Act 1861. s. 31, any person may arrest any one whom he shall find

committing any offence relating to the coin, or other offence against

that act.

A person arrested without warrant must not be detained in private

custody but must be taken with all convenient speed to a police station

or justice and there charged (Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879).

4. The arrest by hue and cry is where officers and private persons are

concerned in _pursuing_ felons, or such as have dangerously wounded

others. By the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881, provision was made for the

arrest in the United Kingdom of persons committing treason, and felony

in any of the British colonies and vice versa; as to the arrest of

fugitives in foreign countries see EXTRADITION.

The remedy for a wrongful arrest is by an action for false imprisonment.

In Scotland the law of arrest in criminal procedure has a general

constitutional analogy with that of England, though the practice differs

with the varying character of the judicatories. Colloquially the word

arrest is used in compulsory procedure for the recovery of debt; but the

technical term applicable in that department is _caption_, and the law

on the subject is generically different from that of England. There

never was a practice in Scottish law corresponding with the English

arrest in mesne process; but by old custom a warrant for caption could

be obtained where a creditor made oath that he had reason to believe his

debtor meditated flight from the country, and the writ so issued is

called a warrant against a person _in meditatione fugae_. Imprisonment

of old followed on ecclesiastical cursing, and by fiction of law in

later times it was not the creditor's remedy, but the punishment of a

refractory person denounced rebel for disobedience to the injunctions of

the law requiring fulfilment of his obligation. The system was reformed

and stripped of its cumbrous fictions by an act of the year 1837.

Although the proceedings against the person could only follow on

completed process, yet, by a peculiarity of the Scottish law, documents

executed with certain formalities, and by special statute bills and

promissory notes, can be registered in the records of a court for

execution against the person as if they were judgments of the court.

The general principles as to the law of arrest in most European

countries correspond more or less exactly to those prevailing in

England.

An _arrest of a ship_, which is the method of enforcing the admiralty

process _in rem_, founded either on a maritime lien or on a claim

against the ship, is dealt with under ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION.

See also article ATTACHMENT.

_Arrest of Judgment_ is the assigning just reason why judgment should

not pass, notwithstanding verdict given, either in civil or in criminal

cases, and from intrinsic causes arising on the face of the record.

_United States._--The law of arrest assimilates to that existing in

England. Actual manual touching is not necessary (_Pike_ v. _Hanson_, 9

N.H. 491; _Hill_ v. _Taylor_, 50 Mich. 549); words of arrest by the

officer, not protested against and no resistance offered, are sufficient

(_Emery_ v. _Chesley_, 18 N.H. 198; _Goodell_ v. _Tower_, 1904, 58 Am.

Rep. 790). Words of arrest, staying over night at prisoner's house,

going with him before the magistrate next day constitute arrest

(_Courtery_ v. _Dozier_, 20 Ga. 369). Restraining a person in his own

house is arrest.

In civil cases in most of the states arrest for debt is abolished,

except in cases of fraud or wilful injury to persons or property by

constitutional provision or by statute. One arrested under process of a

federal court cannot be arrested under that of a state court for the

same cause. There is no provision in the United States constitution as

to imprisonment for debt, but congress has enacted (in Rev. Stat., s.

990) that all the provisions of the law of any state applicable to such

imprisonment shall apply to the process of federal courts in that state.

A woman can be arrested in New York for wilful injury to person,

character or property, and in certain other cases (Code, s. 553). The

president, federal officials, governors of states, members of congress

and of state legislatures (during the session), marines, soldiers and

sailors on duty, voters while going to and from the polls, judges, court

officials (1904, 100 N.W. 591), coroners and jurors while attending upon

their public duties, lawyers, parties and witnesses while going to,

attending or returning from court, and generally married women without

separate property, are exempt from arrest.

In criminal cases a bench-warrant in New York may be served in any

county without being backed by a magistrate (Code Crim. Proc., s. 304).

In Nebraska one found violating the law may be arrested and detained

until a legal warrant can be issued (Crim. Code, s. 283). A bail may

lawfully recapture his principal (1905) 121 Georgia Rep. 594. Foreign

ambassadors and ministers and their servants are exempt from arrest.

Exemption from arrest is a privilege, not of the court, as in England,

but of the person, and can be waived (_Petrie_ v. _Fitzgerald_, 1 Daly

401).

ARRESTMENT, in Scots law, the process by which a creditor detains the

goods or effects of his debtor in the hands of third parties till the

debt due to him shall be paid. It is divided into two kinds: (1)

Arrestment in security, used when proceedings are commencing, or in

other circumstances where a claim may become, but is not yet,

enforceable; and (2) Arrestment in execution, following on the decree of

a court, or on a registered document, under a clause or statutory power

of registration, according to the custom of Scotland. By the process of

arrestment the property covered is merely retained in place; to realize

it for the satisfaction of the creditor's claim a further proceeding

called "furthcoming" is necessary. By old practice, alimentary funds,

i.e. those necessary for subsistence, were not liable to arrestment. By

the Wages Arrestment Limitation (Scotland) Act 1870, the wages of all

labourers, farm-servants, manufacturers, artificers and work-people are

not arrestable except (1) in so far as they exceed 20s. per week; but

the expense of the arrestment is not to be charged against the debtor

unless the sum recovered exceed the amount of the said expense; or (2)

under decrees for alimentary allowances and payments, or for rates and

taxes imposed by law.

ARRETIUM (mod. _Arezzo_), an ancient city of Etruria, in the upper

valley of the Arno, situated on the Via Cassia, 50 m. S.E. of Florentia.

The site of the original city is not quite certain; some writers place

it on the isolated hill called Poggio di S. Cornelio, 2-1/2 m. to the

S.E., where remains of a fortified _enceinte_ still exist (cf. F. Noack

in _Romische Mitteilungen_, 1897, p. 186); while others maintain, and

probably rightly, that it occupied the hill at the summit of the modern

town, where the medieval citadel (_fortezza_) was erected, and which was

enclosed by an ancient wall. Numerous Etruscan tombs have been

discovered within the lower portion of the area of the modern town,

which appears to correspond in site with the Roman (_C.I.L._ xi. p.

1082; G. Gamurrini in _Notizie degli scavi_, 1883, 262; 1887, 437).

Vitruvius (ii. 8. 9) and Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxxv. 173) speak of the

strength of its walls of bricks, but these have naturally disappeared.

Many remains of Roman buildings have been discovered within the modern

town, and the amphitheatre is still visible in the southern angle.

Arretium appears as one of the cities which aided the Tarquins after

their expulsion. It was an opponent of Rome at the end of the 4th and

beginning of the 3rd century B.C., but soon sought for help against the

attacks of the Gauls, against whom it was almost a frontier fortress. It

was an important Roman base during the Hannibalic wars (though at one

time it threatened defection--Livy xxvii. 21-24), and in 205 B.C. was

able to furnish Scipio with a considerable quantity of arms and

provisions (Livy xxviii. 45). In 187 B.C. the high road was extended as

far as Bononia. Arretium took the part of Marius against Sulla, and the

latter settled some of his veterans there as colonists. Caesar, or

Octavian, added others, so that there are three classes, _Arretini

veteres, Fidentiores_, and _Iulienses_. A considerable contingent from

Arretium joined Catiline and in 49 B.C. Caesar occupied it. C.

