extended to the artists of the day. The

dispersals of these collections began in 1863 with the Bicknell Gallery,

and continued at irregular intervals for many years, e.g. Gillott

(1872), Mendel (1875), Wynn Ellis and Albert Levy (1876), Albert Grant

(1877) and Munro of Novar (1878). These patrons purchased at munificent

prices either direct from the easel or from the exhibitions not only

pictures in oils but also water-colour drawings. As a matter of

investment their purchases frequently realized far more than the

original outlay; sometimes, however, the reverse happened, as, for

instance, in the case of Landseer's "Otter Hunt," for which Baron Grant

is said to have paid L10,000 and which realized shortly afterwards only

5650 guineas. One of the features of the sales of the 'seventies was the

high appreciation of water-colour drawings. At the Gillott sale (1872)

160 examples realized L27,423, Turner's "Bamborough Castle" fetching

3150 gns.; at the Quilter sale (1875) David Cox's "Hayfield," for which

a dealer paid him 50 gns. in 1850, brought 2810 gns. The following are

the most remarkable prices of later years. In 1895 Cox's "Welsh Funeral"

(which cost about L20) sold for 2400 gns., and Burne-Jones's

"Hesperides" for 2460 gns. In 1908, 13 Turner drawings fetched L12,415

(Acland-Hood sale) and 7 brought L11,077 (Holland sale), the

"Heidelberg" reaching 4200 gns. For Fred Walker's "Harbour of Refuge"

2580 gns. were paid (Tatham sale) and 2700 gns. for his "Marlow Ferry"

(Holland). The demand for pictures by modern artists, whose works sold

at almost fabulous prices in the 'seventies, has somewhat declined; but

during all its _furore_ there was still a small band of collectors to

whom the works of the Old Masters more especially appealed. The

dispersal of such collections as the Bredel (1875), Watts Russell

(1875), Foster of Clewer Manor (1876), the Hamilton Palace (17 days,

L397,562)--the greatest art sale in the annals of Great Britain--Bale

(1882), Leigh Court (1884), and Dudley (1892) resulted, as did the sale

of many minor collections each season, in many very fine works of the

Old Masters finding eager purchasers at high prices. A striking example

of the high prices given was the L24,250 realized by the pair of Vandyck

portraits of a Genoese senator and his wife in the Peel sale, 1900.

Since the last quarter of the 19th century the chief feature in art

sales has been the demand for works, particularly female portraits, by

Reynolds, his contemporaries and successors. This may be traced to the

South Kensington Exhibitions of 1867 and 1868 and the annual winter

exhibitions at Burlington House, which revealed an unsuspected wealth

and charm in the works of many English artists who had almost fallen

into oblivion. A few of the most remarkable prices for such pictures may

be quoted: Reynolds's "Lady Betty Delme" (1894), 11,000 gns.; Romney's

"The Ladies Spencer" (1896), 10,500 gns.; Gainsborough's "Duchess of

Devonshire" (1876), 10,100 gns. (for the history of its disappearance

see GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS), "Maria Walpole," 12,100 gns. (Duke of

Cambridge's sale, 1904); Constable's "Stratford Mill" (1895), 8500 gns.;

Hoppner's "Lady Waldegrave" (1906), 6000 gns.; Lawrence's "Childhood's

Innocence" (1907), 8000 gns.; Raeburn's "Lady Raeburn" (1905), 8500 gns.

Here may also be mentioned the 12,600 gns. paid for Turner's "Mortlake

Terrace" in 1908 (Holland sale).

The "appreciation" of the modern continental schools, particularly the

French, has been marked since 1880; of high prices paid may be mentioned

Corot's "Danse des Amours" (1898), L7200; Rosa Bonheur's "Denizens of

the Highlands" (1888), 5550 gns.; Jules Breton's "First Communion,"

L9100 in New York (1886); Meissonier's "Napoleon I. in the Campaign of

Paris," 12-1/4 in. by 9-1/4 in. (1882), 5800 gns., and "The Sign Painter"

(1891), 6450 gns. High prices are also fetched by pictures of Daubigny,

Fortuny, Gallait, Gerome, Troyon and Israels. The most marked feature of

late has been the demand for the 18th-century painters Watteau, Boucher,

Fragonard, Pater and Lancret; thus "La Ronde Champetre" of the last

named brought L11,200 at the Say Sale in 1908, and Fragonard's "Le

Reveil de Venus" L5520 at the Sedelmeyer sale, 1907.

