And Fontenelle, speaking in the language not of poetry but of

science:--"Most animals--as, for instance, bees, spiders and

beavers--have a kind of art peculiar to themselves; but each race of

animals has no more than one art, and this one has had no first inventor

among the race. Man, on the other hand, has an infinity of different

arts which were not born with his race, and of which the glory is his

own." Dr Johnson might reply that those properties of variety and of

originality or individual invention, which Fontenelle himself alleges in

the ingenuities of man but not in those of the lower animals, are

sufficient to make a generic difference, and to establish the

impropriety of calling a honeycomb or a spider's web a work of Art. It

is not our purpose to trespass on ground so debateable as that of the

nature of consciousness in the lower animals. Enough that when we use

the term Art of any action, it is because we are thinking of properties

in the action from which we infer, whether justly or not, that the agent

voluntarily and designedly puts forth skill for known ends and by

regular and uniform methods. If, then, we were called upon to frame a

general definition of Art, giving the word its widest and most

comprehensive meaning, it would run thus:--_Every regulated operation or

dexterity by which organized beings pursue ends which they know

beforehand, together with the rules and the result of every such

operation or dexterity_.

Here it will be well to consider very briefly the natural history of the

name which has been given to this very comprehensive conception by the

principal branches of civilized mankind. Our own word Art the English

language has taken, as all the Romance languages of modern Europe have

taken theirs, directly from the Latin. The Latin _ars_, according to the

prevailing opinion of philologists, proceeds from a root AR, of which

the primitive signification was to put or fit things together, and which

is to be found in a large family of Greek words. The Greek [Greek:

technae], the name both for arts in the particular and art in the

abstract, is by its root related both to [Greek: tek-ton] and [Greek:

tek-non], and thus contains the allied ideas of making and begetting.

The _proprium_ of art in the logic of the Stoics, "to create and beget,"

was strictly in accordance with this etymology. The Teutonic _Kunst_ is

formed from _konnen_, and _konnen_ is developed from a primitive _Ich

kann_. In _kann_ philology is inclined to recognize a preterite form of

a lost verb, of which we find the traces in _Kin-d_, a child; and the

form _Ich kann_ thus meaning originally "I begot," contains the germ of

the two several developments,--_konnen_, "to be master," "to be able,"

and _kennen_, "to know." We thus see that the chief Indo-European

languages have with one consent extended a name for the most elementary

exercise of a constructive or productive power, till that name has

covered the whole range of the skilled and deliberate operations of

sentient beings.

In proportion as men left out of sight the idea of creation, of

constructing or producing, "artificiosum esse ad gignendum," which is

the primitive half of this extended notion, and attended only to the

idea of skill, of proceeding by regular and disciplined methods,

"progredi via," which is the superadded half, the whole notion Art, and

the name for it, might become subject to a process of thought which, if

analysed, would be like this:--What is done by regular and disciplined

methods is Art; facts are observed and classified, and a systematic view

of the order of the universe obtained, by regular and disciplined

methods; the observing and classifying of facts, and obtaining a

systematic view of the order of the universe, is therefore Art. To a

partial extent this did unconsciously take place. Science, of which the

essence is only in knowledge and theory, came to be spoken of as Art, of

which the essence is all in practice and production. Cicero,

notwithstanding his citation of the Stoical dictum that practice and

production were of the essence of Art, elsewhere divides Art into two

kinds--one by which things are only contemplated in the mind, another by

which something is produced and done. ("Quumque artium aliud eiusmodi

sit, ut tantummodo rem cernat; aliud, ut moliatur aliquid et

faciat."--_Acad_. ii. 7.) Of the former kind his instance is geometry;

of the latter the art of playing on the lyre. Now geometry,

understanding by geometry an acquisition of the mind, that is, a

collected body of observations and deductions concerning the properties

of space and magnitude, is a science and not an art; although there is

an art of the geometer, which is the skill by which he solves any given

problem in his science, and the rules of that skill, and his exertion in

putting it forth. And so every science has its instrumental art or

practical discipline; and in as far as the word Art is used only of the

practical discipline or dexterity of the geometer, the astronomer, the

logician, the grammarian, or other person whose business it is to

collect and classify facts for contemplation, in so far the usage is

just. The same justification may be extended to another usage, whereby

in Latin, and some of its derivative languages, the name Art came to be

transferred in a concrete sense to the body of rules, the written code

or manual, which lays down the discipline and regulates the dexterity;

as _ars grammatica, ars logica, ars rhetorica_ and the rest. But when

the word is stretched so as to mean the sciences, as theoretical

acquisitions of the mind, that meaning is illegitimate. Whether or not

Cicero, in the passage above quoted, had in his mind the science of

geometry as a collected body of observations and deductions, it is

certain that the Ciceronian phrase of the _liberal arts_, the _ingenuous

arts_, both in Latin and its derivatives or translations in modern

speech, has been used currently to denote the sciences themselves, and

not merely the disciplines instrumental to them. The _trivium_ and the

_quadrivium_ (grammar, logic and rhetoric--geometry, astronomy, music

and arithmetic) have been habitually called arts, when some of them have

been named in that sense in which they mean not arts but sciences,

"only contemplating things in the mind." Hence the nomenclature, history

and practical organization, especially in Britain, of one great division

of university studies: the division of "arts," with its "faculty," its

examinations, and its degrees.

In the German language the words for Art and Science have in general

been loosely interchanged. The etymology of the word for Art secured a

long continuance for this ambiguity. _Kunst_ was employed

indiscriminately in both the senses of the primitive _Ich kann_, to

signify what I know, or Science, and what I can do, or Art. It was not

till the end of the 17th century that a separate word for Science, the

modern _Wissenschaft_, came into use. On the other hand, the Greek word

[Greek: technae], with its distinct suggestion of the root signification

to make or get, acted probably as a safeguard against this tendency. The

distinction between [Greek: technae], Art or practice, and [Greek:

epistaemae], knowledge or Science, is observed, though not

systematically, in Greek philosophy. But for our present purpose, that

of making clear the true relation between the one conception and the

other, further quotation is rendered superfluous by the discussion the

subject has received at the hands of the modern writer already quoted.

Between Art, of which we practise the rules, and Science, of which we

entertain the doctrines, J.S. Mill establishes the difference in the

simplest shape, by pointing out that one grammatical mood is proper for

the conclusions of Science, and another for those of Art. Science

enunciates her conclusions in the indicative mood, whereas "the

imperative is the characteristic of Art, as distinguished from Science."

And as Art utters her conclusions in her own form, so she supplies the

substance of her own major premise.

"Every art has one first principle, or general major premise, not

borrowed from science, that which enunciates the object aimed at, and

affirms it to be a desirable object. The builder's art assumes that it

is desirable to have buildings; architecture (as one of the fine arts)

that it is desirable to have them beautiful and imposing. The hygienic

and medical arts assume, the one that the preservation of health, the

other that the cure of disease, are fitting and desirable ends. These

are not propositions of science. Propositions of science assert a

matter of fact--an existence, a co-existence, a succession, or a

resemblance. The propositions now spoken of do not assert that

anything is, but enjoin or recommend that something should be. They

are a class by themselves. A proposition of which the predicate is

expressed by the words _ought_ or _should be_ is generically different

from one which is expressed by _is_ or _will be_."

And the logical relation of Art and Science, in other words, the manner

of framing the intermediate member between the general major premise of

Art and its imperative conclusion, is thus defined:--

"The Art [in any given case] proposes to itself an end to be attained,

defines the end, and hands it over to the Science. The Science

receives it, considers it as a phenomenon or effect to be studied, and

having investigated its causes and conditions, sends it back to Art

with a theorem of the causes and combinations by which it could be

produced. Art then examines these combinations of circumstances, and

according as any of them are or are not in human power, pronounces the

end attainable or not. The only one of the premises, therefore, which

Art supplies, is the original major premise, which asserts that the

attainment of the given end is desirable. Science, then, lends to Art

the proposition (obtained by a series of inductions or deductions)

that the performance of certain actions will attain the end. From

these premises Art concludes that the performance of these actions is

desirable, and finding it also practicable, converts the theorem into

a rule or precept.... The grounds, then, of every rule of Art are to

be found in the theorems of Science. An Art, or a body of Art,

consists of the rules, together with as much of the speculative

propositions as comprises the justification of these rules. The

complete Art of any matter includes a selection of such a portion from

the Science as is necessary to show on what conditions the effects,

which the Art aims at producing, depend. And Art in general consists

of the truths of Science arranged in the most convenient order for

practice, instead of the order which is most convenient for thought.

Science groups and arranges its truths so as to enable us to take in

at one view as much as possible of the general order of the universe.

Art, though it must assume the same general laws, follows them only

into such of their detailed consequences as have led to the formation

of rules of conduct, and brings together from parts of the field of

Science most remote from one another, the truths relating to the

production of the different and heterogeneous causes necessary to each

effect which the exigencies of practical life require to be

produced."--(Mill's _Logic_, vol. ii. pp. 542-549).

The whole discussion may be summed up thus. Science consists in knowing,

Art consists in doing. What I must do in order to know, is Art

subservient to Science: what I must know in order to do, is Science

subservient to Art.

Art, then, is defined by two broad distinctions: first, its popular

distinction from Nature; and next, its practical and theoretic

distinction from Science. Both of these distinctions are observed in the

terms of our definition given above. Within the proper limits of this

definition, the conception of Art, and the use of the word for it, have

undergone sundry variations. These variations correspond to certain

vicissitudes or developments in the order of historical facts and in

society. The requirements of society, stimulating the ingenuity of its

individual members, have led to the invention of arts and groups of

arts, constantly progressing, with the progress of civilization, in

number, in complexity, and in resource. The religious imagination of

early societies, who find themselves in possession of such an art or

group of arts, forgets the history of the invention, and assigns it to

the inspiration or special grace of some god or hero. So the Greeks

assigned the arts of agriculture to Triptolemus, those of spinning and

navigation to Athena, and of music to Apollo. At one stage of

civilization one art or group of arts is held in higher esteem, another

at another. In societies, like most of those of the ancient world, where

slaves were employed in domestic service, and upon the handicrafts

supplying the immediate utilities of life--food, shelter and

clothing--these constituted a group of servile arts. The arts of

husbandry or agriculture, on the other hand, have alternately been

regarded as servile and as honourable according as their exercise has

been in the hands of a subject class, as under feudal institutions, or,

as under the Roman republic, of free cultivators. Under feudal

institutions, or in a society in a state of permanent war, the allied

arts of war and of government have been held the only honourable class.

In commercial states, like the republics of Italy, the arts of gain, or

of production (other than agricultural) and distribution, have made good

their title to equal estimation and greater power beside the art of

captains. But among peaceful arts, industries or trades, some have

always been held to be of higher and others of lower rank; the higher

rank being assigned to those that required larger operations, higher

training, or more thoughtful conduct, and yielded ampler returns--the

lower rank to those which called for simple manual exercise, especially

if such exercise was of a disagreeable or degrading kind. In the cities

of Italy, where both commerce and manufactures were for the first time

organized on a considerable scale, the name _arte_, Art, was retained to

designate the gilds or corporations by which the several industries were

exercised; and, according to the nature of the industry, the art was

classed as higher or lower (_maggiore_ and _minore_).