Maecenas[1] was perhaps a native of Arretium. Its fertility was famous

in ancient times, and still more the red pottery made of the local clay,

with its imitation of chased silver. The reliefs upon it are sometimes

of considerable beauty, and large quantities of it, and the sites of

several of the kilns, have been discovered in and near Arretium. It was

also considerably exported. See _Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ xi. (Berlin, 1901)

p. 1081, and _Notizie degli scavi, passim_ (especially, 1884, 369, for

the discovery of a fine group of the moulds from which these vases were

made). The museum contains a very fine collection of these and a good

collection of medieval majolica. (T. As.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The name Cilnius was apparently never borne by Maecenas himself,

though he is so described, e.g. by Tacitus, _Ann_. vi. II, cf.

Macrob. ii. 4, 12. The Cilnii with whom Maecenas was connected were a

noble Etruscan family.

ARRHENIUS, SVANTE AUGUST (1859- ), Swedish physicist and chemist, was

born on the 19th of February 1859, at Schloss Wijk, near Upsala. He

studied at Upsala from 1876 to 1881 and at Stockholm from 1881 to 1884,

then returning to Upsala as privat-docent in physical chemistry. He

spent two years from 1886 to 1888 in travelling, and visited Riga

Polytechnic and the universities of Wurzburg, Graz, Amsterdam and

Leipzig. In 1891 he was appointed lecturer in physics at Stockholm and

four years later became full professor. Arrhenius is specially

associated with the development of the theory of electrolytic

dissociation, and his great paper on the subject, _Recherches sur la

conductibilite galvanique des electrolytes_--(1) _conductibilite

galvanique des solutions aqueuses extremement diluees_, (2) _theorie

chimique des electrolytes_, was presented to the Stockholm Academy of

Sciences in 1883. He was subsequently continuously engaged in extending

the applications of the doctrine of electrolytic conduction in relation

not only to the problems of chemical action but also, on the supposition

that in certain conditions the air conducts electrolytically, to the

phenomena of atmospheric electricity. In 1900 he published a _Larobok i

teoretik elektrokemi_, which was translated into German and English, and

his _Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik_ appeared in 1903. In 1904 he

delivered at the university of California a course of lectures, the

object of which was to illustrate the application of the methods of

physical chemistry to the study of the theory of toxins and antitoxins,

and which were published in 1907 under the title _Immunochemistry_. In

his _Worlds in the Making_ (1908), an English translation of _Das Werden

der Welten_ (1907), he combated the generally accepted doctrine that the

universe is tending to what Clausius termed _Warmetod_ through

exhaustion of all sources of heat and motion, and suggested that by

virtue of a mechanism which maintains its available energy it is

self-renovating, energy being "degraded" in bodies which are in the

solar state, but "elevated" or raised to a higher level in bodies which

are in the nebular state. He further put forward the conception that

life is universally diffused, constantly emitted from all habitable

worlds in the form of spores which traverse space for years or ages, the

majority being ultimately destroyed by the heat of some blazing star,

but some few finding a resting-place on bodies which have reached the

habitable stage.

ARRIA, in Roman history, the heroic wife of Caecina Paetus. When her

husband was implicated in the conspiracy of Scribonianus against the

emperor Claudius (A.D. 42), and condemned to death, she resolved not to

survive him. She accordingly stabbed herself with a dagger, which she

then handed to him with the words, "Paetus, it does not hurt" (_Paete,

non dolet_; see Pliny, _Epp._ iii. 16; Martial i. 14; Dio Cassius lx.

16). Her daughter, also called Arria, was the wife of Thrasea Paetus.

When he was condemned to death by Nero, she would have imitated her

mother's example, but was dissuaded by her husband, who entreated her to

live for the sake of their children. She was sent into banishment

(Tacitus, _Annals_, xvi. 34).

ARRIAN (FLAVIUS ARRIANUS), of Nicomedia in Bithynia, Greek historian and

philosopher, was born about A.D. 96, and lived during the reigns of

Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. In recognition of his

abilities, he received the citizenship of both Athens and Rome. He was

greatly esteemed by Hadrian, who appointed him governor (_legatus_) of

Cappadocia (131-137), in which capacity he distinguished himself in a

campaign against the Alani. This is the only instance before the 3rd

century in which a first-rate Roman military command was given to a

Greek. Arrian spent a considerable portion of his time at Athens, where

he was archon 147-148. With his retirement or recall from Cappadocia his

official career came to an end. In his declining years, he retired to

his native place, where he devoted himself to literary work. He died

about 180. His biography, by Dio Cassius, is lost.

When young, Arrian was the pupil and friend of Epictetus, who had

probably withdrawn to Nicopolis, when Domitian expelled all philosophers

from Rome. He took verbatim notes of his teacher's lectures, which he

subsequently published under the title of _The Dissertations_ ([Greek:

Diatribai]), in eight books, of which the first four are extant and

constitute the chief authority for Stoic ethics, and _The Encheiridion_

(i.e. Manual) _of Epictetus_, a handbook of moral philosophy, for many

years a favourite instruction book with both Christians and pagans. It

was adapted for Christian use by St Nilus of Constantinople (5th

century), and Simplicius (about 550) wrote a commentary on it which we

still possess.

The most important of Arrian's original works is his _Anabasis of

Alexander_, in seven books, containing the history of Alexander the

Great from his accession to his death. Arrian's chief authorities were,

as he tells us, Aristobulus of Cassandreia and Ptolemy, son of Lagus

(afterwards king of Egypt), who both accompanied Alexander on his

campaigns. In spite of a too indulgent view of his hero's defects, and

some over-credulity, Arrian's is the most complete and trustworthy

account of Alexander that we possess.

Other extant works of Arrian are: _Indica_, a description of India in

the Ionic dialect, including the voyage of Nearchus, intended as a

supplement to the _Anabasis; Acies Contra Alanos_, a fragment of

importance for the knowledge of Roman military affairs; _Periplus of the

Euxine_, an official account written (131) for the emperor Hadrian;

_Tactica_, attributed by some to Aelianus, who wrote in the reign of

Trajan; _Cynegeticus_, a treatise on the chase, supplementing Xenophon's

work on the same subject; the _Periplus of the Erythraean Sea_,

attributed to him, is by a later compiler. Amongst his lost works may be

mentioned: [Greek: Ta mer Alexandron], a history of the period

succeeding Alexander, of which an epitome is preserved in Photius;

histories of Bithynia, the Alani and the Parthian wars under Trajan; the

lives of Timoleon of Syracuse, Dion of Syracuse and a famous brigand

named Timoleon. Arrian's style is simple, lucid and manly; but his

language, though pure, presents some peculiarities. He was called

"Xenophon the younger" from his imitation of that writer, and he even

speaks of himself as Xenophon.

Complete works ed. F. Dubner (1846); _Anabasis_, C. Abicht (1889);

with notes, C.W. Kniger (1835), C. Sintenis (1867) C. Abicht (1875);

_Scripta Minora_, R. Hercher and A. Eberhard (1885), A.J. Roos, i.,

containing the _Anabasis_ (Teubner series, 1907). English translations

_Anabasis_, Rooke (1812), _Anabasis_ and _Indica_, E.J. Chinnock

(1893); _Voyage of Nearchus_ with the spurious _Periplus_, W. Vincent

(1807), J.W. M'Crindle (Calcutta, 1879), _Periplus of the Euxine_, W.

Falconer (1805), Cynegettcus [W. Dansey] (1831). See also E. Bolla,

_Arriano di Nicomedia_ (1890); E. Schwartz in Pauly-Wissowa's

_Realencyclopadie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_ (1896), H.F.

Pelham, "Arrian as Legate of Cappadocia," in _English Historical

Review_, October 1896; article GREECE: _History, ancient_,

"Authorities."

ARRIS (Fr. _areste_, or _arete_), in architecture, the sharp edge or

angle in which two sides or surfaces meet.