"Specialism" is the one important development in art collecting which

has manifested itself since the middle of the 19th century. This

accounts for and explains the high average quality of the Wellesley

(1866), the Buccleuch (1888) and the Holford (1893) collections of

drawings by the Old Masters; for the Sibson Wedgwood (1877), the Duc de

Forli Dresden (1877), the Shuldham blue and white porcelain (1880), the

Benson collection of antique coins (1909), and for the objects of art at

the Massey-Mainwaring and Lewis-Hill sales of 1907. Very many other

illustrations in nearly every department of art collecting might be

quoted--the superb series of Marlborough gems (1875 and 1899) might be

included in this category but for the fact that it was formed chiefly in

the 18th century. The appreciation--commercially at all events--of

mezzotint portraits and of portraits printed in colours, after masters

of the early English school, was one of the most remarkable features in

art sales during the last years of the 19th century. The shillings of

fifty years before were then represented by pounds. The Fraser

collection (December 4 to 6, 1900) realized about ten times the original

outlay, the mezzotint of the "Sisters Frankland," after Hoppner, by W.

Ward, selling for 290 guineas as against 10 guineas paid for it about

thirty years previously. The H.A. Blyth sale (March 11 to 13, 1901, 346

lots, L21,717: 10s.) of mezzotint portraits was even more remarkable,

and as a collection it was the choicest sold within recent times, the

engravings being mostly in the first state. The record prices were

numerous, and, in many cases, far surpassed the prices which Sir Joshua

Reynolds received for the original pictures; e.g. the exceptionally fine

example of the first state of the "Duchess of Rutland," after Reynolds,

by V. Green, realized 1000 guineas, whereas the artist received only

L150 for the painting itself. Even this unprecedented price for a

mezzotint portrait was exceeded on the 30th of April 1901, when an

example of the first published state of "Mrs Carnac," after Reynolds, by

J.R. Smith, sold for 1160 guineas. At the Louis Huth sale (1905) 83 lots

brought nearly L10,000, Reynolds's "Lady Bampfylde" by T. Watson, first

state before letters, unpublished, fetching 1200 guineas. Such prices as

these and many others which might be quoted are exceptional, but they

were paid for objects of exceptional rarity or quality.

It is not necessary to pursue the chronicle of recent sales, which have

become a feature of every season. It is worth mentioning, however, that

the Holland sale, in June 1908, realized L138,118 (432 lots), a "record"

sum for a collection of pictures mainly by modern artists; and that for

the Rodolphe Kann collection (Paris) of pictures and objects of art,

including 11 magnificent Rembrandts, Messrs Duveen paid L1,000,000 in

1907. In every direction there has been a tendency to increase prices

for really great artistic pieces, even to a sensational extent. The

competition has become acute, largely owing to American and German

acquisitiveness. The demand for the finest works of art of all

descriptions is much greater than the supply. As an illustration of the

magnitude of the art sale business it may be mentioned that the

"turnover" of one firm in London alone has occasionally exceeded

L1,000,000 annually.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief compilations dealing with art sales in Great

Britain are: G. Redford, _Art Sales_ (1888); and W. Roberts,

_Memorials of Christie's_ (1897); whilst other books containing much

important matter are W. Buchanan, _Memoirs of Painting_; _The Year's

Art_ (1880 and each succeeding year); F.S. Robinson, _The

Connoisseur_; and L. Soullie, _Les Ventes de tableaux, dessins et

objets d'art au XIX^e siecle_ (chiefly French).

ARTS AND CRAFTS, a comprehensive title for the arts of decorative design

and handicraft--all those which, in association with the mother-craft of

building (or architecture), go to the making of the house beautiful.