The arts of which we have hitherto spoken have arisen from positive

requirements, and supply what are strictly utilities, in societies; not

excluding the art of war, at least so far as concerns one-half of war,

the defensive half. But war continued to be an honourable pursuit,

because it was a pursuit associated with birth, power and wealth, as

well as with the virtue of courage, in cases where it had no longer the

plea of utility, but was purely aggressive or predatory; and the arts of

the chase have stood in this respect in an analogous position to those

of war.

There are other arts which have not had their origin in positive

practical needs, but have been practised from the first for pleasure or

amusement. The most primitive human beings of whom we have any

knowledge, the cave-dwellers of the palaeolithic period, had not only

the useful art of chipping stones into spear-heads, knife-heads and

arrow-heads, and making shafts or handles of these implements out of

bone; they had also the ornamental art of scratching upon the bone

handle the outlines of the animals they saw--mammoth, rhinoceros or

reindeer--or of carving such a handle into a rude resemblance of one of

these animals. Here we have a skill exercised, in the first case, for

pure fancy or pleasure, and in the second, for adding an element of

fancy or pleasure to an element of utility. Here, therefore, is the

germ of all those arts which produce imitations of natural objects for

purposes of entertainment or delight, as painting, sculpture, and their

subordinates; and of all those which fashion useful objects in one way

rather than another because the one way gives pleasure and the other

does not, as architecture and the subordinate decorative arts of

furniture, pottery and the rest. Arts that work in a kindred way with

different materials are those of dancing and music. Dancing works with

the physical movements of human beings. Music works with sound. Between

that imitative and plastic group, and the group of these which only

produce motion or sound and pass away, there is the intermediate group

of eloquence and the drama, which deal with the expression of human

feeling in spoken words and acted gestures. There is also the

comprehensive art of poetry, which works with the material of written

words, and can ideally represent the whole material of human life and

experience. Of all these arts the end is not use but pleasure, or

pleasure before use, or at least pleasure and use conjointly. In modern

language, there has grown up a usage which has put them into a class by

themselves under the name of the Fine Arts, as distinguished from the

Useful or Mechanical Arts. (See AESTHETICS and FINE ARTS.) Nay more, to

them alone is often appropriated the use of the generic word Art, as if

they and they only were the arts [Greek: katexochin]. And further yet,

custom has reduced the number which the class-word is meant to include.

When Art and the works of Art are now currently spoken of in this sense,

not even music or poetry is frequently denoted, but only architecture,

sculpture and painting by themselves, or with their subordinate and

decorative branches. In correspondence with this usage, another usage

has removed from the class of _arts_, and put into a contrasted class of

_manufactures_, a large number of industries and their products, to

which the generic term Art, according to our definition, properly

applies. The definition covers the _mechanical_ arts, which can be

efficiently exercised by mere trained habit, rote or calculation, just

as well as the fine arts, which have to be exercised by a higher order

of powers. But the word Art, becoming appropriated to the fine arts, has

been treated as if it necessarily carried along with it, and as if works

to be called works of art must necessarily possess, the attributes of

free individual skill and invention, expressing themselves in ever new

combinations of pleasurable contrivance, and seeking perfection not as a

means towards some ulterior practical end but as an ideal end in itself.

(S. C.)

ARTA (_Narda_, i.e. [Greek: en Arda], or _Zarta_, i.e. [Greek: eis

Arta]), a town of Greece, in the province of Arta, 59 m. N.N.W. of

Mesolonghi. Pop. about 7000. It is built on the site of the ancient

Ambracia (q.v.), its present designation being derived from a corruption

of the name of the river Arachthus (Arta) on which it stands. This

enters the Gulf of Arta some distance south of the town. The river forms

the frontier between Greece and Turkey, and is crossed by a picturesque

bridge, which is neutral ground. There are a few remains of old

cyclopean walls. The town contains also a Byzantine castle, built on the

lofty site of the ancient citadel; a palace belonging to the Greek

metropolitan; a number of mosques, synagogues and churches, the most

remarkable being the church of the Virgin of Consolation, founded in

819. The streets of the town were widened and improved in 1869.

Manufacture of woollens, cottons, Russia leather and embroidery is

carried on, and there is trade in cattle, wine, tobacco, hemp, hides and

grain. Much of the neighbouring plain is very fertile, and the town is

surrounded with gardens and orchards, in which orange, lemon and citron

come to great perfection. In 1083 Arta was taken by Bohemund of

Tarentum; in 1449 by the Turks; in 1688 by the Venetians. In 1797 it was

held by the French, but in the following year, 1798, Ali Pasha of

Iannina captured it. During the Greek War of Independence it suffered

severely, and was the scene of several conflicts, in which the ultimate

success was with the Turks. An insurrection in 1854 was at once

repressed. It was ceded to Greece in 1881. In the Greco-Turkish War of

1897 the Greeks gained some temporary successes at Arta during April and

May.

ARTA, GULF OF (anc. _Sinus Ambracius_), an inlet of the Ionian Sea, 25

m. long and 10 broad, most of the northern shores of which belong to

Turkey, the southern and eastern to Greece. Its only important affluent,

besides the Arta, is the Luro (anc. _Charadra_), also from the north.

The gulf abounds with mullets, soles and eels. Around its shores are

numerous ruins of ancient cities: Actium at the entrance, where the

famous battle was fought in 31 B.C.; Nicopolis, Argos, Limnaea and

Olpae; and several flourishing towns, such as Preveza, Arta (anc.

_Ambracia_), Karavasara or Karbasaras, and Vonitza.

The river ARTA (anc. _Arachthus_ or _Aratthus_, in Livy xxxviii. 3,

_Aretho_) is the chief river of Epirus, and is said to have been

navigable in ancient times as far as Ambracia. Below this town it flows

through a marshy plain, consisting mainly of its own alluvium; its upper

course is through the territory of the Molossians; its total length is

about 80 m.

ARTABANUS, the name of a number of Persian princes, soldiers and

administrators. The most important are the following:--

1. Brother of Darius I., and, according to Herodotus, the trusted

adviser of his nephew Xerxes. Herodotus makes him a principal figure in

epic dialogues: he warns Darius not to attack the Scythians (iv. 83; cf.

also iv. 143), and predicts to Xerxes his defeat by the Greeks (vii. 10

ff., 46 ff.); Xerxes sent him home to govern the empire during the

campaign (vii. 52, 53).

2. Vizier of Xerxes (Ctesias, _Pers_. 20), whom he murdered in 465 B.C.

According to Aristotle, _Pol_. v. 1311 b, he had previously killed

Xerxes' son Darius, and was afraid that the father would avenge him;

according to Ctesias, _Pers_. 29, Justin iii. 1, Diod. xi. 69, he killed

Xerxes first and then pretended that Darius had murdered him, and

instigated his brother Artaxerxes to avenge the parricide. At all

events, during the first months of the reign of Artaxerxes I., he was

the ruling power in the state (therefore the chronographers wrongly

reckon him as king, with a reign of seven months), until Artaxerxes,

having learned the truth about the murder of his father and his brother,

overwhelmed and killed Artabanus and his sons in open fight.

3. A satrap of Bactria, who revolted against Artaxerxes I., but was

defeated in two battles (Ctes. _Pers_. 31).

The name was borne also by four Parthian kings. The Parthian king

Arsaces, who was attacked by Antiochus III. in 209, has been called

Artabanus by some modern authors without any reason.

4. ARTABANUS I., successor of his nephew Phraates II. about 127 B.C.,

perished in a battle against the Tochari, a Mongolian tribe, which had

invaded the east of Iran (Justin xli. 2). He is perhaps identical with

the Artabanus mentioned in Trogus, Prol. xlii.

5. ARTABANUS II. c. A.D. 10-40, son of an Arsacid princess (Tac. _Ann_.

vi. 48), lived in the East among the Dahan nomads. He was raised to the

throne by those Parthian grandees who would not acknowledge Vonones I.,

whom Augustus had sent from Rome (where he lived as hostage) as

successor of his father Phraates IV. The war between the two pretenders

was long and doubtful; on a coin Vonones mentions a victory over

Artabanus. At last Artabanus defeated his rival completely and occupied

Ctesiphon; Vonones fled to Armenia, where he was acknowledged as king,

under the protection of the Romans. But when Artabanus invaded Armenia,

Vonones fled to Syria, and the emperor Tiberius thought it prudent to

support him no longer. Germanicus, whom he sent to the East, concluded a

treaty with Artabanus, in which he was recognized as king and friend of

the Romans. Armenia was given (A.D. 18) to Zeno, the son of the king of

Pontus (Tac. _Ann_. ii. 3 f., 58; Joseph. _Ant_. 18. 24).

Artabanus II., like all Parthian princes, was much troubled by the

opposition of the grandees. He is said to have been very cruel in

consequence of his education among the Dahan barbarians (Tac. _Ann_. vi.

41). To strengthen his power he killed all the Arsacid princes whom he

could reach (Tac. _Ann_. vi. 31). Rebellions of the subject nations may

have occurred also. We learn that he intervened in the Greek city

Seleucia in favour of the oligarchs (Tac. _Ann_. vi. 48), and that two

Jewish brigands maintained themselves for years in Neerda in the swamps

of Babylonia, and were acknowledged as dynasts by Artabanus (Jos. _Ant._

18. 9). In A.D. 35 he tried anew to conquer Armenia, and to establish

his son Arsaces as king there. A war with Rome seemed inevitable. But

that party among the Parthian magnates which was hostile to Artabanus

applied to Tiberius for a king of the race of Phraates. Tiberius sent

Phraates's grandson, Tiridates III., and ordered L. Vitellius (the

father of the emperor) to restore the Roman authority in the East. By

very dexterous military and diplomatic operations Vitellius succeeded

completely. Artabanus was deserted by his followers and fled to the

East. Tiridates, who was proclaimed king, could no longer maintain

himself, because he appeared to be a vassal of the Romans; Artabanus

returned from Hyrcania with a strong army of Scythian (Dahan)

auxiliaries, and was again acknowledged by the Parthians. Tiridates left

Seleucia and fled to Syria. But Artabanus was not strong enough for a

war with Rome; he therefore concluded a treaty with Vitellius, in which

he gave up all further pretensions (A.D. 37). A short time afterwards

Artabanus was deposed again, and a certain Cinnamus was proclaimed king.

Artabanus took refuge with his vassal, the king Izates, of Adiabene; and

Izates by negotiations and the promise of a complete pardon induced the

Parthians to restore Artabanus once more to the throne (Jos. _Ant._ 20.

3). Shortly afterwards Artabanus died, and was succeeded by his son,

Vardanes, whose reign was still more turbulent than that of his father.

6. ARTABANUS III. reigned a short time in A.D. 80 (on a coin of this

year he calls himself Arsaces Artabanus) and the following years, and

supported a pretender who rose in Asia Minor under the name of Nero

(Zonaras xi. 18), but could not maintain himself against Pacorus II.

7. ARTABANUS IV., the last Parthian king, younger son of Vologaeses IV.,

who died A.D. 209. He rebelled against his brother Vologaeses V. (Dio

Cass. vii. 12), and soon obtained the upper hand, although Vologaeses V.

maintained himself in a part of Babylonia till about A.D. 222. The

emperor Caracalla, wishing to make use of this civil war for a conquest

of the East in imitation of his idol, Alexander the Great, attacked the

Parthians in 216. He crossed the Tigris, destroyed the towns and spoiled

the tombs of Arbela; but when Artabanus advanced at the head of an army,

he retired to Carrhae. There he was murdered by Macrinus in April 217.