ARRONDISSEMENT (from _arrondir_, to make round), an administrative

subdivision of a department in France. Dating nominally from 1800, the

arrondissement was really a re-creation of the "district" of 1790. It

comprises within itself the canton and the commune. It differs from the

department and from the commune in being merely an administrative

division and not a complete legal personality with power to acquire and

possess. The purposes for which it exists are, again, unlike those of

the department and the commune, comparatively limited. It is the

electoral district for the chamber of deputies, each arrondissement

returning one member; if the population is in excess of 100,000 it is

divided into two or more constituencies. It is also a judicial district

having a court of first instance. It is under the control of a

sub-prefect. There are 362 arrondissements in the 87 departments. Each

arrondissement has a council, with as many members as there are cantons,

whose function is to subdivide among the communes their _quota_ of the

direct taxes charged to the arrondissement by the general council of the

department. (See FRANCE) Somewhat different from the arrondissements of

the department are the arrondissements (20 in number) into which Paris

is divided. They bear a certain resemblance to the sub-municipalities

created in London by the London Government Act 1899, and each forms a

local administrative unit (see PARIS).

France is also subdivided, for purposes of defence, into five _maritime_

divisions, termed arrondissements. Instituted originally under the

Consulate, they were suppressed in 1815, but re-established again in

1826. They are under the direction of maritime prefects, who, by a

decree of 1875, must be vice-admirals in the navy.

ARROWROOT. A large proportion of the edible starches obtained from the

rhizomes or root-stocks of various plants are known in commerce under

the name of arrowroot. Properly the name should be restricted to the

starch yielded by two or three species of _Maranta_ (nat. ord.

Marantaceae), the chief of which is _M. arundinacea_; and when genuine

or West Indian arrowroot is spoken of, it is understood that this is the

variety meant. _Maranta arundinacea_ is probably a native of Guiana and

western Brazil, but it has long been cultivated in the West Indian

Islands, and has now spread to most tropical countries. The plant is a

herbaceous perennial with a creeping root-stock which gives off fleshy

cylindrical branches or tubers, covered with pale brown or white scales

and afterwards ringed with their scars. It is at the period when these

tubers are gorged with starch, immediately before the season of rest,

that it is ripe for use. In addition to about 25% of starch, the tubers

contain a proportion of woody tissue, vegetable albumen and various

salts. The arrowroot may be separated on a small scale in the same

manner as potato-starch is frequently prepared, that is, by peeling the

root and grating it in water, when the starch falls to the bottom. The

liquor is then drained off, and the starch purified by repeated washings

till it is ready for drying. On a large scale the manufacture of

arrowroot is conducted with specially arranged machinery. The rhizomes

when dug up are washed free of earthy impurities and afterwards skinned.

Subsequently, according to Pereira's _Materia Medica_, "the carefully

skinned tubers are washed, then ground in a mill, and the pulp washed in

tinned-copper cylindrical washing-machines. The fecula (dim. of Lat.

_faex_, dregs, or sediment) is subsequently dried in drying-houses. In

order to obtain the fecula free from impurity, pure water must be used,

and great care and attention paid in every step of the process. The

skinning or peeling of the tubers must be performed with great nicety,

as the cuticle contains a resinous matter which imparts colour and a

disagreeable flavour to the starch. German-silver palettes are used for

skinning the deposited fecula, and shovels of the same metal for packing

the dried fecula. The drying is effected in pans, covered with white

gauze to exclude dust and insects."

[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2.

Arrowroot Plant (Maranta arundinacea).--Fig. 1, stem, leaves and

flowers; fig. 2, tubers.]

Arrowroot is distinguished by the granules agglomerating into small

balls, by slightly crepitating when rubbed between the fingers, and by

yielding with boiling water a fine, transparent, inodorous and

pleasant-tasting jelly. In microscopic structure the granules present an

ovoid form, marked with concentric lines very similar to potato-starch,

but readily distinguished by having a "hilum" marking at the thick

extremity of the granule, while in potato-starch the same appearance

occurs at the thin end (compare figs. 3 and 4 below). In addition to the

West Indian supplies, arrowroot is found in the commerce of Brazil, the

East Indies, Australia, Cape Colony and Natal.

[Illustration: FIG. 3. FIG. 4. FIG. 5. FIG. 6. Starch Granules

magnified.

Fig. 3. Potato.

Fig. 4. Arrowroot.

Fig. 5. Tous-les-mois.

Fig. 6. Manihot.]

The name "arrowroot" is derived from the use by the Mexican Indians of

the juice of the fresh root as an application to wounds produced by

poisoned arrows. Sir Hans Sloane refers to it in his _Catalogue of

Jamaica Plants_ (1696), and it is said to have been introduced into

England by William Houston about 1732. It is grown as a stove-plant in

botanic gardens. The slender, much-branched stem is 5 or 6 ft. high, and

bears numerous leaves with long, narrow sheaths and large spreading

ovate blades, and a few short-stalked white flowers.

_Tous-les-mois_, or Tulema arrowroot, also from the West Indies, is

obtained from several species of _Canna_, a genus allied to _Maranta_,

and cultivated in the same manner. The granules of _tous-les-mois_ are

readily distinguishable by their very large size (fig. 5). East Indian

arrowroot is obtained from the root-stocks of several species of the

genus _Curcuma_ (nat. ord. Zingiberaceae), chiefly _C. angustifolia_, a

native of central India. Brazilian arrowroot is the starch of the

cassava plant, a species of Manihot (fig. 6), which when agglutinated on

hot plates forms the tapioca of commerce. The cassava is cultivated in

the East Indian Archipelago as well as in South America. _Tocca_, or

_Otaheite_ arrowroot, is the produce of _Tacca pinnatifida_, the pia

plant of the South Sea Islands. Portland arrowroot was formerly prepared

on the Isle of Portland from the tubers of the common cuckoo-pint, _Arum

maculatum_. Various other species of arum yield valuable food-starches

in hot countries. Under the name of British arrowroot the farina of

potatoes is sometimes sold, and the French excel in the preparation of

imitations of the more costly starches from this source. The chief use,

however, of potato-farina as an edible starch is for adulterating other

and more costly preparations. This falsification can readily be detected

by microscopic examination, and the accompanying drawings exhibit the

appearance under the microscope of the principal starches we have

described. Although these starches agree in chemical composition, their

value as articles of diet varies considerably, owing to different

degrees of digestibility and pleasantness of taste. Arrowroot contains

about 82% of starch, and about 1% of proteid and mineral matter. Farina,

or British arrowroot, at about one-twelfth the price, is just as useful

and pleasant a food.

ARROWSMITH, the name of an English family of geographers. The first of

them, Aaron Arrowsmith (1750-1823), migrated to London from Winston in

Durham when about twenty years of age, and was employed by John Gary,

the engraver. In 1790 he made himself famous by his large chart of the

world on Mercator's projection. Four years later he published another

large map of the world on the globular projection, with a companion

volume of explanation. The maps of North America (1796) and Scotland

(1807) are the most celebrated of his many later productions. He left

two sons, Aaron and Samuel, the elder of whom was the compiler of the

_Eton Comparative Atlas_, of a Biblical atlas, and of various manuals of

geography. They carried on the business in company with John Arrowsmith

(1790-1873), nephew of the elder Aaron. In 1834 John published his

_London Atlas_, the best set of maps then in existence. He followed up

the atlas with a long series of elaborate and carefully executed maps,

those of Australia, America, Africa and India being especially valuable.

In 1863 he received the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society, of

which body he was one of the founders.