Accounts of these will be found under separate headings. "Arts and

crafts" are also associated with the movement generally understood as

the English revival of decorative art, which began about 1875. The title

itself only came into general use when the Arts and Crafts Exhibition

Society was founded, and held its first exhibition at the New Gallery,

London, in the autumn of 1888, since which time arts and crafts

exhibitions have been common all over Great Britain. The idea of forming

a society for the purpose of showing contemporary work in design and

handicraft really arose out of a movement of revolt or protest against

the exclusive view of art encouraged by the Royal Academy exhibitions,

in which oil paintings in gilt frames claimed almost exclusive

attention--sculpture, architecture and the arts of decorative design

being relegated to quite subordinate positions. In 1886, out of a

feeling of discontent among artists as to the inadequacy of the Royal

Academy exhibitions, considered as representing the art of Great

Britain, a demand arose for a national exhibition to include all the

arts of design. One of the points of this demand was for the annual

election of the hanging committee by the whole body of artists. After

many meetings the group representing the arts and crafts (who belonged

to a larger body of artists and craftsmen called the Art-workers' Guild,

founded in 1884),[1] perceiving that the painters, especially the

leading group of a school not hitherto well represented in the Academy

exhibitions, only cherished the hope of forcing certain reforms on the

Academy, and were by no means prepared to lose their chances of

admission to its privileges, still less to run any risk in the

establishment of a really comprehensive national exhibition of art,

decided to organize an exhibition themselves in which artists and

craftsmen might show their productions, so that contemporary work in

decorative art should be displayed to the public on the same footing,

and with the same advantages as had hitherto been monopolized by

pictorial art. For many years previously there had been great activity

in the study and revival in the practice of many of the neglected

decorative handicrafts. Amateur societies and classes were in existence,

like the Home Arts and Industries Association, which had established

village classes in wood-carving, metal work, spinning and weaving,

needlework, pottery and basket-work, and the public interest in

handicraft was steadily growing. The machine production of an industrial

century had laid its iron hands upon what had formerly been the

exclusive province of the handicraftsman, who only lingered on in a few

obscure trades and in forgotten corners of England for the most part.

The ideal of mechanical perfection dominated British workmen, and the

factory system, first by extreme division of labour, and then by the

further specialization of the workman under machine production, left no

room for individual artistic feeling among craftsmen trained and working

under such conditions. The demand of the world-market ruled the

character and quality of production, and to the few who would seek some

humanity, simplicity of construction or artistic feeling in their

domestic decorations and furniture, the only choice was that of the

tradesman or salesman, or a plunge into costly and doubtful experiments

in original design. From the 'forties onward there had been much

research and study of medieval art in England; there had been many able

designers, architects and antiquaries, such as the Pugins and Henry Shaw

(1800-1873) and later William Burges (1827-1881), William Butterfield

(1814-1900) and G.E. Street and others. The school of pre-Raphaelite

painters, by their careful and thorough methods, and their sympathy with

medieval design, were among the first to turn attention to beauty of

design, colour and significance in the accessories of daily life, and

artists like D.G. Rossetti, Ford Madox Brown, and W. Holman Hunt

themselves designed and painted furniture. The most successful and most

practical effort indeed towards the revival of sounder ideas of

construction and workmanship may be said to have arisen out of the work

of this group of artists, and may be traced to the workshop of William

Morris and his associates in Queen Square, London. William Morris, whose

name covers so large a field of artistic as well as literary and social

work, came well equipped to his task of raising the arts of design and

handicraft, of changing the taste of his countrymen from the corrupt and

vulgar ostentation of the Second Empire, and its cheap imitations, which

prevailed in the 'fifties and 'sixties, and of winning them back, for a

time at least, to the massive simplicity of plain oak furniture, or the

delicate beauty of inlays of choice woods, or the charm of painted work,

the richness and frank colour of formal floral and heraldic pattern in

silk textiles and wall-hangings and carpets, the gaiety and freshness of

printed cotton, or the romantic splendour of arras tapestry. Both

William Morris and his artistic comrade and lifelong friend, Edward

Burne-Jones, were no doubt much influenced at the outset by the

imaginative insight, the passionate artistic feeling, and the love of

medieval romance and colour of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, who remains so

remarkable a figure in the great artistic and poetic revival of the

latter half of the 19th century. To William Morris himself, in his

artistic career, it was no small advantage to gain the ear of the

English public first by his poetry. His verse-craft helped his

handicraft, but both lived side by side. The secret of Morris's great

influence in the revival was no doubt to be attributed to his way of

personally mastering the working details and handling of each craft he

took up in turn, as well as to his power of inspiring his helpers and

followers. He was painter, designer, scribe, illuminator, wood-engraver,

dyer, weaver and finally printer and papermaker, and having mastered

these crafts he could effectively direct and criticize the work of

others. His own work and that of Burne-Jones were well known to the

public, and in high favour long before the Arts and Crafts Exhibition

Society was formed, and though largely helped and inspired by the work

of these two artists, the aims and objects of the society rather

represented those of a younger generation, and were in some measure a

fresh development both of the social and the artistic ideas which were

represented by Ruskin, Rossetti and Morris, though the society includes

men of different schools. Other sources of influence might be named,

such as the work of Norman Shaw and Philip Webb in architecture and

decoration, of Lewis Day in surface pattern, and William de Morgan in

pottery. The demand for the acknowledgment of the personality of each

responsible craftsman in a co-operative work was new, and it had direct

bearing upon the social and economic conditions of artistic production.