Macrinus was defeated at Nisibis and concluded a peace with Artabanus,

in which he gave up all the Roman conquests, restored the booty, and

paid a heavy contribution to the Parthians (Dio Cass. lxxviii. 26 f.).

But at the same time, the Persian dynast Ardashir (q.v.) had already

begun his conquests in Persia and Carmania. When Artabanus tried to

subdue him his troops were defeated. The war lasted several years; at

last Artabanus himself was vanquished and killed (A.D. 226), and the

rule of the Arsacids came to an end.

See further PERSIA: History, S ancient, and works there quoted.

(Ed. M.)

ART AND PART, a term used in Scots law to denote the aiding or abetting

in the perpetration of a crime,--the being an accessory before or at the

perpetration of the crime. There is no such offence recognized in

Scotland as that of being an accessory after the fact.

ARTAPHERNES, more correctly ARTAPHRENES, brother of Darius Hystaspis,

and satrap of Sardis. It was he who received the embassy from Athens

sent probably by Cleisthenes (q.v.) in 507 B.C., and subsequently warned

the Athenians to receive back the "tyrant" Hippias. Subsequently he took

an important part in suppressing the Ionian revolt (see IONIA,

ARISTAGORAS, HISTIAEUS), and after the war compelled the cities to make

agreements by which all differences were to be settled by reference. He

also measured out their territories in parasangs and assessed their

tributes accordingly (Herod, vi. 42). In 492 he was superseded in his

satrapy by Mardonius (Herodotus v. 25, 30-32, 35, &c.; Diod. Sic. x.

25). His son, of the same name, was appointed (490), together with

Datis, to take command of the expedition sent by Darius to punish Athens

and Eretria for their share in the Ionian revolt. After the defeat of

Marathon he returned to Asia. In the expedition of Xerxes, ten years

later, he was in command of the Lydians and Mysians (Herod, vi. 94, 119;

vii. 74, Aesch. _Persae_, 21).

Aeschylus in his list of Persian kings (_Persae_, 775 ff.), which is

quite unhistorical, mentions two kings with the name Artaphrenes, who

may have been developed out of these two Persian commanders. (Ed. M.)

ARTAXERXES, a name representing Pers. _Artakhshatra_, "he whose empire

is well-fitted" or "perfected", Heb. _Artakhshasta_, Bab. _Artakshatsu_,

Susian _Irtakshashsha_ (and variants), Gr. [Greek: Artaxerxes], [Greek:

Artoxerxes], and in an inscription of Tralles (Dittenberger, _Sylloge_,

573) [Greek: Artaxerres]; Herodotus (vi. 98) gives the translation

[Greek: megas areios], and considers the name as a compound of Xerxes,

showing thereby that he knew nothing of the Persian language; the later

Persian form is _Ardashir_, which occurs in the form Artaxias (Artaxes)

as the name of some kings of Armenia. It was borne by three kings of the

Achaemenian dynasty of ancient Persia; though, so long as its meaning

was understood, it can have been adopted by the kings only after their

accession to the throne.

1. ARTAXERXES I., surnamed _Macrocheir, Longimanus_, "Longhand," because

his right hand was longer than his left (Plut. _Artax._ i.). He was the

younger son of Xerxes, and was raised to the throne in 465 by the vizier

Artabanus, the murderer of his father. After a few months he became

aware of the crimes of the vizier, and slew him and his sons in a

hand-to-hand fight in the palace. His reign was, on the whole, peaceful;

the empire had reached a period of stagnation. Plutarch (_Artax._ i.)

says that he was famous for his mild and magnanimous character, Nepos

(_de Reg._ i.) that he was exceedingly beautiful and valiant. From the

authentic report of his cup-bearer Nehemiah we see that he was a kind,

good-natured, but rather weak monarch, and he was undoubtedly much under

the baneful influence of his mother Amestris (for whose mischievous

character cf. Herod. ix. 109 ff.) and his sister and wife Amytis. The

peacefulness of his rule was interrupted by several insurrections. At

the very beginning the satrap Artabanus raised a rebellion in Bactria,

but was defeated in two battles. More dangerous was the rebellion of

Egypt under Inarus (Inaros), which was put down by Megabyzus only after

a long struggle against the Egyptians and the Athenians (460-454). Out

of it sprang the rebellion of Megabyzus, who was greatly exasperated

because, though he had persuaded Inarus to surrender by promising that

his life would be spared, Artaxerxes, yielding to the entreaties of his

wife Amytis, who wanted to take revenge on Inarus for the death of her

brother Achaemenes, the satrap of Egypt, had surrendered him to her for

execution.

In spite of his weakness, Artaxerxes I. was not unsuccessful in his

polity. In 448 the war with Athens was terminated by the treaty

concluded by Callias (but see CALLIAS and CIMON), by which the Athenians

left Cyprus and Egypt to the Persians, while Persia gave up nothing of

her rights, but promised not to make use of them against the Greek

cities on the Asiatic coast, which had gained their liberty (Ed. Meyer,

_Forschungen zur alt. Gesch._ ii. 71 ff.). In the Samian and the

Peloponnesian wars, Artaxerxes remained neutral, in spite of the

attempts made by both Sparta and Athens to gain his alliance.

During the reign of Artaxerxes I. the Jewish religion was definitely

established and sanctioned by law in Jerusalem, on the basis of a firman

granted by the king to the Babylonian priest Ezra in his seventh year,

458 B.C., and the appointment of his cup-bearer Nehemiah as governor of

Judaea in his twentieth year, 445 B.C. The attempts which have been made

to deny the authenticity of those parts of the books of Ezra and

Nehemiah which contain an account of these two men, taken from their own

memoirs, or to place them in the reign of Artaxerxes II., are not

convincing (cf. Ed. Meyer, _Die Entstehung des Judentums_, 1896; see

further JEWS, SS 19, 21, 22; EZRA AND NEHEMIAH).

Artaxerxes I. died in December 425, or January 424 (Thuc. iv. 50). To

his reign must belong the famous quadrilingual alabaster vases from

Egypt (on which his name is written in Persian, Susian and Babylonian

cuneiform characters and in hieroglyphics), for Artaxerxes II. and III.

did not possess Egypt. A great many tablets, dated from his reign, have

been found in Nippur (published by H. von Hilprecht and Clay, _The

Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania_, series A, vol.

ix.), and a few others at other places in Babylonia. Inscriptions of the

king himself are not extant; his grandson mentions his buildings in

Susa. For the suggested identification of Artaxerxes I. with the

Biblical Ahasuerus, see AHASUERUS.

2. ARTAXERXES II., surnamed _Mnemon_, the eldest son of Darius II., whom

he succeeded in the spring of 404. According to Ctesias (_Pers._ 57;

Plut. _Artax._ i.) he was formerly called Arsaces or Arsikas, whereas

Dinon (Plut. _Artax._ i.) calls him Oarses. This is corroborated by a

Babylonian tablet with observations of the moon (Brit. Mus. Sp. ii. 749;

_Zeitsch. f. Assyriologie_, vii. 223), which is dated from the 26th year

of "Arshu, who is Artakshatsu," i.e. 379 B.C. (cp. Ed. Meyer,

_Forschungen zur allen Geschichte_, ii. 466 ff.). When Artaxerxes II.

mounted the throne, the power of Athens had been broken by Lysander, and

the Greek towns in Asia were again subjects of the Persian empire. But

his whole reign is a time of continuous decay; the original force of the

Persians had been exhausted in luxury and intrigues, and the king,

though personally brave and good-natured, was quite dependent upon his

favourites and his harem, and especially upon his mother Parysatis. In

the beginning of his reign falls the rebellion of his brother Cyrus, who

was secretly favoured by Parysatis and by Sparta. Although Cyrus was

defeated at Cunaxa, this rebellion was disastrous inasmuch as it opened

to the Greeks the way into the interior of the empire, and demonstrated

that no oriental force was able to withstand a band of well-trained

Greek soldiers. Subsequently Greek mercenaries became indispensable not

only to the king but also to the satraps, who thereby gained the means

for attempting successful rebellions, into which they were provoked by

the weakness of the king, and by the continuous intrigues between the

Persian magnates. The reign is, therefore, a continuous succession of

rebellions. Egypt soon revolted anew and could not be subdued again.

When in 399 war broke out between Sparta and Persia, the Persian troops

in Asia Minor were quite unable to resist the Spartan armies. The active

and energetic Persian general Pharnabazus succeeded in creating a fleet

by the help of Evagoras, king of Salamis in Cyprus, and the Athenian

commander Conon, and destroyed the Spartan fleet at Cnidus (August 394).

This victory enabled the Greek allies of Persia (Thebes, Athens, Argos,

Corinth) to carry on the Corinthian war against Sparta, and the Spartans

had to give up the war in Asia Minor. But it soon became evident that

the only gainers by the war were the Athenians, who in 389, under

Thrasybulus, tried to found their old empire anew (see DELIAN LEAGUE).

At the same time Evagoras attempted to conquer the whole of Cyprus, and

was soon in open rebellion. The consequence was that, when in 388 the

Spartan admiral Antalcidas (q.v.) came to Susa, the king was induced to

conclude a peace with Sparta by which Asia fell to him and European

Greece to Sparta. After the peace, Evagoras was attacked. He lost his

conquests, but had to be recognized as independent king of Salamis (380

B.C.). Two expeditions against Egypt (385-383 and 374-372) ended in

complete failure. At the same period there were continuous rebellions in

Asia Minor; Pisidia, Paphlagonia, Bithynia and Lycia, threw off the

Persian yoke and Hecatomnus, the satrap of Caria, obtained an almost

independent position. Similar wars were going on against the mountain

tribes of Armenia and Iran, especially against the Cadusians on the

Caspian Sea. In this war Artaxerxes is said to have distinguished

himself personally (380 B.C.), but got into such difficulties in the

wild country that he was glad when Tiribazus succeeded in concluding a

peace with the Cadusian chieftains.

By the peace of Antalcidas the Persian supremacy was proclaimed over

Greece; and in the following wars all parties, Spartans, Athenians,

Thebans, Argives continually applied to Persia for a decision in their

favour. After the battle of Leuctra, when the power of Thebes was

founded by Epaminondas, Pelopidas went to Susa (367) and restored the

old alliance between Persia and Thebes. The Persian supremacy, however,

was not based upon the power of the empire, but only on the discord of

the Greeks. Shortly after the edict by which the king had proclaimed his

alliance with Thebes, and the conditions of the general peace which he

was going to impose upon Greece, his weakness became evident, for since

366 all the satraps of Asia Minor (Datames, Ariobarzanes, Mausolus,

Orontes, Artabazus) were in rebellion again, in close alliance with

Athens, Sparta and Egypt. The king could do little against them; even

Autophradates, satrap of Lydia, who had remained faithful, was forced

for some time to unite himself with the rebels. But every one of the

allies mistrusted all the others; and the sole object of every satrap

was to improve his condition and his personal power, and to make a

favourable peace with the king, for which his neighbours and former

allies had to pay the costs. The rebellion was at last put down by a

series of treacheries and perfidious negotiations. Some of the rebels

retained their provinces; others were punished, as opportunity offered.

Mithradates betrayed his own father Ariobarzanes, who was crucified, and

murdered Datames, to whom he had introduced himself as a faithful ally.

When the long reign of Artaxerxes II. came to its close in the autumn of

359 the authority of the empire had been restored almost everywhere.