ARROYO (O. Sp. _arrogio_, Lat. _arrogium_, a rivulet or stream), the

channel of a stream cut in loose earth, found often at the head of a

gully, where the water flows only at certain seasons of the year.

ARSACES, a Persian name, which occurs on a Persian seal, where it is

written in cuneiform characters. The most famous Arsaces was the chief

of the Parni, one of the nomadic Scythian or Dahan tribes in the desert

east of the Caspian Sea. A later tradition, preserved by Arrian, derives

Arsaces I. and Tiridates from the Achaemenian king Artaxerxes II., but

this has evidently no historical value. Arsaces, seeking refuge before

the Bactrian king Diodotes, invaded Parthia, then a province of the

Seleucid empire, about 250 B.C. (Strabo xi. p. 515, cf. Arrian p. 1,

Muller, in Photius, _Cod._ 58, and Syncellus p. 284). After two years

(according to Arrian) he was killed, and his brother Tiridates, who

succeeded him and maintained himself for a short time in Parthia, during

the dissolution of the Seleucid empire by the attacks of Ptolemy III.

(247 ff.), was defeated and expelled by Seleucus II. (about 238). But

when this king was forced, by the rebellion of his brother, Antiochus

Hierax, to return to the west, Tiridates came back and defeated the

Macedonians (Strabo xi. pp. 513, 515; Justin xli. 4; Appian, _Syr._ 65;

Isidorus of Charax 11). He was the real founder of the Parthian empire,

which was of very limited extent until the final decay of the Seleucid

empire, occasioned by the Roman intrigues after the death of Antiochus

IV. Epiphanes (165 B.C.), enabled Mithradates I. and his successors to

conquer Media and Babylonia. Tiridates adopted the name of his brother

Arsaces, and after him all the other Parthian kings (who by the

historians are generally called by their proper names), amounting to the

number of about thirty, officially wear only the name Arsaces. With very

few exceptions only the name [Greek: ARSAKIS] (with various epithets)

occurs on the coins of the Parthian kings, and the obverse generally

shows the seated figure of the founder of the dynasty, holding in his

hand a strung bow. The Arsacidian empire was overthrown in A.D. 226 by

Ardashir (Artaxerxes), the founder of the Sassanid empire, whose

conquests began about A.D. 212. The name Arsaces of Persia is also borne

by some kings of Armenia, who were of Parthian origin. (See PERSIA and

PARTHIA.) (Ed. M.)

ARS-AN-DER-MOSEL, a town of Germany, in the imperial province

Alsace-Lorraine, 5 m. S. of Metz on the railway to Noveant. It has a

handsome Roman Catholic church and extensive foundries. In the vicinity

are the remains of a Roman aqueduct, which formerly spanned the valley.

Pop. 5000.

ARSCHOT, PHILIPPE DE CROY, DUKE OF (1526-1595), governor-general of

Flanders, was born at Valenciennes, and inherited the estates of the

ancient and wealthy family of Croy. Becoming a soldier, he was made a

knight of the order of the Golden Fleece by Philip II., king of Spain,

and was afterwards employed in diplomatic work. He took part in the

troubles in the Netherlands, and in 1563 refused to join William the

Silent and others in their efforts to remove Cardinal Granvella from his

post. This attitude, together with Arschot's devotion to the Roman

Catholic Church, which he expressed by showing his delight at the

massacre of St Bartholomew, led Philip of Spain to regard him with still

greater favour, which, however, was withdrawn in consequence of

Arschot's ambiguous conduct when welcoming the new governor, Don John of

Austria, to the Netherlands in 1576. In spite, however, of his being

generally distrusted by the inhabitants of the Netherlands, he was

appointed governor of the citadel of Antwerp when the Spanish troops

withdrew in 1577. After a period of vacillation he deserted Don John

towards the end of that year. Jealous of the prince of Orange, he was

then the head of the party which induced the archduke Matthias

(afterwards emperor) to undertake the sovereignty of the Netherlands,

and soon afterwards was appointed governor of Flanders by the state

council. A strong party, including the burghers of Ghent, distrusted the

new governor; and Arschot, who was taken prisoner during a riot at

Ghent, was only released on promising to resign his office. He then

sought to regain the favour of Philip of Spain, and having been pardoned

by the king in 1580 again shared in the government of the Netherlands;

but he refused to serve under the count of Fuentes when he became

governor-general in 1594, and retired to Venice, where he died on the

11th of December 1595.

See J.L. Motley, _The Rise of the Dutch Republic_.

ARSENAL, an establishment for the construction, repair, receipt, storage

and issue of warlike stores; details as to _materiel_ will be found

under AMMUNITION, ORDNANCE, &c. The word "arsenal" appears in various

forms in Romanic languages (from which it has been adopted into

Teutonic), i.e. Italian _arzanale_, Spanish _arsenal_, &c.; Italian also

has _arzana_ and _darsena_, and Spanish a longer form _atarazanal_. The

word is of Arabic origin, being a corruption of _daras-sina'ah_, house

of trade or manufacture, _dar_, house, _al_, the, and _sina'ah_, trade,

manufacture, _sana'a_, to make. Such guesses as _arx navalis_, naval

citadel, _arx senatus_ (i.e. of Venice, &c.), are now entirely rejected.

A first-class arsenal, which can renew the _materiel_ and equipment of a

large army, embraces a gun factory, carriage factory, laboratory and

small-arms ammunition factory, small-arms factory, harness, saddlery and

tent factories, and a powder factory; in addition it must possess great

store-houses. In a second-class arsenal the factories would be replaced

by workshops. The situation of an arsenal should be governed by

strategical considerations. If of the first class, it should be situated

at the base of operations and supply, secure from attack, not too near a

frontier, and placed so as to draw in readily the resources of the

country. The importance of a large arsenal is such that its defences

would be on the scale of those of a large fortress. The usual

subdivision of branches in a great arsenal is into A, Storekeeping; B,

Construction; C, Administration. Under A we should have the following

departments and stores:--Departments of issue and receipt, pattern room,

armoury department, ordnance or park, harness, saddlery and

accoutrements, camp equipment, tools and instruments, engineer store,

magazines, raw material store, timber yard, breaking-up store,

unserviceable store. Under B--Gun factory, carriage factory, laboratory,

small-arms factory, harness and tent factory, powder factory, &c. In a

second-class arsenal there would be workshops instead of these

factories. C--Under the head of administration would be classed the

chief director of the arsenal, officials military and civil,

non-commissioned officers and military artificers, civilian foremen,

workmen and labourers, with the clerks and writers necessary for the

office work of the establishments. In the manufacturing branches are

required skill, and efficient and economical work, both executive and

administrative; in the storekeeping part, good arrangement, great care,

thorough knowledge of all warlike stores, both in their active and

passive state, and scrupulous exactness in the custody, issue and

receipt of stores. For fuller details the reader is referred to papers

by Sir E. Collen, R.A., in vol. viii., and Lieut. C.E. Grover, R.E., in

vol. vi. _Proceedings of R. Artillery Institution_. In England the Royal

Arsenal, Woolwich, manufactures and stores the requirements of the army

and navy (see WOOLWICH).

ARSENIC (symbol As, atomic weight 75.0), a chemical element, known to

the ancients in the form of its sulphides. Aristotle gave them the name

[Greek: sanoarakae], and Theophrastus mentions them under the name

[Greek: arsenikon]. The oxide known as white arsenic is mentioned by the

Greek alchemist Olympiodorus, who obtained it by roasting arsenic

sulphide. These substances were all known to the later alchemists, who

used minerals containing arsenic in order to give a white colour to

copper. Albertus Magnus was the first to state that arsenic contained a

metal-like substance, although later writers considered it to be a

bastard or semi-metal, and frequently called it _arsenicum rex_. In 1733

G. Brandt showed that white arsenic was the calx of this element, and

after the downfall of the phlogiston theory the views concerning the

composition of white arsenic were identical with those which are now

held, namely that it is an oxide of the element.