The principle, too, of regarding the material, object, method and

purpose of a work as essential conditions of its artistic expression,

the form and character of which must always be controlled by such

conditions, had never before been so emphatically stated, though it

practically endorsed the somewhat vague aspirations current for the

unity of beauty with utility. Again, a very notable return to extreme

simplicity of design in furniture and surface decoration may be

remarked; and a certain reserve in the use of colour and ornament, and a

love of abstract forms in decoration generally, which are characteristic

of later taste. Not less remarkable has been the new development in the

design and workmanship of jewelry, gold- and silversmiths' work, and

enamels, with which the names of Alexander Fisher, Henry Wilson, Nelson

Dawson and C.R. Ashbee are associated. Among the arts and crafts of

design which have blossomed into new life in recent years-and there is

hardly one which has not been touched by the new spirit--book-binding

must be named as having attained a fresh and tasteful development

through the work of Mr Cobden-Sanderson and his pupils. The art and

craft of the needle also must not be forgotten, and its progress is a

good criterion of taste in design, choice of colour and treatment. The

work of Mrs Morris, of Miss Burden (sometime instructress at the Royal

School of Art Needlework, which has carried on its work from 1875), of

Miss May Morris, of Miss Una Taylor, of Miss Buckle, of Mrs Walter

Crane, of Mrs Newbery, besides many other skilled needlewomen, has been

frequently exhibited. Good work is often seen in the national

competition works of the students of the English art schools, shown at

South Kensington in July. The increase of late years in these

exhibitions of designs worked out in the actual material for which they

were intended is very remarkable, and is an evidence of the spread of

the arts and crafts movement (fostered no doubt by the increase of

technical schools, especially of the type of the Central School of Arts

and Crafts under the Technical Education Board of the London County

Council), of which it may be said that if it has not turned all British

craftsmen into artists or all British artists into craftsmen, it had

done not a little to expand and socialize the idea of art, and (perhaps

it is not too much to say) has made the tasteful English house with its

furniture and decorations a model for the civilized world. (W. Cr.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Whose members, comprehending as they do the principal living

designers, architects, painters and craftsmen of all kinds, have

played no inconsiderable part in the English revival.

ART SOCIETIES. In banding themselves into societies and associations

artists have always been especially remarkable. The fundamental motive

of such leaguing together is apparent, for, by the establishment of

societies, it becomes possible for the working members of these to hold

exhibitions and thereby to obtain some compensation or reward for their

labours. With the growth of artistic practice and public interest,

however, art societies have been instituted where this primary object is

either absent or is allied to others of more general scope. The

furtherance of a cult and the specializing of work have also given rise

to many new associations in Great Britain, besides the Royal Academy

(see ACADEMY, ROYAL). At the outset, therefore, it will be well to

mention the leading art societies thus described. The (now Royal)

Society of Painters in Water Colours, founded in 1804, and the (now

Royal) Society of British Artists (1823), are typical of those societies

which exist merely for purposes of holding exhibitions and conferring

diplomas of membership. The British Institution (for the encouragement

of British artists) was started in 1806 on a plan formed by Sir Thomas

Bernard; and in the gallery, erected by Alderman Boydell to exhibit the

paintings executed for his edition of Shakespeare, were from time to

time exhibited pictures by the old masters, deceased British artists and

others, till 1867, when the lease of the premises expired. A fund of

L16,200, then in the hands of trustees, had accumulated to L24,610 in

1884. The Artists' Society, formed in 1830, has for its object the

providing of facilities to enable its members to perfect themselves in

their art. To this end there is a good library of works on art, and

abundant opportunities are afforded for general study from the life. In

the furtherance of a cult the Japan Society, devoted to the

encouragement of the study of the arts and industries of Japan, is a

typical example; and the Society of Mezzotint Engravers is

representative of those bodies formed in the interests of particular

groups of workers. One of the remarkable features in the history of art

in Great Britain has been the rapid increase of the artistic rank and

file. Taking the number of exhibitors at the principal London and

provincial exhibitions, it is found that in the period 1885-1900 the

ranks were doubled. At the end of the 19th century it was estimated that

there were quite 7000 practising artists. Coincident with this

astonishing development there has been a corresponding addition of new

art societies and the enlargement of older bodies. For instance, the

membership of the Royal Society of British Artists advanced in the

period mentioned from 80 to 150. Similar extensions can be noted in

other societies, or in such a case as that of the Royal Institute of

Painters in Water Colours, where the membership is limited to 100, it

is to be noticed that more space is given to the works of outsiders. But

the expansion of older exhibiting societies has not proved sufficient.

Portrait painters, pastellists, designers, miniaturists and women

artists have felt the necessity of forming separate coteries.

Interesting though these movements from within may be, the growth of

societies originating in the spirit of altruism associated with such

names as Ruskin and Kyrle is equally instructive. Nearly all these are

the products of the last quarter of the 19th century, and include the

Sunday Society, which in 1896 secured the Sunday opening of the national

museums and galleries in the metropolis.