Artaxerxes himself had done very little to obtain this result. In fact,

in the last years of his reign he had sunk into a perfect dotage. All

his time was spent in the pleasures of his harem, the intrigues of which

were further complicated by his falling in love with and marrying his

own daughter Atossa (according to the Persian religion a marriage

between the nearest relations is no incest). At the same time, his sons

were quarrelling about the succession; one of them, Ochus, induced the

father by a series of intrigues to condemn to death three of his older

brothers, who stood in his way. Shortly afterwards, Artaxerxes II. died.

In this reign an important innovation took place in the Persian

religion. Berossus (in Clemens Alex. _Protrept._ i. 5. 65) tells us that

the Persians knew of no images of the gods until Artaxerxes II. erected

images of Anaitis in Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana, Persepolis, Bactra,

Damascus, Sardis. This statement is proved correct by the inscriptions;

all the former kings name only Auramazda (Ahuramazda), but Artaxerxes

II. in his building inscriptions from Susa and Ecbatana invokes

Ahuramazda, Anahita and Mithra. These two gods belonged to the old

popular religion of the Iranians, but had until then been neglected by

the true Zoroastrians; now they were introduced into the official

worship much in the way in which the cult of the saints came into the

Christian religion. About the history of Artaxerxes II. we are

comparatively well informed from Greek sources; for the earlier part of

his reign from Ctesias and Xenophon (_Anabasis_), for the later times

from Dinon of Ephesus, the historian of the Persians (from whom the

account of Justin is derived), from Ephorus (whose account is quoted by

Diodorus) and others. Upon these sources is based the biography of the

king by Plutarch.

3. ARTAXERXES III. is the title adopted by Ochus, the son of Artaxerxes

II., when he succeeded his father in 359. The chronographers generally

retain the name Ochus, and in the Babylonian inscriptions he is called

"Umasu, who is called Artakshatsu." The same form of the name (probably

pronounced Uvasu) occurs in the Syrian version of the canon of Ptolemy

by Elias of Nisibis (Amos).

Artaxerxes III. was a cruel but an energetic ruler. To secure his throne

he put to death almost all his relatives, but he suppressed the

rebellions also. In 356 he ordered all the satraps to dismiss their

mercenaries. Most of them obeyed; Artabazus of Phrygia, who tried to

resist and was supported by his brothers-in-law, Mentor and Memnon of

Rhodes, was defeated and fled to Philip of Macedon. Athens, whose

general Chares had supported Artabazus, was by the threatening messages

of the king forced to conclude peace, and to acknowledge the

independence of its rebellious allies (355 B.C.). Then the king

attempted to subjugate Egypt, but two expeditions were unsuccessful,

and, in consequence, Sidon and the other Phoenician towns, and the

princes of Cyprus, rebelled against Persia and defeated the Persian

generals. After great preparations the king came in person, but again

the attack on Egypt was repelled by the Greek generals of Nectanebus

(346). One or two years later Artaxerxes, at the head of a great army,

began the siege of Sidon. The Sidonian king Tennes considered resistance

hopeless, and betrayed the town to the Persian king, assisted by Mentor,

who had been sent with Greek troops from Egypt to defend the town.

Artaxerxes repressed the rebellion with great cruelty and destroyed the

town. The traitor Tennes was put to death, but Mentor rose high in the

favour of the king, and entered into a close alliance with the eunuch

Bagoas, the king's favourite and vizier. They succeeded in subjecting

the other rebels, and, after a hard fight at Pelusium, and many

intrigues, conquered Egypt (343); Nectanebus fled to Ethiopia.

Artaxerxes used his victory with great cruelty; he plundered the

Egyptian temples and is said to have killed the Apis. After his return

to Susa, Bagoas ruled the court and the upper satrapies, while Mentor

restored the authority of the empire everywhere in the west. He deposed

or killed many Greek dynasts, among them the famous Hermias of Atarneus,

the protector of Aristotle, who had friendly relations with Philip (342

B.C.). When Philip attacked Perinthus and Byzantium (340), Artaxerxes

sent them support, by which they were enabled to withstand the

Macedonians; Philip's antagonists in Greece, Demosthenes and his party,

hoped to get subsidies from the king, but were disappointed.

In 338 Artaxerxes III., with his older sons, was killed by Bagoas, who

raised his youngest son Arses to the throne. Artaxerxes III. is said

never to have entered the country of Persia proper, because, being a

great miser, he would not pay the present of a gold piece for every

Persian woman, which it was usual to give on such occasions (Plut.

_Alex._ 69). But we have a building inscription from Persepolis, which

contains his name and genealogy, and invocations of Ahuramazda and

Mithra.

For the relations of Artaxerxes I.--III. with the Jews see JEWS, SS

19-21. For bibliographical references see PERSIA: _Ancient History_.

The name Artaxerxes was adopted by Bessus when he proclaimed himself

king after the assassination of Darius III. It was borne by several

dynasts of Persis, when it formed an independent kingdom in the time

of the Parthian empire (on their coins they call themselves

Artakhshathr; one of them is mentioned by Lucian, _Macrobii_, 15), and

by three kings of the Sassanid dynasty, who are better known under the

modern form Ardashir (q.v.). (Ed. M.)

ARTEDI, PETER (1705-1735), Swedish naturalist, was born in the province

of Angermania, in Sweden, on the 22nd of February 1705. Intending to

become a clergyman, he went, in 1724, to study theology at Upsala, but

he turned his attention to medicine and natural history, especially

ichthyology, upon the study of which he exercised great influence (see

ICHTHYOLOGY). In 1728 his countryman Linnaeus arrived in Upsala, and a

lasting friendship was formed between the two. In 1732 both left Upsala,

Artedi for England, and Linnaeus for Lapland; but before parting they

reciprocally bequeathed to each other their manuscripts and books in the

event of death. He was accidentally drowned on the 27th of September

1735 at Amsterdam, where he was engaged in cataloguing the collections

of Albert Seba, a wealthy Dutchman, who had formed what was perhaps the

richest museum of his time. According to agreement, his manuscripts came

into the hands of Linnaeus, and his _Bibliotheca Ichthyologica_ and

_Philosophia Ichthyologica_, together with a life of the author, were

published at Leiden in the year 1738.

ARTEGA, a tribe of African "Arabs," said to be descendants of a sheik of

that name who came from Hadramut in pre-Islamic days, settling near

Tokar. The name is said to be "patrician," and the Artega may be

regarded as the most ancient stock in the Suakin district. They are now

an inferior mixed race. They were all followers of the mahdi and khalifa

in the Sudan wars (1883-1898).

See _Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905).

ARTEL (Russ. for "gang"), the name for the co-operative associations in

Russia. Originally, the artels were true examples of productive

co-operation, bodies of working-men associating together for the purpose

of jointly undertaking some piece of work, and dividing the profits.

This original form of artel still survives among the fishermen of

Archangel. Artels have come, however, to be little more than trade

gilds, with mutual responsibility. (For details see RUSSIA.)

ARTEMIDORUS. (1) A geographer "of Ephesus" who flourished about 100 B.C.

After studying at Alexandria, he travelled extensively and published the

results of his investigations in a large work on general geography

([Greek: Ta geographoumena]) in eleven books, much used by Strabo and

others. The original work is lost, but we possess many small fragments

and larger fragments of an abridgment made by Marcianus of Heracleia

(5th century), which contains the periplus of the Euxine and accounts of

Bithynia and Paphlagonia. (See Muller, _Geographi Graeci Minores_;

Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography_; Stiehle, "Der Geograph

Artemidoros von Ephesos," in _Philologus_, xi., 1856). (2) A soothsayer

and interpreter of dreams, who flourished in the 2nd century A.D.,

during the reigns of Hadrian and the Antonines. He called himself

Daldianus from his mother's birthplace, Daldis in Lydia, in order to

make its name known to the world. His [Greek: Oneirokritica], or

interpretation of dreams, was said to have been written by command of

Apollo Daldianus, whose initiated votary he was. It is in four books,

with an appendix containing a collection of prophetic dreams which had

been realized. The first three books, addressed to Cassius Maximus, a

Phoenician rhetorician (perhaps identical with Maximus of Tyre), treat

of dreams and divination generally; the fourth--with a reply to his

critics--and the appendix are dedicated to his son, also named

Artemidorus and an interpreter of dreams. Artemidorus boasts of the

trouble expended on his work; he had read all the authorities on dreams,

travelled extensively, and conversed with all who had studied the

subject. The work is valuable as affording an insight into ancient

superstitions. According to Suidas, Artemidorus also wrote on augurs and

cheiromancy, but all trace of these works is lost. (Editions: Reiff,

1805, Hercher, 1864; translation and notes, Krauss, 1881; English

translation by Wood, 1644, and later editions.)

ARTEMIS, one of the principal goddesses in Greek mythology, the

counterpart of the Roman Diana. The suggested etymologies of the name

(see O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, ii. p. 1267, note 2), as in

the case of most of the Olympian deities, are unsatisfactory, and throw

no light upon her significance and characteristics. The Homeric and

later conception of Artemis, though by no means the original one, may be

noticed first. She is the daughter of Zeus and Leto, twin-sister and

counterpart of Apollo. She is said to have been born a day before him

(on the 6th of the month) and tradition assigns them different

birthplaces--Delos to Apollo, Ortygia to Artemis. But Ortygia ("home of

quails") applies still to Delos, and may well have been a synonym for

that island. In its original sense it does not apply either to the

island of Ortygia at Syracuse, or to Ortygia near Ephesus, which also

claimed the honour of having been the birthplace of the goddess. Artemis

is the goddess of chastity, an aspect of her character which gradually

assumed more and more importance--the protectress of young men and

maidens, who defies and contemns the power of Aphrodite. Her resemblance

to her brother is shown in many ways. Like him, armed with bow and

arrows, she deals death to mortals, sometimes gently and suddenly,

especially to women, but also as a punishment for offences against

herself or morality. With him she takes part in the combat with Python

and with Tityus, in the slaughter of the children of Niobe, while alone

she executes vengeance on Orion. Although Apollo has nothing to do with

the earlier cult of Artemis, nor Artemis with that of Delphi, their

association was a comparatively early one, and probably originated in

Delos. Here the connexion of Artemis with the Hyperborean legend (see

APOLLO) is shown in the names of the maidens (Opis, Hecaerge) who were

supposed to have brought offerings from the north to Delos, where they

were buried. Both Opis (or Oupis) and Hecaerge are names of Artemis, the

latter being the feminine of Hecaergos, an epithet of Apollo. Like her

brother, she is not only a goddess who deals death, but she is also a

healing and a purifying divinity, [Greek: oulia] ("the healer," cf.

Apollo Oulios), [Greek: luae, luaia] ("purifier,") and [Greek: soteira],

"she who saves from all evils" (cf. Apollo [Greek: apotropaios]). Her

connexion with the prophetic art is doubtful, although mention is made

of an Artemis Sibylla. To her association with Apollo are certainly to

be referred the names Delphinia and Pythia, and the titles referring to

state and family life--[Greek: prostataeria], [Greek: patriotis],

[Greek: boulaia]. It probably accounts for her appearance as a goddess

of seafarers, the bestower of fair weather and prosperous voyages. At

Phigalia in Arcadia, Eurynome, represented as half woman and half fish,

was probably another form of Artemis. To the same association may be

traced her slight connexion with music, song and dance.