Arsenic is found in the uncombined condition in various localities, but

more generally in combination with other metals and sulphur, in the form

of more or less complex sulphides. Native arsenic is usually found as

granular or curvilaminar masses, with a reniform or botryoidal surface.

These masses are of a dull grey colour, owing to surface tarnish; only

on fresh fractures is the colour tin-white with metallic lustre. The

hardness is 3.5 and the specific gravity 5.63-5.73. Crystals of arsenic

belong to the rhombohedral system, and have a perfect cleavage parallel

to the basal plane; natural crystals are, however, of rare occurrence,

and are usually acicular in habit. Native arsenic occurs usually in

metalliferous veins in association with ores of antimony, silver, &c.;

the silver mines of Freiberg in Saxony, St Andreasberg in the Harz, and

Chanarcillo in Chile being well-known localities. Attractive globular

aggregates of well-developed radiating crystals have been found at

Akatani, a village in the province Echizen, in Japan.

Arsenic is a constituent of the minerals arsenical iron, arsenical

pyrites or mispickel, tin-white cobalt or smaltite, arsenical nickel,

realgar, orpiment, pharmacolite and cobalt bloom, whilst it is also met

with in small quantities in nearly all specimens of iron pyrites. The

ordinary commercial arsenic is either the naturally occurring form,

which is, however, more or less contaminated with other metals, or is

the product obtained by heating arsenical pyrites, out of contact with

air, in earthenware retorts which are fitted with a roll of sheet iron

at the mouth, and an earthenware receiver. By this method of

distillation the arsenic sublimes into the receiver, leaving a residue

of iron sulphide in the retort. For further purification, it may be

sublimed, after having been previously mixed with a little powdered

charcoal, or it may be mixed with a small quantity of iodine and heated.

It can also be obtained by the reduction of white arsenic (arsenious

oxide) with carbon. An electro-metallurgical process for the extraction

of arsenic from its sulphides has also been proposed (German Patent.

67,973). These compounds are brought into solution by means of

polysulphides of the alkali metals and the resultant liquor run into the

cathode compartment of a bath, which is divided by diaphragms into a

series of anode and cathode chambers; the anode divisions being closed

and gas-tight, and containing carbon or platinum electrodes. The arsenic

solution is decomposed at the cathode, and the element precipitated

there.

Arsenic possesses a steel-grey colour, and a decided metallic lustre; it

crystallizes on sublimation and slow condensation in rhombohedra,

isomorphous with those of antimony and tellurium. It is very brittle.

Its specific gravity is given variously from 5.395 to 5.959; its

specific heat is 0.083, and its coefficient of linear expansion

0.00000559 (at 40 deg. C.). It is volatile at temperatures above 100

deg. C. and rapidly vaporizes at a dull red heat. It liquefies when

heated under pressure, and its melting point lies between 446 deg. C.

and 457 deg. C. The vapour of arsenic is of a golden yellow colour, and

has a garlic odour. The vapour density is 10.6 (air = 1) at 564 deg. C.,

corresponding to a tetratomic molecule As4; at a white heat the vapour

density shows a considerable lowering in value, due to the dissociation

of the complex molecule.

By condensing arsenic vapour in a glass tube, in a current of an

indifferent gas, such as hydrogen, amorphous arsenic is obtained, the

deposit on the portion of the tube nearest to the source of heat being

crystalline, that farther along (at a temperature of about 210 deg. C.)

being a black amorphous solid, while still farther along the tube a grey

deposit is formed. These two latter forms possess a specific gravity of

4.710 (14 deg. C.) [A. Bettendorff, _Annalen_, 1867, 144, p. 110], and

by heating at about 358 deg.-360 deg. C. pass over into the crystalline

variety. Arsenic burns on heating in a current of oxygen, with a pale

lavender-coloured flame, forming the trioxide. It is easily oxidized by

heating with concentrated nitric acid to arsenic acid, and with

concentrated sulphuric acid to arsenic trioxide; dilute nitric acid only

oxidizes it to arsenious acid. It burns in an atmosphere of chlorine

forming the trichloride; it also combines directly with bromine and

sulphur on heating, while on fusion with alkalis it forms arsenites.

Arsenic and most of its soluble compounds are very poisonous, and

consequently the methods used for the detection of arsenic are very

important. For full accounts of methods used in detecting minute traces

of arsenic in foods, &c., see "Report to Commission to Manchester

Brewers' Central Association," the _Analyst_, 1900, 26, p. 8; "Report of

Conjoint Committee of Society of Chemical Industry and Society of Public

Analysts," the _Analyst_, 1902, 27, p. 48; T.E. Thorpe, _Journal of the

Chemical Society_, 1903, 83, p. 774; O. Hehner and others, _Journal of

Society of Chemical Industry_, 1902, 21, p. 94; also ADULTERATION.

Arsenic and arsenical compounds generally can be detected by (a)

_Reinsch's test_: A piece of clean copper is dipped in a solution of

an arsenious compound which has been previously acidified with pure

hydrochloric acid. A grey film is produced on the surface of the

copper, probably due to the formation of a copper arsenide. The

reaction proceeds better on heating the solution. On removing, washing

and gently drying the metal and heating it in a glass tube, a white

crystalline sublimate is formed on the cool part of the tube; under

the same conditions antimony does not produce a crystalline sublimate.

(b) _Fleitmann's test_ and _Marsh's test_ depend on the fact that

arsenic and its compounds, when present in a solution in which

hydrogen is being generated, are converted into arseniuretted

hydrogen, which can be readily detected either by its action on silver

nitrate solution or by its decomposition on heating. In Fleitmann's

test, the solution containing the arsenious compound is mixed with

pure potassium hydroxide solution and a piece of pure zinc or

aluminium foil dropped in and the whole then heated. A piece of

bibulous paper, moistened with silver nitrate, is held over the mouth

of the tube, and if arsenic be present, a grey or black deposit is

seen on the paper, due to the silver nitrate being reduced by the

arseniuretted hydrogen. Antimony gives no reaction under these

conditions, so that the method can be used to detect arsenic in the

presence of antimony, but the test is not so delicate as either

Reinsch's or Marsh's method.

In the Marsh test the solution containing the arsenious compounds is

mixed with pure hydrochloric acid and placed in an apparatus in which

hydrogen is generated from pure zinc and pure sulphuric acid. The

arseniuretted hydrogen produced is passed through a tube containing

lead acetate paper and soda-lime, and finally through a narrow glass

tube, constricted at various points, and heated by a very small flame.

As the arseniuretted hydrogen passes over the heated portion it is

decomposed and a black deposit formed. Instead of heating the tube,

the gas may be ignited at the mouth of the tube and a cold surface of

porcelain or platinum placed in the flame, when a black deposit is

formed on the surface. This may be distinguished from the similar

antimony deposit by its ready solubility in a solution of sodium

hypochlorite. A blank experiment should always be carried out in

testing for small quantities of arsenic, to ensure that the materials

used are quite free from traces of arsenic. It is to be noted that the

presence of nitric acid interferes with the Marsh test; and also that

if the arsenic is present as an _arsenic_ compound it must be reduced

to the _arsenious_ condition by the action of sulphurous acid. Arsenic

compounds can be detected in the dry way by heating in a tube with a

mixture of sodium carbonate and charcoal when a deposit of black

amorphous arsenic is produced on the cool part of the tube, or by

conversion of the compound into the trioxide and heating with dry

sodium acetate when the offensive odour of the extremely poisonous

cacodyl oxide is produced. In the wet way, arsenious oxide and

arsenites, acidified with hydrochloric acid, give a yellow precipitate

of arsenic trisulphide on the addition of sulphuretted hydrogen; this

precipitate is soluble in solutions of the alkaline hydroxides,

ammonium carbonate and yellow ammonium sulphide. Under like conditions

arsenates only give a precipitate on long-continued boiling.