The specializing of study and work has also given rise to much artistic

endeavour. For a long time archaeology--British and Egyptian--claimed

almost exclusive attention. Latterly the arts of India and Japan have

engaged much notice, and societies have been organized to further their

study. Finally, bands of workers in particular branches of art have felt

the need of clubbing together in order to protect their special

interests. A slight suspicion of trade-unionism is attached to some of

these; but on the whole the establishment of such bodies as the Society

of Illustrators, the Society of Designers, and the Society of Mezzotint

Engravers has been with a view to advancing the public knowledge of the

merits of these branches of artistic enterprise.

EXHIBITING SOCIETIES.--(a) Old Established. These in London are: The

Royal Academy, the Royal Water Colour Society, the Royal Institute of

Painters in Water Colours, the Society of Oil Painters, and the Royal

Society of British Artists. In the provinces, the Birmingham Royal

Society of Artists has been in existence since 1825, and has a life

academy with professors attached. (b) Modern.--In this category are many

which reflect the new spirit which came into artistic life in the last

quarter of the 19th century. The New English Art Club, founded in 1885

as a protest against academic art, achieves its purpose by exhibition

only. The International Society of Painters and Engravers, again,

represents the wider ideas of the 20th century. The Royal Society of

Painter-Etchers and Engravers, consisting of fellows and associates, not

exceeding 150 in all, conserves the interests of a numerous body of

workers, and, in addition to holding exhibitions, confers diplomas (R.E.

and A.R.E.) on the exhibitors of meritorious etchings or engravings. The

Society of Women Artists (formerly the Society of Lady Artists) is

wholly devoted to the display of works by female artists, and in 1891

the Society of Portrait Painters was formed to carry out the object

conveyed in its title. Two associations advance the art of the

miniature-painter, and the Pastel Society, formed in 1898, holds

displays of members' work at the Royal Institute Galleries. In Scotland

there is the Royal Scottish Academy. The Royal Scottish Society of

Painters in Water Colours (Glasgow) grants the title R.S.W. to its

members, and the Society of Scottish Artists (Edinburgh), founded in

1891, has a membership of nearly 500 young artists. Other exhibiting

societies which call for mention are: The Yorkshire Union of Artists

(Leeds), which consolidates many local societies; the Nottingham Society

of Artists, which also encourages drawing from the living model; and the

Liverpool Sketching Club, founded in 1870, which holds an annual

exhibition.

SOCIETIES OF INSTRUCTION AND POPULAR ENCOURAGEMENT.--It is under this

head that the chief evidence of the modern art revival will be found.

First it should be noted that there are very few societies designed for

the artistic improvement of artists. The Artists' Society has already

been mentioned; and the Art Workers' Guild, which meets at Clifford's

Inn Hall, provides meetings, from which the public is excluded, where

profitable discussions take place on questions of craft and design. But,

as a rule, the art society, of which only artists are members, is

organized for exhibition purposes or for the protection of interests.

With regard to those societies of popular and educational intention the

old Society of Arts in the Adelphi, founded in 1754, enjoys a good

record. Numerous lectures on art subjects have from time to time been

given, and in 1887 a scheme was devised by which awards are made to

student-workers in design. The Society for the Encouragement of the Fine

Arts (Conduit Street) has also laboured since its foundation in 1858 to

increase a technical knowledge, its members holding conversazioni at

various picture galleries. The Artists' and Amateurs' Conversazione,

instituted in 1831, which used to meet at the Piccadilly Galleries and

is now defunct, carried out a similar plan. Two other societies, now

obsolete, should be mentioned whose method were directly educational.