It is in the Arcadian and Athenian rites and legends, however, which are

certainly earlier than Homer, that the original conception of the

goddess is to be found. These tend to show that Artemis was first and

foremost a nature goddess, whose cult shows numerous traces of totemism.

As a goddess of fertilizing moisture, lakes, rivers, springs, and marshy

lowlands are brought into close connexion with her. Thus she is [Greek:

limnaia, despoina limnaes] ("lady of the lake"), [Greek: eleia] ("of

marshes"), [Greek: potamia] ("of rivers," especially of the Cladaus and

Alpheus, whence her name [Greek: Alpheiaia]). Her influence is very

active in promoting the increase of the fruits of the field, hence she

is specially a goddess of agriculture. She drives away the mice (cf.

Apollo Smintheus) and slays the Aloidae, the corn spirits; she is the

friend of the reapers, and requires her share of the first fruits. Her

character as a harvest goddess is clearly shown in the legend of the

Calydonian boar, sent by her to ravage the fields out of resentment at

not having received a harvest offering from Oeneus (see MELEAGER). As

[Greek: epimulios] and [Greek: epiklibanios] ("presiding over the mill

and the oven") she extends her protection over the further development

of the grain for the use of man.

Artemis was naturally also a goddess of trees and vegetation. Near

Orchomenus her wooden image stood in a large cedar-tree--an indication

that her worship was originally that of the tree itself ([Greek:

kedreatis], "the cedar goddess"); at Caryae there was an image of

Artemis [Greek: karuatis] ("the nut-tree goddess"). Two curious epithets

in this connexion deserve notice: [Greek: lugodesma] ("bound with

withies"), derived from the legend that the image of Artemis Orthia was

found in a thicket of withies, which twined round it and kept it upright

([Greek: lugos] is the _agnus castus_, and points to Artemis in her

relation to women); and [Greek: apagchomenae] ("the suspended"),

probably a reference to the custom of hanging the mask or image of a

vegetation-divinity on a tree to obtain fertility (Farnell, _Cults of

the Greek States_, ii. p. 429; cf. the "swing" festival ([Greek: aiora])

of the Greeks, and the _oscilla_ of the Romans).

The functions of the goddess extended from the vegetable to the animal

world, to the inhabitants of the woods and mountains. This is clearly

expressed in the cult of Artemis Laphria (possibly connected with

[Greek: laphura], "spoils"), at whose festivals all kinds of animals,

both wild and tame, as well as fruits, were thrown together on a huge

wood fire. Her general name in this connexion was [Greek: agrotera]

("roaming the wilds," not necessarily "goddess of the chase," an aspect

less familiar in the older religion), to whom five hundred goats were

offered every year by the Athenians as a thanksgiving in commemoration

of the victory at Marathon. Numerous animals were sacred to her, and at

Syracuse all kinds of wild beasts, including a lioness, were carried in

procession in her honour. It has been observed that she is rather the

patroness of the wild beasts of the field than of the more agricultural

or domestic animals (Farnell, _Cults_, ii. p. 431), although the epithet

[Greek: Haemerasia] ("the tamer," according to others, the "gentle"

goddess of healing) seems to refer to her connexion with the latter. The

bear was especially associated with her in Arcadia, and in her worship

as Artemis Brauronia at Brauron in Attica. According to the legend,

Callisto, an Arcadian nymph, became by Zeus the mother of Arcas, the

eponymous hero of the Arcadians. Zeus, to conceal the amour, changed

Callisto into a she-bear; Hera, however, discovered it, and persuaded

Artemis to slay Callisto, who was placed amongst the stars as [Greek:

arktos] ("the bear"). There is no doubt that Callisto is identical with

Artemis; her name is an obvious variation of [Greek: kallistae], a

frequent epithet of the goddess, to whom a temple was erected on the

hill where Callisto was supposed to be buried. It is suggested by M.

Kraus in _Classical Review_, February 1908, that Aphaea, the cult-name

of Artemis at Aegina, is of Semitic origin and means "beautiful."

Closely connected with this legend is the worship of Artemis Brauronia.

The accounts of its institution, which differ in detail, agree that it

was intended to appease the wrath of the goddess at the killing of a

bear. A number of young girls, between five and ten years of age,

wearing a bear-skin (afterwards a saffron-coloured robe) danced a

bear-dance, called [Greek: arkteia], the girls themselves being called

[Greek: arktoi]. In one account, a maiden was ordered to be sacrificed

to the bear Artemis, but a certain man who had a goat called it his

daughter and offered it up in secret, just as at Munychium a fawn

dressed up as a girl was sacrificed to the goddess. In place of the goat

or fawn a bear might have been expected, but the choice may have been

influenced by the animal totem of the tribe into whose hands the ritual

fell. The whole is a reminiscence of earlier times, when the goddess

herself was a bear, to whom human sacrifice was offered. Callisto was

originally a bear-goddess worshipped in Arcadia, identified with

Artemis, when nothing remained of the original animal-worship but name

and ritual. The worship of Callisto being merged in that of the greater

divinity, she became the handmaid and companion of Artemis. A stone

figure of a bear found on the Acropolis seems to point to the worship of

Artemis Brauronia. Her death at the hands of the latter was explained by

the wrath of the goddess--in her later aspect as goddess of chastity--at

Callisto's amour with Zeus (see A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual and Religion_,

ii.; Farnell, _Cults_, ii. p. 437). The custom of flogging youths at the

altar of Artemis Orthia[1] at Limnaeum in Laconia, and the legend of

Iphigeneia (q.v.), herself another form of Artemis, connected with

Artemis Taurica of the Tauric Chersonese, are usually supposed to point

to early human sacrifice (but see Farnell). Various explanations have

been given of the epithet [Greek: orthia]: (1) that it refers to the

primitive type of the "erect" wooden idol; (2) that it means "she who

safely rears children after birth," or "heals the sick" (cf. [Greek:

orthios] applied to Asclepius); (3) that it has a phallic significance

(Schreiber in Roscher's _Lexikon_). Scholars differ as to whether

Artemis Taurica is identical with Artemis Tauropolos, worshipped chiefly

at Samos with a milder ritual, but it is more probable that [Greek:

Tauropolos] simply means "protectress of bulls."

The protecting influence of Artemis was extended, like that of Apollo,

to the highest animal, man. She was especially concerned in the bringing

up of the young. Boys were brought by their nurses to the temple of

Artemis [Greek: koruthalia] (= [Greek: kourotrophos]) and there

consecrated to her; at the Apaturia, on the day called [Greek:

koureotis], boys cut off and dedicated their hair to her. Girls as well

as boys were under her protection. Her function as a goddess of marriage

is less certain, and the cult-titles adduced in support of it are hardly

convincing; such are [Greek: Haegemonae], interpreted as "she who leads

home the bride," [Greek: selasphoros], "bearer of light," that is, of

torches at the marriage procession. On the other hand, her connexion

with childbirth is clearly shown: in many places she is even called

Eilithyia, who in the earlier poets was regarded as distinct from her.

In one version of the story of her birth she is said to have been born a

day before Apollo, in order to assist Leto at his birth; women in

childbirth invoked her aid, and after delivery offered up their clothes

or a lock of hair. As already noticed, in Homer Artemis appears as a

goddess of death; closely akin to this is the conception of her as a

goddess of war. As such she is [Greek: nikaephoros] ("bringer of

victory"); the title [Greek: kolainis] is possibly connected with

[Greek: koleos] ("sword-sheath"); and [Greek: laphria] (see above) may

refer to the spoils of war as well as the chase.

The idea of Artemis as a virgin goddess, the "queen and huntress, chaste

and fair," which obtained great prominence in early times, and seems

inconsistent with her association with childbirth, is generally

explained as due to her connexion with Apollo, but it is suggested by

Farnell that [Greek: parthenos] originally meant "unmarried," and that

"[Greek: Artemis parthenos] may have been originally the goddess of a

people who had not yet the advanced Hellenic institutions of settled

marriage ... and when society developed the later family system the

goddess remained celibate, though not opposed to childbirth."

Another view of the original character of Artemis, which has found much

support in modern times, is that she was a moon-goddess. But there is no

trace of Artemis as such in the epic period, and the Homeric hymn knows

nothing of her identification with Selene. The attribute of the torch

will apply equally well to the goddess of the chase, and epithets such

as [Greek: phosphoros, selasphoros, aithopia], although applicable, are

by no means convincing. The idea dates from the 5th century, and was due

to her connexion with Hecate and Apollo. When the latter came to be

identified by philosophical speculation with the sun-god Helios, it was

natural that his sister and counterpart should be identified with the

moon-goddess Selene. But she is nowhere recognized in cult as such (see

Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, ii. p. 1297, note 2).

It has been mentioned that Callisto, Iphigeneia, Eilithyia, are only

Artemis under different names; to these may be added Adrasteia,

Atalanta, Helen, Leto and others (see Wernicke in Pauly-Wissowa's

_Realencyclopadie_).

Again, various non-Hellenic divinities were identified with Artemis, and

their cult gradually amalgamated with hers. The most important of these

was Artemis of Ephesus, whose seat was in the marshy valley of the

Caystrus. Like the Greek Artemis, she was essentially a nature goddess,

the great foster-mother of the vegetable and animal kingdom. A number of

officials were engaged in the performance of her temple service. Her

eunuch priests, [Greek: megabyzoi] (a name which points to a Persian

origin), were under the control of a high priest called Essen (according

to others, there was a body of priests called Essenes). There were also

three classes of priestesses, Mellierae, Hierae, Parierae; there is no

evidence that they were called Melissae ("bees"), although the bee is a

frequent symbol on the coins of the city. Her chief festival, Ephesia or

Artemisia, was held in the spring, at which games and various contests

took place after the Greek fashion, although the ritual continued to be

of a modified oriental, orgiastic type. This goddess is closely

connected with the Amazons (q.v.), who are said to have built her temple

and set up her image in the trunk of a tree. The Greeks of Ephesus

identified her with their own Artemis, and claimed that her birthplace

Ortygia was near Ephesus, not in Delos. She has much in common with the

oriental prototype of Aphrodite, and the Cappadocian goddess Ma, another

form of Cybele. The usual figure of the Ephesian Artemis, which was said

in the first instance to have fallen from heaven, is in the form of a

female with many breasts, the symbol of productivity or a token of her

function as the all-nourishing mother. From the waist to the feet her

image resembles a pillar, narrowing downwards and sculptured all round

with rows of animals (lions, rams and bulls).

Mention may also be made of the following non-Hellenic representatives

of Artemis. Leucophryne (or Leucophrys), whose worship was brought by

emigrants from Magnesia in Thessaly to Magnesia on the Maeander, was a

nature goddess, and her representation on coins exactly resembles that

of the Ephesian Artemis. Her cult, however, from the little that is

known of it appears to have been more Hellenic. There was an altar and

temple of Artemis Pergaea at Perga in Pamphylia, where a yearly festival

was held in her honour. As in the case of Cybele, mendicant priests were

attached to her service. Similar figures were Artemis Coloene,

worshipped at Lake Coloe near Sardis; Artemis Cordax, celebrated in

wanton dances on Mount Sipylus; the Persian Artemis, identical with

Anaitis Bendis, was a Thracian goddess of war and the chase, whose cult

was introduced into Attica in the middle of the 5th century B.C. by

Thracian metics. At her festival called Bendidea, held at the Peiraeus,

there was a procession of Thracians who were settled in the district,

and a torch-race on horseback. (For Britomartis see separate article.)