Arsenic is usually estimated either in the form of magnesium

pyroarsenate or as arsenic sulphide. For the pyroarsenate method it is

necessary that the arsenic should be in the _arsenic_ condition, if

necessary this can be effected by heating with nitric acid; the acid

solution is then mixed with "magnesia mixture" and made strongly

alkaline by the addition of ammonia. It is then allowed to stand

twenty-four hours, filtered, washed with dilute ammonia, dried,

ignited to constant weight and weighed, the filter paper being

incinerated separately after moistening with nitric acid. From the

weight of magnesium pyroarsenate obtained the weight of arsenic can be

calculated.

In the sulphide method, the arsenic should be in the _arsenious_ form.

Sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through the liquid until it is

thoroughly saturated, the excess of sulphuretted hydrogen is expelled

from the solution by a brisk stream of carbon dioxide, and the

precipitate is filtered on a Gooch crucible and washed with water

containing a little sulphuretted hydrogen and dried at 100 deg. C.; it

is then well washed with small quantities of pure carbon disulphide to

remove any free sulphur, again dried and weighed. Arsenic can also be

estimated by volumetric methods; for this purpose it must be in the

_arsenious_ condition, and the method of estimation consists in

converting it into the _arsenic_ condition by means of a standard

solution of iodine, in the presence of a cold saturated solution of

sodium bicarbonate.

The atomic weight of arsenic has been determined by many different

chemists. J. Berzelius, in 1818, by heating arsenious oxide with

excess of sulphur obtained the value 74.3; J. Pelouze (_Comptes

rendus_, 1845, 20, p. 1047) titrated arsenic chloride with silver

solution and obtained 75.0; and F. Kessler (_Pogg. Ann._ 1861, 113, p.

134) by converting arsenic trisulphide in hydrochloric acid solution

into arsenic pentasulphide also obtained 75.0.

_Compounds._--Arsenic forms two hydrides:--The _dihydride_, As2H2, is

a brown velvety powder formed when sodium or potassium arsenide is

decomposed by water. It is a somewhat unstable substance, decomposing

on being heated, with liberation of hydrogen. Arsenic _trihydride_

(arsine or arseniuretted hydrogen), AsH3, is formed by decomposing

zinc arsenide with dilute sulphuric acid; by the action of nascent

hydrogen on arsenious compounds, and by the electrolysis of solutions

of arsenious and arsenic acids; it is also a product of the action of

organic matter on many arsenic compounds. It is a colourless gas of

unpleasant smell, excessively poisonous, very slightly soluble in

water. It easily burns, forming arsenious oxide if the combustion

proceeds in an excess of air, or arsenic if the supply of air is

limited; it is also decomposed into its constituent elements when

heated. It liquefies at -40 deg. C. and becomes solid at -118.9 deg.

C. (K. Olszewski). Metals such as tin, potassium and sodium, when

heated in the gas, form arsenides, with liberation of hydrogen; and

solutions of gold and silver salts are reduced by the gas with

precipitation of metallic gold and silver. Chlorine, bromine and

iodine decompose arsine readily, the action being most violent in the

case of chlorine.

_Arsenic tribromide_, AsBr3, is formed by the direct union of arsenic

and bromine, and subsequent distillation from the excess of arsenic;

it forms colourless deliquescent prisms which melt at 20 deg.-25 deg.

C., and boil at 220 deg. C. Water decomposes it, a small quantity of

water leading to the formation of the _oxybromide_, AsOBr, whilst a

large excess of water gives arsenious oxide, As4O6.

Arsenic certainly forms two, or possibly three iodides. The

_di-iodide_, As2I4 or AsI2, which is prepared by heating one part of

arsenic with two parts of iodine, in a sealed tube to 230 deg. C.,

forms dark cherry-red prisms, which are easily oxidized, and are

readily decomposed by water. The _tri-iodide_, AsI3, prepared by

subliming arsenic and iodine together in a retort, by leading arsine

into an alcoholic iodine solution, or by boiling powdered arsenic and

iodine with water, filtering and evaporating, forms brick-red

hexagonal tables, of specific gravity 4.39, soluble in alcohol, ether

and benzene, and in a large excess of water; in the presence of a

small quantity of water, it is decomposed with formation of hydriodic

acid and an insoluble basic salt of the composition

4AsOI.3As4O6.24H2O. It combines with alkaline iodides to form very

unstable compounds. The _pentaiodide_, AsI5, appears to be formed when

a mixture of one part of arsenic and seven parts of iodine is heated

to 190 deg. C., but on dissolving the resulting product in carbon

bisulphide and crystallizing from this solvent, only the tri-iodide is

obtained.

_Arsenic trichloride_, AsCl3, is prepared by distilling white arsenic

with concentrated sulphuric acid and common salt, or by the direct

union of arsenic with chlorine, or from the action of phosphorus

pentachloride on white arsenic. It is a colourless oily heavy liquid

of specific gravity 2.205 (0 deg. C.), which, when pure and free from

chlorine, solidifies at -18 deg. C., and boils at 132 deg. C. It is

very poisonous and decomposes in moist air with evolution of white

fumes. With a little water it forms arsenic oxychloride, AsOCl, and

with excess of water it is completely decomposed into hydrochloric

acid and white arsenic. It combines directly with ammonia to form a

solid compound variously given as AsCl3.3NH3, or 2AsCl3.7NH3, or

AsCl3.4NH3.

_Arsenic trifiuoride_, AsF3, is prepared by distilling white arsenic

with fluorspar and sulphuric acid, or by heating arsenic tribromide

with ammonium fluoride; it is a colourless liquid of specific gravity

2.73, boiling at 63 deg. C.; it fumes in air, and in contact with the

skin produces painful wounds. It is decomposed by water into arsenious

and hydrofluoric acids, and absorbs ammonia forming the compound

2AsF3.5NH3. By the action of gaseous ammonia on arsenious halides at

-30 deg. C. to -40 deg. C., _arsenamide_, As(NH2)3, is formed. Water

decomposes it into arsenious oxide and ammonia, and when heated to 60

deg. it loses ammonia and forms _arsenimide_, As2(NH)3 (C. Hugot,

_Compt. rend._ 1904, 139, p. 54). For AsF5, see _Ber_., 1906, 39, p.

67.

Two oxides of arsenic are definitely known to exist, namely the

trioxide (white arsenic), As4O6, and the pentoxide, As2O5, while the

existence of a suboxide, As2O(?), has also been mooted. Arsenic

trioxide has been known from the earliest times, and was called

_Huttenrauch_ (furnace-smoke) by Basil Valentine. It occurs naturally

in the mineral claudetite, and can be artificially prepared by burning

arsenic in air or oxygen. It is obtained commercially by roasting

arsenical pyrites in either a Brunton's or Oxland's rotatory calciner,

the crude product being collected in suitable condensing chambers, and

afterwards refined by resublimation, usually in reverberatory

furnaces, the foreign matter being deposited in a long flue leading to

the condensing chambers. White arsenic exists in two crystalline forms

(octahedral and prismatic) and one amorphous form; the octahedral form

is produced by the rapid cooling of arsenic vapour, or by cooling a

warm saturated solution in water, or by crystallization from

hydrochloric acid, and also by the gradual transition of the amorphous

variety, this last phenomenon being attended by the evolution of heat.