The Arundel Society, which for many years promoted the knowledge of art

by copying and publishing important works of ancient masters, issued to

its members on payment of annual subscriptions, was eventually wound up

on the last day of 1897. The Arundel Club, founded in 1904, continues

the aim, but with a wider scope, reproducing works of art rendered

somewhat inaccessible by being in private collections. The International

Chalcographical Society, formed for the study of the early history of

engraving, also did useful work. Another association of painters,

sculptors, architects and engravers, the Graphic Society, ceased on the

29th of October 1890. This was one of the most interesting of societies,

rare works of art being exhibited and discussed at its meetings. A very

active educational body, originated in 1888, namely the Royal Drawing

Society, has for its definite object the teaching of drawing as a means

of education. The methods of instruction are based on the facts that

very young children try to draw before they can write, and that they

have very keen perception and retentive memory. The society aims,

therefore, at using drawing as a means of developing these innate

characteristics of the young, and already nearly 300 important schools

follow out its system. Lord Leighton, Sir John Millais, and Sir Edward

Burne-Jones took an active part in the society's labours. The Art for

Schools Association, founded in 1883, has also done steady work in

endeavouring to provide schools with works of art. These are chiefly

reproductions of standard works of art or of historical and natural

subjects. The wave of enthusiasm aroused by Mr Ruskin's teachings caused

Societies of the Rose to be founded in London, Manchester, Sheffield,

Birmingham, Aberdeen and Glasgow; but some of these eventually ceased

active work, to be revived again, however, by the Ruskin Union, formed

in the year of the great writer's death (1900). Most of these societies

were formed in 1879; but it should not be forgotten that two years

earlier the Kyrle Society was started with the object of bringing the

refining and cheering influences of natural and artistic beauty to the

homes of the people. Under the presidency of Earl Brownlow, the Home

Arts and Industries Association continues a work which was started in

1884, and anticipated much of the present system of technical education.

Voluntary teachers organize classes for working people, at which a

practical knowledge of art handiwork is taught. Training classes for

voluntary teachers are held at the studios at the Albert Hall, as well

as an annual exhibition. An interesting type of society has been

established in Bolton, Lancashire. Under the title of an Arts Guild the

members, numbering over 200, devote themselves to the advancement of

taste in municipal improvements.

SOCIETIES OF SPECIAL STUDY, PRACTICE AND PROTECTION.--Under this head

should be placed those associations which affect a cult, or are composed

of particular workers, or which protect public or private interests.

Perhaps the chief of the first kind is the Japan Society, which, since

its inception in 1892, has been joined by over 1350 members interested

in matters relating to Japanese art and industries. The Durer Society,

formed in 1897, has for its main object the reproduction of works by

Albrecht Durer, and his German and Italian contemporaries. The Vasari

Society, founded in 1905, works in harmony with the Arundel Club and the

Durer Society, reproducing drawings by the Old Masters. In this category

of special study may also be placed the Society for the Encouragement

and Preservation of Indian Art, the Egypt Exploration Fund, and the

Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies. Of the societies of

special practice it has already been noticed that some are purely

exhibiting associations, such as the Portrait Painters, the Pastel

Society, and the two miniature bodies. The formation of the Society of

Mezzotint Engravers in 1898 is an example of the leaguing together of

particular workers to call attention to their interests. Original and

translator engravers, together with collectors and connoisseurs,

comprise the membership. The decaying art of wood engraving is also

fostered by the International Society of Wood Engravers, and the Society

of Designers, founded in 1896, safeguards the interests of professional

designers for applied art, without holding exhibitions. Special practice

and protection are also considered by the Society of Illustrators,

composed of artists who work in black and white for the illustrated

press. This society was inaugurated in 1894, and fifteen of the members

of the committee must be active workers in illustration. As an instance

of the tendency of art workers to combine, the Society of Art Masters is

a good illustration. This is an association of teachers of art schools,

controlled by the art branch of the Board of Education, and has a

membership of over 300. Good work of another kind occupies the National

Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty. The council of

the Trust includes representatives of such bodies as the National

Gallery, the Royal Academy, the Royal Society of Painters in Water

Colours, the Society of Antiquaries, the Royal Institute of British

Architects, the Universities, Kyrle Society, Society for the Protection

of Ancient Buildings and the Selborne Society.

FOREIGN ART SOCIETIES.--The following are brief particulars of the chief

art societies elsewhere than in Great Britain:--

AUSTRIA.--Vienna, _Vereinigung bildender Kunstler Osterreichs_

(Society of Austrian Painters) and the _Wiener Kunstlergenossenschaft_

(Association of Viennese Artists).

BELGIUM.--Brussels, _Societe des beaux-arts_, the _Libre Esthetique_,

_Societe des aquarellistes et pastellistes_, _Societe royale beige des

aquarellistes_, and numerous private societies (_cercles_) in

Brussels, Antwerp, Liege, Ghent and other cities.

FRANCE.--Paris, the _Societe des artistes francais_ (The Salon),

_Societe nationale des beaux-arts_ (The New Salon), _Societe des

aquarellistes_. Exhibiting societies are the _Societe des artistes

independants_, _Societe des orientalistes_, and _Salon des

pastellistes_.

GERMANY.--The small local societies are affiliated to one large parent

body, the _Deutsche Kunstlergenossenschaft_, in Berlin under the

presidency of Anton von Werner. The _Deutsche Illustratoren-verband_

watches over the interests of illustrators and designers. In Munich

there are two bodies--the _Kunstlergenossenschaft_ (old society of

artists), holding its exhibitions in the Glaspalast, and the _Verein

bildender Kunstler_, the Secessionists.