Among the chief attributes of Artemis are: the hind, specially regarded

as her sacred animal; the bear, the boar and the goat; the zebu (Artemis

Leucophrys); the lion, one of her oldest animal symbols; bow and arrows,

as goddess of the chase and death; a mural crown, as the protectress of

cities; the torch, originally an attribute of the goddess of the chase

or marriage, but, like the crescent (originally an attribute of the

Asiatic nature goddesses), transferred to Artemis, when she came to be

regarded as a moon-goddess. The Greek Artemis was usually represented as

a huntress with bow and quiver, or torch in her hand, in face very like

Apollo, her drapery flowing to her feet, or, more frequently, girt high

for speed. She is accompanied often by a deer or a dog. Perhaps the

finest existing statue of her is the Diana of Versailles from Hadrian's

Villa (now in the Louvre), in which she wears a short tunic drawn in at

the waist and sandals on her feet; her hair is bound up into a knot at

the back of her head, with a band over the forehead. With her left hand

she holds a stag, while drawing an arrow from the quiver on her shoulder

with the right. Another famous statue is one from Gabii, in which she is

finishing her toilet and fastening the chlamys over her tunic. In older

times her figure is fuller and stronger, and the clothing more complete;

certain statues discovered at Delos, imitated from wooden models

(xoana), are supposed to represent Artemis; they are described as stiff

and rigid, the limbs as it were glued to the body without life or

movement, garments closely fitting, the folds of which fall in

symmetrical parallel lines. As a goddess of the moon she wears a long

robe, carries a torch, and her head is surmounted by a crescent. On the

coins of Arcadia, Aetolia, Crete and Sicily, are to be seen varied and

beautiful representations of her head as conceived by the Greek artists

in the best times.

AUTHORITIES.--Articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_;

Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, and Daremberg and Saglio's

_Dictionnaire des antiquites_ (s.v. Diana, with well-arranged

bibliography); L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_ (4th ed. by C.

Robert); L.R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, ii. (1896); O.

Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie und Religions-Geschichte_, ii. (1906);

A. Claus, _De Dianae antiquissima apud Graecos natura_ (Breslau,

1880). In the article GREEK ART, fig. 11 (a gold ornament from

Camirus) represents the Oriental goddess identified by the Greeks with

Artemis.

For the Roman goddess identified with Artemis see DIANA. (J. H. F.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The site of the temple of Artemis Orthia was excavated by the

British School of Archaeology at Athens (see _Annual_, 1906). The

flogging ([Greek: diamastigosis]) is explained by R.C. Bosanquet as a

late institution of decadent Sparta, an exaggeration of an old ritual

practice of whipping away boys who tried to steal cheeses from the

altar (see _The Year's Work in Classical Studies_, ed. W.H.D. Rouse,

1907).

ARTEMISIA, daughter of Lygdamis, was queen of Halicarnassus and Cos

about 480 B.C. Being a dependent of Persia, she took part in person in

the expedition of Xerxes against the Greeks, and fitted out five ships,

with which she distinguished herself in the sea-fight near Salamis

(480). When closely pursued by the Athenians she escaped by the

stratagem of attacking one of the Persian vessels, whereupon the

Athenians concluded that she was an ally, and gave up the pursuit

(Herod. vii. 99, viii. 68). After the battle Xerxes declared that the

men had fought like women, and the women like men. By her advice he did

not risk another battle, but at once retired from Greece. She is said to

have loved a young man named Dardanus, of Abydos, and, enraged at his

neglect of her, to have put out his eyes while he was asleep. The gods,

as a punishment for this, ordered her, by an oracle, to take the famous

but rather mythical _lover's leap_ from the Leucadian promontory

(Photius, _Cod. 153a_).

ARTEMISIA, the sister and wife of Mausolus (or Maussollus), king of

Caria, was sole ruler from about 353 to 350 B.C. She has immortalized

herself by the honours paid to the memory of her husband. She built for

him, in Halicarnassus, a very magnificent tomb, called the Mausoleum,

which was one of the seven wonders of the world, and from which the name

mausoleum was afterwards given to all tombs remarkable for their

grandeur. She appointed panegyrics to be composed in his honour, and

offered valuable prizes for the best oratorical and tragic compositions.

She also erected a monument, or trophy, in Rhodes, to commemorate her

conquest of that island. When the Rhodians regained their freedom they

built round this trophy so as to render it inaccessible, whence it was

known as the _Abaton_. There are statues of Mausolus and Artemisia in

the British Museum.

Vitruvius ii. 8; Diodorus Siculus xvi. 36; Cicero, _Tusc._ iii. 31;

Val. Max. iv. 6.

ARTEMON (fl. c. A.D. 230), a prominent Christian teacher at Rome, who

held Adoptianist (see ADOPTIANISM), or humanitarian views, of the same

type as his elder contemporaries the Theodotians, though perhaps

asserting more definitely than they the superiority of Christ to the

prophets in respect of His supernatural birth and sinlessness. He was

excommunicated by Zephyrinus, despite his remarkable claim that all that

bishop's predecessors in the see of Rome had held the humanitarian

position. (See also MONARCHIANISM.)

ARTENA, a village of Italy, in the province of Rome, situated at the

N.N.W. extremity of the Volscian Mountains; it is 36 m. S.E. by rail,

and 24 m. direct from Rome. Pop. (1901) 5016. On the mountain above it

(2073 ft.) are the fine remains of the fortifications of a city built in

a very primitive style, in cyclopean blocks of local limestone; within

the walls are traces of buildings, and a massive terrace which supported

some edifice of importance. The name of this city is quite uncertain;

Ecetra is a possible suggestion. The modern village, which was called

Monte Fortino until 1870, owes its present name to an unwarrantable

identification of the site with the ancient Volscian Artena, destroyed

in 404 B.C. Another Artena, which belonged to the district of Caere, and

lay between it and Veii, was destroyed in the period of the kings, and

its site is quite unknown.

See T. Ashby and G.J. Pfeiffer in _Supplementary Papers of the

American School in Rome_, i. 87 seq.

ARTERIES (Gr. [Greek: artaeria], probably from [Greek: airein], to

raise, but popularly connected by the ancients with [Greek: aaer], air),

in anatomy, the elastic tubes which carry the blood away from the heart

to the tissues. As, after death, they are always found empty, the older

anatomists believed that they contained air, and to this belief they owe

the name, which was originally given to the windpipe (_trachea_). Two

great trunks, the aorta and pulmonary artery, leave the heart and divide

again and again, until they become minute vessels to which the name of

arterioles is given. The larger trunks are fairly constant in position

and receive definite names, but as the smaller branches are reached

there is an increasing inconstancy in their position, and anatomists are

still undecided as to the normal, i.e. most frequent, arrangement of

many of the smaller arteries. From a common-sense point of view it is

probably of greater importance to realize how variable the distribution

of small arteries is than to remember the names of twigs which are of

neither surgical nor morphological importance. Arteries adapt themselves

more quickly than most other structures to any mechanical obstruction,

and many of the differences between the arterial systems of Man and

other animals are due to the assumption of the erect position. Many

arteries are tortuous, especially when they supply movable parts such as

the face or scalp, but when one or two sharp bends are found they are

generally due to the artery going out of its way to give off a constant

and important branch. Small arteries unite or anastomose with others

near them very freely, so that when even a large artery is obliterated a

collateral circulation is carried on by the rapid increase in size of

the communications between the branches coming off above and below the

point of obstruction. Some branches, however, such as those going to the

basal ganglia of the brain and to the spleen, are known as "end

arteries," and these do not anastomose with their neighbours at all;

thus, if one is blocked, arterial blood is cut off from its area of

supply. As a rule, there is little arterial anastomosis across the

middle line of the body near the surface, though the scalp, lips and

thyroid body are exceptions.

The distribution of the pulmonary artery is considered in connexion

with the anatomy of the lungs (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). That of the

aorta will now be briefly described.

Aorta.

The _Aorta_ lies in the cavities of the thorax and abdomen, and arises

from the base of the left ventricle of the heart. It ascends forward,

upward, and to the right as far as the level of the second right

costal cartilage, then runs backward, and to the left to reach the

left side of the body of the 4th thoracic vertebra, and then descends

almost vertically. It thus forms the _arch of the aorta_, which arches

over the root of the left lung, and which has attached to its concave

surface a fibrous cord, known as the obliterated _ductus arteriosus_,

which connects it with the left branch of the pulmonary artery. The

aorta continues its course downward in close relation to the bodies of

the thoracic vertebrae, then passes through an opening in the

diaphragm (q.v.), enters the abdomen, and descends in front of the

bodies of the lumbar vertebrae as low as the 4th, where it usually

divides into two terminal branches, the common iliac arteries. Above

and behind the angle of bifurcation, however, a long slender artery,

called the _middle sacral_, is prolonged downward in front of the

sacrum to the end of the coccyx.

It will be convenient to describe the distribution of the arteries

under the following headings:--(1) Branches for the head, neck and

upper limbs; (2) branches for the viscera of the thorax and abdomen;

(3) branches for the walls of the thorax and abdomen; (4) branches for

the pelvis and lower limbs.

The branches for the head, neck and upper limbs arise as three large

arteries from the transverse part of the aorta; they are named

_innominate, left common carotid_ and _left subclavian_. The

innominate artery is the largest and passes upward and to the right,

to the root of the neck, where it divides into the right common

carotid and the right subclavian. The carotid arteries supply the two

sides of the head and neck; the subclavian arteries the two upper

extremities.

Carotid system.

The _common carotid_ artery runs up the neck by the side of the

windpipe, and on a level with the upper border of the thyroid

cartilage divides into the internal and external carotid arteries.

The _internal carotid_ artery ascends through the carotid canal in the

temporal bone into the cranial cavity. It gives off an _ophthalmic_

branch to the eyeball and other contents of the orbit, and then

divides into the _anterior_ and _middle cerebral_ arteries. The middle

cerebral artery extends outward into the Sylvian fissure of the brain,

and supplies the island of Reil, the orbital part, and the outer face

of the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, and the temporo-sphenoidal

lobe; it also gives a choroid branch to the choroid plexus of the

velum interpositum. The anterior cerebral artery supplies the inner

face of the hemisphere from the anterior end of the frontal lobe as

far back as the internal parieto-occipital fissure. At the base of the

brain not only do the two internal carotids anastomose with each other

through the _anterior communicating_ artery, which passes between

their anterior cerebral branches, but the internal carotid on each

side anastomoses with the posterior cerebral branch of the basilar, by

a _posterior communicating_ artery. In this manner a vascular circle,

the _circle of Willis_, is formed, which permits of freedom of the

arterial circulation by the anastomoses between arteries not only on

the same side, but on opposite sides of the mesial plane. The

vertebral and internal carotid arteries, which are the arteries of

supply for the brain, are distinguished by lying at some depth from

the surface in their course to the organ, by having curves or twists

in their course, and by the absence of large collateral branches.

The _external carotid_ artery ascends through the upper part of the

side of the neck, and behind the lower jaw into the parotid gland,

where it divides into the internal maxillary and superficial temporal

branches. This artery gives off the following branches:--(a) _Superior

thyroid_ to the larynx and thyroid body; (b) _Lingual_ to the tongue

and sublingual gland; (c) _Facial_ to the face, palate, tonsil and

sub-maxillary gland; (d) _Occipital_ to the sterno-mastoid muscle and

back of the scalp; (e) _Posterior auricular_ to the back of the ear

and the adjacent part of the scalp; (f) _Superficial temporal_ to the

scalp in front of the ear, and by its _transverse facial_ branch to

the back part of the face; (g) _Internal maxillary_, giving _muscular_

branches to the muscles of mastication, _meningeal_ branches to the

dura mater, _dental_ branches to the teeth, and other branches to the

nose, palate and tympanum; (h) _Ascending pharyngeal_, which gives

branches to the pharynx, palate, tonsils and dura mater.