Its specific gravity is 3.7; it is only slightly soluble in cold

water, but is more soluble in hot water, the solution reacting faintly

acid. The prismatic variety of the oxide can be obtained by

crystallization from a saturated boiling solution in potassium

hydroxide, or by the crystallization of a solution of silver arsenite

in nitric acid. Its specific gravity is 4.15. In the amorphous

condition it can be obtained by condensing the vapour of the oxide at

as high a temperature as possible, when a vitreous mass is produced,

which melts at 200 deg. C., has a specific gravity of 3.68-3.798, and

is more soluble in water than the crystalline variety.

Arsenious oxide is very poisonous. It acts as a reducing agent; it is

not convertible into the pentoxide by the direct action of oxygen; and

its solution is reduced by many metals (e.g. zinc, tin and cadmium)

with precipitation of arsenic and formation of arseniuretted hydrogen.

The solution of arsenious oxide in water reacts acid towards litmus

and contains tribasic arsenious acid, although on evaporation of the

solution the trioxide is obtained and not the free acid. The salts of

the acid are, however, very stable, and are known as arsenites. Of

these salts several series are known, namely the ortho-arsenites,

which are derivatives of the acid H3AsO3, the meta-arsenites,

derivatives of HAsO2, and the pyro-arsenites, derivatives of H4As2O5.

The arsenites of the alkali metals are soluble in water, those of the

other metals are insoluble in water, but are readily soluble in acids.

A neutral solution of an arsenite gives a yellow precipitate of silver

arsenite, Ag3AsO3, with silver nitrate solution, and a yellowish-green

precipitate (Scheele's green) of cupric hydrogen arsenite, CuHAsO3,

with copper sulphate solution. By the action of oxidizing agents such

as nitric acid, iodine solution, &c., arsenious acid is readily

converted into arsenic acid, in the latter case the reaction

proceeding according to the equation H3AsO3 + I2 + H2O = H3AsO4 + 2HI.

Arsenic pentoxide, As2O5, is most easily obtained by oxidation of a

solution of arsenious acid with nitric acid; the solution on

concentration deposits the compound 2H3AsO4.H2O (below 15 deg. C.),

which on being heated to a dark red heat loses its water of

crystallization and leaves a white vitreous mass of the pentoxide.

This substance dissolves slowly in water, forming arsenic acid; by

heating to redness it decomposes into arsenic and oxygen. It

deliquesces in moist air, and is easily reduced to arsenic by heating

with carbon.

Arsenic acid, H3AsO4, is prepared as shown above, the compound

2H3AsO4.H2O on being heated to 100 deg. C. parting with its water of

crystallization and leaving a residue of the acid, which crystallizes

in needles. On heating to 180 deg. C. it loses water and yields

pyroarsenic acid, H4As2O7, which at 200 deg. C. loses more water and

leaves a crystalline mass of meta-arsenic acid, HAsO3. These latter

two acids are only stable in the solid state; they dissolve readily in

water with evolution of heat and immediate transformation into the

ortho-arsenic acid. The salts of arsenic acid, termed arsenates, are

isomorphous with the phosphates, and in general character and

reactions resemble the phosphates very closely; thus both series of

salts give similar precipitates with "magnesia mixture" and with

ammonium molybdate solution, but they can be distinguished by their

behaviour with silver nitrate solution, arsenates giving a

reddish-brown precipitate, whilst phosphates give a yellow

precipitate.

There are three known compounds of arsenic and sulphur, namely,

realgar As2S2, orpiment As2S3, and arsenic pentasulphide As2S5.

Realgar occurs native in orange prisms of specific gravity 3.5; it is

prepared artificially by fusing together arsenic and sulphur, but the

resulting products vary somewhat in composition; it is readily fusible

and sublimes unchanged, and burns on heating in a current of oxygen,

forming arsenic trioxide and sulphur dioxide.

Orpiment (_auri pigmentum_) occurs native in pale yellow rhombic

prisms, and can be obtained in the amorphous form by passing a current

of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through a solution of arsenious oxide or

an arsenite, previously acidified with dilute hydrochloric acid. It

melts easily and volatilizes. It burns on heating in air, and is

soluble in solutions of alkaline hydroxides and carbonates, forming

thioarsenites, As2S3 + 4KHO = K2HAsO3 + K2HAsS3 + H2O. On acidifying

the solution so obtained with hydrochloric acid, the whole of the

arsenic is reprecipitated as trisulphide, K2HAsO3 + K2HAsS3 + 4HCl =

4KCl + 3H2O + As2S3. Arsenic pentasulphide, As2S5, can be prepared by

fusing the trisulphide with the requisite amount of sulphur; it is a

yellow easily-fusible solid, which in absence of air can be sublimed

unchanged; it is soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis, forming

thioarsenates, which can also be obtained by the action of alkali

polysulphides on orpiment. The thioarsenites and thioarsenates of the

alkali metals are easily soluble in water, and are readily decomposed

by the action of mineral acids. Arsenic compounds containing selenium

and sulphur are known, such as arsenic seleno-sulphide, AsSeS2, and

arsenic thio-selenide, AsSSe2. Arsenic phosphide, AsP, results when

phosphine is passed into arsenic trichloride, being precipitated as a

red-brown powder.

Many organic arsenic compounds are known, analogous to those of

nitrogen and phosphorus, but apparently the primary and secondary

arsines, AsH2.CH3 and AsH(CH3)2, do not exist, although the

corresponding chlorine derivatives, AsCl2.CH3, methyl arsine chloride,

and AsCl(CH4)2, dimethyl arsine chloride, are known. The tertiary

arsines, such as As(CH3)3, trimethyl arsine, and the quaternary

arsonium iodides and hydroxides, (CH3)4AsI and (CH3)4As.OH,

tetramethyl arsonium iodide and hydroxide, have been obtained. The

arsines and arsine chlorides are liquids of overpowering smell, and in

some cases exert an extremely irritating action on the mucous

membrane. They do not possess basic properties; the halogen in the

chlorine compounds is readily replaced by oxygen, and the oxides

produced behave like basic oxides. The chlorides AsCl2.CH3 and

AsCl(CH3)2 as well as As(CH3)3 are capable of combining with two atoms

of chlorine, the arsenic atom apparently changing from the tri- to the

penta-valent condition, and the corresponding oxygen compounds can

also be oxidized to compounds containing one oxygen atom or two

hydroxyl groups more, forming acids or oxides. The compounds of the

type AsX5, e.g. AsCl4.CH3, AsCl3(CH3)2, on heating break down, with

separation of methyl chloride and formation of compounds of the type

AsX3; the breaking down taking place more readily the fewer the number

of methyl groups in the compound. The dimethyl arsine (or cacodyl)

compounds have been most studied. On distillation of equal parts of

dry potassium acetate and arsenious oxide, a colourless liquid of

unbearable smell passes over, which is spontaneously inflammable and

excessively poisonous. It is sometimes called Cadet's fuming liquid,

and its composition was determined by R. Bunsen, who gave it the name

cacodyl oxide ([Greek: kakodes], stinking); its formation may be shown

thus:

As4O6 + 8CH3CO2K = 2[(CH3)2As]2O + 4K2CO3 + 4CO2.