ITALY.--Four exhibiting societies: Rome, _Societa in Arte Libertas_,

_Scuola degli Aquarellisti_; Milan, _Famiglia Artistica_, _Societa

degli Artiste_; Florence, _Circolo Artistico_; Naples, _Instituti di

Belli Arti._

PORTUGAL.--_Sociedade promotora das Bellas-Artes_ and _Gremio

Artistico_.

RUSSIA.--There is no exclusively art society of importance, but there

is at St Petersburg the _Societe litteraire et artistique_.

SPAIN.--Madrid, _L'Association des artistes espagnols_.

SWEDEN.--Stockholm, _Svenska Konstuareruas Forening_.

SWITZERLAND.--Berne, _La Societe des peintres et sculpteurs suisses_.

UNITED STATES.--New York, National Academy of Design, American Water

Color Society, and National Sculpture Society. (A. C. R. C.)

ART TEACHING. It is the tendency of all departments of the human mind to

outgrow their original limits. Traditions of teaching are long-lived,

especially in art, and new ideas only slowly displace the old, so that

art teaching as a whole is seldom abreast of the ideas and practice of

the more advanced artists. The old academic system adapted to the

methods and aims in art in the 18th century, which has been carried on

in the principal art schools of Great Britain with but slight changes of

method, consisted chiefly of a course of drawing from casts of antique

statues in outline, and in light and shade without backgrounds, of

anatomical drawings, perspective, and drawing and painting from the

living model. Such a training seems to be more or less a response to

Lessing's definition of painting as "the imitation of solid bodies upon

a plane surface." It seems to have been influenced more by the

sculptor's art than any other. Indeed, the academic teaching from the

time of the Italian Renaissance was no doubt principally derived from

the study of antique sculpture; the proportions of the figure, the

style, pose, and sentiment being all taken from Graeco-Roman and Roman

sculptures, discovered so abundantly in Italy from the 16th century

onwards. As British ideas of art were principally derived from Italy,

British academics endeavoured to follow the methods of teaching in vogue

there in later times, and so the art student in Great Britain has had

his intention and efforts directed almost exclusively to the

representations of the abstract human form in abstract relief.

Traditions in art, however, may sometimes prove helpful and beneficial,

and preservative of beauty and character, as in the case of certain

decorative and constructive arts and handicrafts in common use, such as

those of the rural waggon-maker and wheelwright, and horse-harness

maker.

Some schools of painting, sculpture and architecture have preserved fine

and noble traditions which yet allowed for individuality. Such

traditions may be said to have been characteristic of the art of the

middle ages. It often happens, too, when many streams of artistic

influence meet, there may be a certain domination or ascendancy of the

traditions of one art over the others, which is injurious in its effects

on those arts and diverts them from their true path. The domination of

individualistic painting and sculpture over the arts of design during

the last century or two is a case in point.

With the awakening of interest in industrial art--sharply separated by

pedantic classification from fine art--which began in England about the

middle of the 19th century, schools of design were established which

included more varied studies. Even as early as 1836 a government grant

was made towards the opening of public galleries and the establishment

of a normal school of design with a museum and lectures, and in 1837 the

first school of design was opened at Somerset House. In 1840 grants were

made to establish schools of the same kind in provincial towns, such as

Manchester, Birmingham, Glasgow, Leeds and Paisley. The names of G.

Wallis in 1847, and Ambrose Poynter in 1850, are associated with schemes

of art instruction adopted in the government art schools, and the year

1851, the year of the Great Exhibition, was also marked by the first

public exhibition of students' works, and the first institution of

prizes and scholarships. In 1852 "the Department of Practical Art" was

constituted, and a museum of objects collected at Marlborough House

which afterwards formed the nucleus of the future museum at South

Kensington. In 1853 "the Department of Science and Art" was established,

and in 1857, under the auspices of Henry Cole, the offices of the

department and the National Art Training School were removed from

Marlborough House to South Kensington. Classes for instruction in

various crafts had been carried on both at Somerset House and

Marlborough House, and the whole object of the government schools of

design was to give an artistic training to the designer and craftsman,

so that he could carry back to his trade or craft improved taste and

skill. The schools, however, became largely filled by students of

another type--leisured amateurs who sought to acquire some artistic

accomplishment, and even in the case of genuine designers and craftsmen

who developed pictorial skill in their studies, the attraction and

superior social distinction and possibility of superior commercial value

accruing to the career of a painter of easel pictures diverted the

schools from their original purpose.

For some time after the removal to South Kensington, during the progress

of the new buildings, and under the direction of Godfrey Sykes and F.W.