Subclavian system.

The _subclavian_ artery is the commencement of the great arterial

trunk for the upper limb. It passes across the root of the neck and

behind the clavicle, where it enters the armpit, and becomes the

_axillary_ artery; by that name it extends as far as the posterior

fold of the axilla, where it enters the upper arm, takes the name of

brachial, and courses as far as the bend of the elbow; here it

bifurcates into the _radial_ and _ulnar_ arteries. From the subclavian

part of the trunk the following branches arise:--(a) _Vertebral_,

which enters the foramen at the root of the transverse process of the

6th cervical vertebra, ascends through the corresponding foramina in

the vertebrae above, lies in a groove on the arch of the atlas, and

enters the skull through the foramen magnum, where it joins its fellow

to form the _basilar_ artery; it gives off _muscular_ branches to the

deep muscles of the neck, _spinal_ branches to the spinal cord,

_meningeal_ branches to the dura mater, and an _inferior cerebellar_

branch to the under surface of the cerebellum. The _basilar_ artery,

formed by the junction of the two vertebrals, extends from the lower

to the upper border of the pons Varolii; it gives off _transverse_

branches to the pons, _auditory_ branches to the internal ear,

_inferior cerebellar_ branches to the under surface of the cerebellum,

whilst it breaks up into four terminal branches, viz. two _superior

cerebellar_ to the upper surface of the cerebellum, and two _posterior

cerebral_ which supply the tentorial and mesial aspects of the

temporo-sphenoidal lobes, the occipital lobes, and the posterior

convolutions of the parietal lobes. (b) _Thyroid axis_, which

immediately divides into the _inferior thyroid_, the _supra-scapular_,

and the _transverse cervical_ branches; the _inferior thyroid_

supplies the thyroid body, and gives off an _ascending cervical_

branch to the muscles of the neck; the _supra-scapular_ supplies the

muscles on the dorsum scapulae; the _transverse cervical_ supplies the

trapezius and the muscles attached to the vertebral border of the

scapula. (c) _Internal mammary_ supplies the anterior surface of the

walls of the chest and abdomen, and the upper surface of the

diaphragm. (d) _Superior intercostal_ supplies the first intercostal

space, and by its deep _cervical_ branch the deep muscles of the back

of the neck.

The _axillary_ artery supplies _thoracic_ branches to the wall of the

chest, the pectoral muscles, and the fat and glands of the axilla; an

_acromio-thoracic_ to the parts about the acromion; _anterior_ and

_posterior circumflex_ branches to the shoulder joint and deltoid

muscle; a _subscapular_ branch to the muscles of the posterior fold of

the axilla.

The _brachial_ artery supplies _muscular_ branches to the muscles of

the upper arm; a _nutrient_ branch to the humerus; _superior_ and

_inferior profunda_ branches and an _anastomotic_ to the muscles of

the upper arm and the region of the elbow joint.

The _ulnar_ artery extends down the ulnar side of the front of the

fore-arm to the palm of the hand, where it curves outward toward the

thumb, and anastomoses with the superficial volar or other branch of

the radial artery to form the _superficial palmar arch_. In the

fore-arm the ulnar gives off the _interosseous_ arteries, which supply

the muscles of the fore-arm and give _nutrient_ branches to the bones;

two _recurrent_ branches to the region of the elbow; _carpal_ branches

to the wrist joint: in the hand it gives a _deep_ branch to the deep

muscles of the hand, and from the superficial arch arise _digital_

branches to the sides of the little, ring, and middle fingers, and the

ulnar border of the index finger.

The _radial_ artery extends down the radial side of the front of the

fore-arm, turns round the outer side of the wrist to the back of the

hand, passes between the 1st and 2nd metacarpal bones to the palm,

where it joins the deep branch of the ulnar, and forms the _deep

palmar arch_. In the fore-arm it gives off a _recurrent_ branch to the

elbow joint; _carpal_ branches to the wrist joint; and _muscular_

branches, one of which, named superficial volar, supplies the muscle

of the thumb and joins the ulnar artery: in the hand it gives off a

branch to the thumb, and one to the radial side of the index,

_interosseous_ branches to the interosseous muscles, _perforating_

branches to the back of the hand, and _recurrent_ branches to the

wrist.

Visceral branches.

The branches of the aorta which supply the viscera of the thorax are

the coronary, the oesophageal, the bronchial and the pericardiac. The

_coronary_ arteries, two in number, are the first branches of the

aorta, and arise opposite the anterior and left posterior segments of

the semilunar valve, from the wall of the aorta, where it dilates into

the sinuses of Valsalva. They supply the tissue of the heart.

The _oesophageal, bronchial_ and _pericardiac_ branches are

sufficiently described by their names.

The branches of the aorta which supply the viscera of the abdomen

arise either singly or in pairs. The single arteries are the coeliac

axis, the superior mesenteric, and the inferior mesenteric, which

arise from the front of the aorta; the pairs are the capsular, the two

renal, and the two spermatic or ovarian, which arise from its sides.

The single arteries supply viscera which are either completely or

almost completely invested by the peritoneum, and the veins

corresponding to them are the roots of the vena portae. The pairs of

arteries supply viscera developed behind the peritoneum, and the veins

corresponding to them are rootlets of the inferior vena cava.

The _coeliac axis_ is a thick, short artery, which almost immediately

divides into the gastric, hepatic and splenic branches. The _gastric_

gives off oesophageal branches and then runs along the lesser

curvature of the stomach. The _hepatic_ artery ends in the substance

of the liver; but gives off a _cystic_ branch to the gall bladder, a

_pyloric_ branch to the stomach, a _gastro-duodenal_ branch, which

divides into a _superior pancreatico-duodenal_ for the pancreas and

duodenum, and a _right gastro-epiploic_ for the stomach and omentum.

The _splenic_ artery ends in the substance of the spleen; but gives

off _pancreatic_ branches to the pancreas, _vasa brevia_ to the left

end of the stomach, and a _left gastro-epiploic_ to the stomach and

omentum.

The _superior mesenteric_ artery gives off an _inferior

pancreatico-duodenal_ branch to the pancreas and duodenum; about

twelve _intestinal_ branches to the small intestines, which form in

the substance of the mesentery a series of arches before they end in

the wall of the intestines; an _ileocolic_ branch to the end of the

ileum, the caecum, and beginning of the colon; a _right colic_ branch

to the ascending colon; and a _middle colic_ branch to the transverse

colon.

The _inferior mesenteric_ artery gives off a _left colic_ branch to

the descending colon, a _sigmoid_ branch to the iliac and pelvic

colon, and ends in the superior _haemorrhoidal_ artery, which supplies

the rectum. The arteries which supply the coats of the alimentary tube

from the oesophagus to the rectum anastomose freely with each other in

the wall of the tube, or in its mesenteric attachment, and the

anastomoses are usually by the formation of arches or loops between

adjacent branches.

The _capsular arteries_, small in size, run outward from the aorta to

end in the supra-renal capsules.

The _renal_ arteries pass one to each kidney, in which they for the

most part end, but in the substance of the organ they give off small

_perforating_ branches, which pierce the capsule of the kidney, and

are distributed in the surrounding fat. Additional renal arteries are

fairly common.

The _spermatic_ arteries are two long slender arteries, which descend,

one in each spermatic cord, into the scrotum to supply the testicle.

The corresponding ovarian arteries in the female do not leave the

abdomen.

Parietal branches.

The branches of the aorta which supply the walls of the thorax,

abdomen and pelvis, are the intercostal, the lumbar, the phrenic, and

the middle sacral.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of a pair of intercostal arteries.

Ao, The aorta transversely divided, giving off at each side an

intercostal artery.

PB, The posterior or dorsal branch.

AB, The anterior or proper intercostal branch.

IM, A transverse section through the internal mammary artery.]

The _intercostal_ arteries arise from the back of the thoracic aorta,

and are usually nine pairs. They run round the sides of the vertebral

bodies as far as the commencement of the intercostal spaces, where

each divides into a _dorsal_ and a _proper intercostal_ branch; the

dorsal branch passes to the back of the thorax to supply the deep

muscles of the spine; the proper intercostal branch (AB.) runs outward

in the intercostal space to supply its muscles, and the lower pairs of

intercostals also give branches to the diaphragm and wall of the

abdomen. Below the last rib a subcostal artery runs.

The _lumbar_ arteries arise from the back of the abdominal aorta, and

are usually four pairs. They run round the sides of the lumbar

vertebrae, and divide into a _dorsal_ branch which supplies the deep

muscles of the back of the loins, and an _abdominal_ branch which runs

outward to supply the wall of the abdomen. The distribution of the

lumbar and intercostal arteries exhibits a transversely segmented

arrangement of the vascular system, like the transversely segmented

arrangement of the bones, muscles and nerves met with in these

localities, but more especially in the thoracic region.

The _phrenic_ arteries, two in number, pass to supply the under

surface of the diaphragm.

The _middle sacral_ artery, as it runs down the front of the sacrum,

gives branches to the back of the pelvic wall.

Injections made by Sir W. Turner have shown that, both in the thoracic

and abdominal cavities, slender anastomosing communications exist

between the visceral and parietal branches.

The arteries to the pelvis and hind limbs begin at the bifurcation of

the aorta into the two common iliacs.

Iliac system.

The _common iliac_ artery, after a short course, divides into the

internal and external iliac arteries. The _internal iliac_ enters the

pelvis and divides into branches for the supply of the pelvic walls

and viscera, including the organs of generation, and for the great

muscles of the buttock. The _external iliac_ descends behind Poupart's

ligament into the thigh, where it takes the name of _femoral_ artery.

The femoral descends along the front and inner surface of the thigh,

gives off a _profunda_ or deep branch, which, by its _circumflex_ and

_perforating_ branches, supplies the numerous muscles of the thigh;

most of these extend to the back of the limb to carry blood to the

muscles situated there. The femoral artery then runs to the back of

the limb in the ham, where it is called _popliteal_ artery. The

popliteal divides into two branches, of which one, called _anterior

tibial_, passes between the bones to the front of the leg, and then

downward to the upper surface of the foot; the other, _posterior

tibial_, continues down the back of the leg to the sole of the foot,

and divides into the _internal_ and _external plantar_ arteries;

branches proceed from the external plantar artery to the sides of the

toes, and constitute the _digital_ arteries. From the large arterial

trunks in the leg many branches proceed, to carry blood to the

different structures in the limb.

Structure of arteries.

The wall of an artery consists of several coats (see fig. 2). The

outermost is the _tunica adventitia_, composed of connective tissue;

immediately internal to this is the _yellow elastic_ coat; within this

again the _muscular coat_, formed of involuntary. muscular tissue, the

contractile fibre-cells of which are for the most part arranged

transversely to the long axis of the artery; in the larger arteries

the elastic coat is much thicker than the muscular, but in the smaller

the muscular coat is relatively strong; the vaso-motor nerves

terminate in the muscular coat. In the first part of the aorta,

pulmonary artery and arteries of the retina there is no muscular coat.

Internal to the muscular coat is the _elastic fenestrated coat_,

formed of a smooth elastic membrane perforated by small apertures.

Most internal of all is a layer of _endothelial cells_, which form the

free surface over which the blood flows. The arteries are not

nourished by the blood which flows through them, but by minute

vessels, _vasa vasorum_, distributed in their external, elastic and

muscular coats.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of the structure of an artery. A,

tunica adventitia; E, elastic coat; M, muscular coat; F, fenestrated

coat; En, endothelium continuous with the endothelial wall of C, the

capillaries.]

EMBRYOLOGY

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram of the Embryonic Arterial Arches. 1,

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, point to the six arches. (The black parts are

obliterated in the adult human subject.)

V.Ao. Ventral Aorta.

A.Ao. Arch of Aorta.

D.Ar. Ductus Arteriosus.

In. Innominate Artery.

R.I.C.-L.I.C. Right and Left Internal Carotid Arteries.

D.B. Duct of Botalli.

R.S.-L.S. Right and Left Subclavian Arteries.

R.V.-L.V. Right and Left Vertebral Arteries.

P.A. Posterior Auricular Artery.

Oph. Ophthalmic Artery.

D.Ao. Dorsal Aorta.

P.T. Pulmonary trunk.

R.P.A.-L.P.A. Right and Left Pulmonary Arteries.

R.C.C.-L.C.C. Right and Left Common Carotid Arteries.

E.C. External Carotid Artery.

Oc. Occipital Artery.

I.M. Internal Maxillary Artery.]

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagram of the Human Aorta and its branches.

S.T., Superficial Temporal Artery.]

The earliest appearance of the blood vessels is dealt with under

VASCULAR SYSTEM. Here will be briefly described the fate of the main

vessel which carries the blood away from the truncus arteriosus of the

developing heart (q.v.). This ventral aorta, if traced forward, soon

divides into two lateral parts, the explanation being that there were

originally two vessels, side by side, which fused to form the heart,

but continued separate anteriorly. The two parts run for a little

distance toward the head of the embryo, ventral to the alimentary

canal, and then turn toward the dorsum, passing one on either side of

that tube to form the first aortic arch. Having reached the dorsum

they turn backward toward the tail end and form the dorsal aortae;

here, according to A.H. Young (_Studies in Anatomy_, Owens College,

1891 and 1900) they again turn toward the ventral side and become,

after a transitional stage, the _hypogastric, placental, allantoic_ or

_umbilical_ arteries. This authority does not believe that the middle

sacral artery of the adult is the real continuation of the single

median dorsal aorta into which the two parallel dorsal vessels just

mentioned soon coalesce, though until recently it has always been so

regarded. The anterior loop between the ventral and dorsal aortae

already described as the first aortic arch is included in the

_maxillary_ or _first visceral arch_ of the soft parts (see fig. 3,

_1_). Later, four other well-marked aortic arches grow behind this in

the more caudal visceral arches, so that there are altogether five

arterial arches on each side of the pharynx, through which the blood

can pass from the ventral to the dorsal aorta. Of these arches the

first soon disappears, but is probably partly represented in the adult

by the _internal maxillary_ artery, one branch of which, the

_infraorbital_, is enclosed in the upper jaw, while another, the

_inferior dental_, is surrounded by the lower jaw. Possibly the

ophthalmic artery also belongs to this arch. The second arch also

disappears, but the _posterior auricular_ and _occipital_ arteries

probably spring from it, and at an early period it passed through the

stapes as the transitory stapedial artery. The third arch forms the

beginning of the internal carotid. The fourth arch becomes the arch of

the adult aorta, between the origins of the left carotid and left

subclavian, on the left side, and the first part of the right

subclavian artery on the right. The apparent fifth arch on the left

side (fig. 3, _6_) remains all through foetal life as the _ductus

arteriosus_, and, as the lungs develop, the _pulmonary_ arteries are

derived from it. J.E.V. Boas and W. Zimmermann have shown that this

arch is in reality the sixth, and that there is a very transitory true

fifth arch in front of it (fig. 3, _5_). The part of the ventral aorta

from which this last arch rises is a single median vessel due to the

same fusion of the two primitive ventral aortae which precedes the

formation of the heart, but a spiral septum has appeared in it which

divides it in such a way that while the anterior or cephalic arches

communicate with the left ventricle of the heart, the last one

communicates with the right (see HEART). The fate of the ventral and

dorsal longitudinal vessels must now be followed. The fused part of

the two ventral aortae, just in front of the heart, forms the

ascending part of the adult aortic arch, and where this trunk divides

between the fifth and fourth arches (strictly speaking, the sixth and

fifth), the right one forms the _innominate_ (fig. 3, In.) and the

left one a very short part of the _transverse arch_ of the aorta until

the fourth arch comes off (see fig. 4). From this point to the origin

of the third arch is _common carotid_, and after that, to the head,

_external carotid_ on each side. The _dorsal longitudinal_ arteries on

the head side of the junction with the third arch form the _internal

carotids_. Between the third and fourth arches they are obliterated,

while on the caudal side of this, until the point of fusion is reached

on the dorsal side of the heart, the left artery forms the upper part

of the dorsal aorta while the right entirely disappears. Below this

point the _thoracic_ and _abdominal aortae_ are formed by the two

_primitive dorsal aortae_ which have fused to form a single median

vessel. As the limbs are developed, vessels bud out in them. The

_subclavian_ for the arm comes from the fourth aortic arch on each

side, while in the leg the main artery is a branch of the _caudal

arch_ which is curving ventralward to form the umbilical artery. From

the convexity of this arch the internal iliac and sciatic at first

carry the blood to the limb, as they do permanently in reptiles, but

later the external iliac and femoral become developed, and, as they

are on the concave side of the bend of the hip, while the sciatic is

on the convex, they have a mechanical advantage and become the

permanent main channel.

For further details see O. Hertwig, _Handbuch der vergleichenden und

experimentellen Entwickelungslehre der Wirbeltiere_ (Jena, 1905).

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY

In the Acrania the lancelet (Amphioxus) shows certain arrangements of

its arteries which are suggestive of the embryonic stages of the

higher vertebrates and Man. There is a median ventral aorta below the

pharynx, from which branchial arteries run up on each side between the

branchial clefts, where the blood is aerated, to join two dorsal

aortae which run back side by side until the hind end of the pharynx

is reached; here they fuse to form a median vessel from which branches

are distributed to the straight intestine. There is no heart, but the

ventral aorta is contractile, and the blood is driven forward in it

and backward in the dorsal aortae. The branchial arteries are very

numerous, and cannot be homologized closely with the five (originally

six) pairs of aortic arches in Man.

In the fish the ventral aorta gives rise to five afferent branchial

arteries carrying the blood to the gills, though these may not all

come off as independent trunks from the aorta. From the gills the

afferent branchials carry the blood to the median dorsal aorta. As

pectoral and pelvic fins are now developed, subclavian and iliac

arteries are found rising from the dorsal aorta, though the aorta

itself is continued directly backward as the caudal artery into the

tail. In the Dipnoi or mud fish, in which the swim bladder is

converted into a functional lung, the hindmost afferent branchial

artery, corresponding to the fifth (strictly speaking the sixth)

aortic arch of the human embryo, gives off on each side a pulmonary

artery to that structure.

The arrangement of the branchial aortic arches in the tailed Amphibia

(Urodela), and in the tadpole stage of the tailless forms (Anura),

makes it probable that the generalized vertebrate has six (if not

more) pairs of these instead of the five which are evident in the

human embryo. Four pairs of arches are present, the first of which is

the carotid and corresponds to the third of Man; the second is the

true aortic arch on each side; the third undergoes great reduction or

disappears when the gills atrophy, and is very transitory in the

Mammalia (fig. 3, _5_), while the fourth is the one from which the

pulmonary artery is developed when the lungs appear, and corresponds

to the nominal fifth, though really the sixth arch, of the higher

forms (fig. 3, _6_). The dorsal part of this sixth arch remains as a

pervious vessel in the Urodela, joining the pulmonary arch to the

dorsal aorta. In the central part of the carotid arch the vessel

breaks up into a plexus, for a short distance forming the so-called

carotid gland, which has an important effect upon the adult

circulation of the Amphibia. In the Reptilia the great arteries are

arranged on the same plan as in the adult Amphibia, but the carotid

arch retains its dorsal communication with the systematic aortic arch

on each side, and this communication is known as the duct of Botalli

(fig. 3, D.B.). In this class, as in the Amphibia, one great artery,

the coeliaco-mesenteric, usually supplies the liver, spleen, stomach

and anterior part of the intestines; this is a point of some interest

when it is noticed how very close together the coeliac axis and

superior mesenteric arteries rise from the abdominal aorta in Man.

In the Birds the right fourth arch alone remains as the aorta, the

dorsal part of the left corresponding arch being obliterated. From the

arch of the aorta rise two symmetrical innominates, each of which

divides later into a carotid and subclavian. The blood path from the

aorta to the hind limb in the Amphibia, Reptilia and Aves, is a dorsal

one, and passes through the internal iliac and sciatic to the back of

the thigh, and so to the popliteal space; the external iliac is, if it

is developed at all, only a small branch to the pelvis.

In the Mammalia the fourth left arch becomes the aorta, the

corresponding right one being obliterated, but several cases have been

recorded in Man in which both arches have persisted, as they do in the

reptiles (H. Leboucq, _Ann. Sci. Med. Gand_, 1894, p. 7). Examples

have also been found of a right aortic arch, as in birds, while a very

common human abnormality is that in which the dorsal part of the

fourth right arch persists, and from it the right subclavian artery

arises (see fig. 3).

The commonest arrangement of the great branches of the aortic arch in

Mammals is that in which the innominate and left carotid arise by a

single short trunk, while the left subclavian comes off later; this is

also Man's commonest abnormality. Sometimes, especially among the

Ungulata, all the branches may rise from one common trunk; at other

times two innominate arteries may be present; this is commonest in the

Cheiroptera, Insectivora and Cetacea. It is extremely rare to find all

four large arteries rising independently from the aorta, though it has

been seen in the Koala (F.G. Parsons, "Mammalian Aortic Arch," _Journ.

of Anat._ vol. xxxvi. p. 389). The human arrangement of the common

iliacs is not constant among mammals, for in some the external and

internal iliacs rise independently from the aorta, and this is

probably the more primitive arrangement. The middle sacral artery has

already been referred to. A.H. Young and A. Robinson believe, on

embryological grounds, that this artery in mammals is not homologous

with the caudal artery of the fish, and is not the direct continuation

of the aorta; it is an artery which usually gives off two or more

collateral branches, and sometimes, as in the Ornithorynchus and some

edentates, breaks up into a network of branches which reunite and so

form what is known as a _rete mirabile_. These retia mirabilia are

often found in other parts of the mammalian body, though their

function is still not satisfactorily explained. The way in which the

blood is carried to the foot in the pronograde mammals differs from

that of Man; a large branch called the internal saphenous comes off

the common femoral in the lower third of the thigh, and this runs down

the inner side of the leg to the foot. This arrangement is quite

convenient as long as the knee is flexed, but when it comes to be

extended, as in the erect posture, the artery is greatly stretched,

and it is much easier for the blood to pass to the foot through the

anterior and posterior tibials. A vestige of this saphenous artery,

however, remains in Man as the anastomotica magna.