Moody, practical decorative work both in modelling and painting was

carried out in the National Art Training School; but on the completion

of these works, the school relapsed into a more or less academic school

on the ordinary lines, and was regarded chiefly as a school for the

training of art teachers and masters who were required to pass through

certain stereotyped courses and execute a certain series of drawings in

order to obtain their certificates. Thus model-drawing, freehand

outline, plant-drawing in outline, outline from the cast, light and

shade from the cast, drawing of the antique figure, still life,

anatomical drawings, drawing and painting from the life, ornamental

design, historic studies of ornament, perspective and geometry, were all

taken up in a cut-and-dried way, as isolated studies, and with a view

solely to obtaining the certificate or passing an examination. This

theoretic kind of training, though still in force, and though it

enabled the department to turn out certificated teachers for the

schools of the country of a certain standard, and to give to students a

general theoretic idea of art, has been found wanting, since, in

practice, when the student in design leaves his school and desires to

take up practical work as a designer or craftsman, he requires _special_

knowledge, and specialized skill in design for his work to be of use;

and though he may be able to impart to others what he himself has

laboriously acquired, the theoretic and general character of his

training proves of little or no use, face to face with the ever shifting

and changing demands of the modern manufacturer and the modern market.

A growing conviction of the inadequacy of the schools of the Science and

Art Department (now the Board of Education), considered as training

grounds for practical designers and craftsmen, led to the establishment

of new technical schools in the principal towns of Great Britain. The

circumstance of certain large sums, diverted from their original purpose

of compensation to brewers, being available for educational purposes and

at the disposal of the county councils and municipal bodies, provided

the means for the building and equipment of these new technical schools,

which in many cases are under the same roof as the art school in the

provincial towns, and, since the Education Act of 1902, are generally

rate-supported. The art schools formerly managed by private committees

and supported by private donors, assisted by the government grants, are

now, in the principal industrial towns of Great Britain, taken over by

the municipality. Birmingham is singularly well organized in this

respect, and its art school has long held a leading position. The school

is well housed in a new building with class-rooms with every appliance,

not only for the drawing, designing and modelling side, but also for the

practice of artistic handicrafts such as metal repousse, enamelling,

wood-carving, embroidery, &c. The municipality have also established a

jewelry school, so as to associate the practical study of art with local

industry. Manchester and other cities are also equipped with

well-organized art schools.

The important change involved in the incorporation of the Science and

Art Department with the Board of Education also led to a reorganization

of the Royal College of Art. A special council of advice on art matters

was appointed, consisting of representatives of painting, sculpture,

architecture and design, who deal with the Royal College of Art, and

appoint the professors who control the teaching in the classes for

architecture, design and handicraft, decorative painting and sculpture,

modelling and carving. The council decide upon the curriculum, and

examine and criticize the work of the college from time to time. They

also advise the board in regard to the syllabus issued to the art

schools of the country, and act as referees in regard to purchases for

the museum.

Of other institutions for the teaching of art, the following may be

named: The Royal Drawing Society of Great Britain and Ireland, which was

formed principally to promote the teaching of drawing in schools as a

means of education. The system therein adopted differs from the ordinary

drawing courses, and favours the use of the brush. Brushwork has

generally been adopted for elementary work, too, by London County

Council teachers, drawing being now a compulsory subject. Remarkable

results have been obtained by the Alma Road Council schools in the

teaching of boys from eight to twelve by giving them spaces to fill with

given forms--leaf shapes--from which patterns are constructed to fill

the spaces, brush and water-colour being the means employed. At the

Royal Female School of Art in Queen Square, London, classes in drawing

and painting from life are held, and decorative design is also studied.

There are also the Royal School of Art Needlework and the School of Art

Wood-carving, all aided by the London County Council. The City and

Guilds of London Institute has two departments for what is termed

"applied" art, one at the South London School of Technical Art, and the

other at the Art Department in the Technical College, Finsbury. The

Slade School of Drawing, Painting and Sculpture, University College,

Gower Street, confines itself to drawing and painting from the antique

and life, and exercise in pictorial composition. There are also lectures

on anatomy and perspective. The Slade professorships at Oxford and

Cambridge universities are concerned with the teaching and literature of

art, but they do not concern themselves with the practice. There are

also, in addition to the schools of art named and those in connexion

with the Board of Education and the London County Council in the various

districts of London, many and various private clubs and schools, such as

the Langham and "Heatherley's," chiefly concerned in encouraging drawing

and painting from the life, and for the study of art from the pictorial

point of view, or for the preparation of candidates for the Royal

Academy or other schools. The polytechnics and technical institutes also

provide instruction in a great variety of artistic crafts.

A general survey, therefore, of the various institutions which are

established for the teaching of art in Great Britain gives the

impression that the study of art is not neglected, although, perhaps,

further inquiry might show that, compared with the great educational

establishments, the proportion is not excessive. Now that the Education