The liquid is spontaneously inflammable owing to the presence of free

cacodyl, As2(CH3)4, which is also obtained by heating the oxide with

zinc clippings in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide; it is a liquid of

overpowering odour, and boils at 170 deg.C. Cacodyl oxide boils at 150

deg. C., and on exposure to air takes up oxygen and water and passes

over into the crystalline cacodylic acid, thus:

[(CH3)2As]2O + H2O + O2 = 2(CH3)2As.O.OH.

_Pharmacology._--Of arsenic and its compounds, arsenious acid (dose

1/60-1/15 gr.) and its preparation liquor arsenicalis, Fowler's solution

(dose 2-8 [minim]), are in very common use. The iodide of arsenic (dose

1/20-1/5 gr.) is one of the ingredients of Donovan's solution (see

MERCURY); and iron arsenate (dose 1/16-1/4 gr. in a pill), a mixture of

ferrous and ferric arsenates with some iron oxide, is of great use in

certain cases. Sodium arsenate (1/40-1/10 gr.) is somewhat less commonly

prescribed, though all the compounds of this metal have great value in

experienced hands.

Externally, arsenious acid is a powerful caustic when applied to raw

surfaces, though it has no action on the unbroken skin. Internally,

unless the dose be extremely small, all preparations are severe

gastro-intestinal irritants. This effect is the same however the drug be

administered, as, even after subcutaneous injection, the arsenic is

excreted into the stomach after absorption, and thus sets up gastritis

in its passage through the mucous membrane. In minute doses it is a

gastric stimulant, promoting the flow of gastric juice. It is quickly

absorbed into the blood, where its presence can be demonstrated

especially in the white blood corpuscles. In certain forms of anaemia it

increases the number of the red corpuscles and also their haemoglobin

content. None of these known effects of arsenic is sufficient to account

for the profound change that a course of the drug will often produce in

the condition of a patient. It has some power of affecting the general

metabolism, but no wholly satisfactory explanation is forthcoming.

According to Binz and Schultz its power is due to the fact that it is an

oxygen-carrier, arsenious acid withdrawing oxygen from the protoplasm to

form arsenic acid, which subsequently yields up its oxygen again. It is

thus vaguely called an alterative, since the patient recovers under its

use. It is eliminated chiefly by the urine, and to a less extent by the

alimentary canal, sweat, saliva, bile, milk, tears, hair, &c., but it is

also stored up in the body mainly in the liver and kidneys.

_Therapeutics._--Externally arsenious acid has been much used by quack

doctors to destroy morbid growths, &c., a paste or solution being

applied, strong enough to kill the mass of tissue and make it slough out

quickly. But many accidents have resulted from the arsenic being

absorbed, and the patient thereby poisoned. Internally it is useful in

certain forms of dyspepsia, but as some patients are quite unable to

tolerate the drug, it must always be administered in very small doses at

first, the quantity being slowly increased as tolerance is shown.

Children as a rule bear it better than adults. It should never be given

on an empty stomach, but always after a full meal. Certain cases of

anaemia which do not yield to iron are often much improved by arsenic,

though in other apparently similar ones it appears to be valueless. It

is the routine treatment for pernicious anaemia and Hodgkin's disease,

though here again the drug may be of no avail. For the neuralgia and

anaemia following malaria, for rheumatoid arthritis, for chorea and also

asthma and hay fever, it is constantly prescribed with excellent

results. Certain skin diseases, as psoriasis, pemphigus and occasionally

chronic eczema, are much benefited by its use, though occasionally a too

prolonged course will produce the very lesion for which under other

circumstances it is a cure. A recent method of using the drug is in the

form of sodium cacodylate by subcutaneous injection, and this

preparation is said to be free from the cumulative effects sometimes

arising after the prolonged use of the other forms. Other organic

derivatives employed are sodium metharsenite and sodium anilarsenate or

atoxyl; hypodermic injections of the latter have been used in the

treatment of sleeping sickness. Occasionally, as among the Styrians,

individuals acquire the habit of arsenic-eating, which is said to

increase their weight, strength and appetite, and clears their

complexion. The probable explanation is that an antitoxin is developed

within them.

_Toxicology and Forensic Medicine._--The commonest source of arsenical

poisoning is the arsenious acid or white arsenic, which in one form is

white and opaque, like flour, for which it has been mistaken with fatal

results. Also, as it has little taste and no colour it is easily mixed

with food for homicidal purposes. When combined with potash or soda it

is used to saturate flypapers, and strong solutions can be obtained by

soaking these in water; this fact has also been used with criminal

intent. Copper arsenite (or Scheele's green) used to be much employed as

a pigment for wall-papers and fabrics, and toxic effects have resulted

from their use. Metallic arsenic is probably not poisonous, but as it

usually becomes oxidized in the alimentary canal, the usual symptoms of

arsenical poisoning follow its use.

In acute poisoning the interval between the reception of the poison and

the onset of symptoms ranges from ten minutes, or even less, if a strong

solution be taken on an empty stomach, to twelve or more hours if the

drug be taken in solid form and the stomach be full of food. The usual

period, however, is from half an hour to an hour. In a typical case a

sensation of heat developing into a burning pain is felt in the throat

and stomach. This is soon followed by uncontrollable vomiting, and a

little later by severe purging, the stools being first of all faecal but

later assuming a rice water appearance and often containing blood. The

patient suffers from intense thirst, which cannot be relieved, as

drinking is immediately followed by rejection of the swallowed fluid.

There is profound collapse, the features are sunken, the skin moist and

cyanosed. The pulse is feeble and irregular, and respiration is

difficult. The pain in the stomach is persistent, and cramps in the

calves of the legs add to the torture. Death may be preceded by coma,

but consciousness is often maintained to the end. The similarity of the

symptoms to those of cholera is very marked, but if the suspicion arises

it can soon be cleared up by examining any of the secretions for

arsenic. More rarely the poison seems to centre itself on the nerve

centres, and gastro-intestinal symptoms may be almost or quite absent.

In such cases the acute collapse occurs in company with both superficial

and deep anaesthesia of the limbs, and is soon followed by coma

terminating in death. In criminal poisoning repeated doses are usually

given, so that such cases may not be typical, but will present some of

the aspects of acute and some of chronic arsenical poisoning. As regards

treatment, the stomach must be washed out with warm water by means of a

soft rubber tube, an emetic being also administered. Then, if available,

freshly precipitated ferric hydrate must be given, which can be prepared

by adding a solution of ammonia to one of iron perchloride. The

precipitate is strained off, and the patient can swallow it suspended in

water. While this is being obtained, magnesia, castor oil or olive oil

can be given; or failing all these, copious draughts of water. The

collapse must be treated with hot blankets and bottles, and subcutaneous

injections of brandy, ether or strychnine. The pain can be lessened by

injections of morphia.

Arsenic may be gradually absorbed into the system in very small

quantities over a prolonged period, the symptoms of chronic poisoning

resulting. The commonest sources used to be wall-papers, fabrics,

artificial flowers and toys: also certain trades, as in the manufacture

of arsenical sheep-dipping. But at the present time cases arising from

these causes occur very rarely. In 1900 an outbreak of "peripheral

neuritis" with various skin affections occurred in Lancashire, which was

traced to beer made from glucose and invert sugar, in the preparation of

which sulphuric acid contaminated with arsenic was said to have been

used. But the nature of the disease in this case was decidedly obscure.

The symptoms so closely resembled those of _beri-beri_ that it has also

been suggested that the illness was the same, and was caused by the

manufacture of the glucose from mouldy rice (see BERI-BERI), though no

proof of this was possible. The earliest symptoms are slight gastric

disorders, loss of appetite and general malaise, followed later by

colicky pains, irritation of eyelids and skin eruptions. But sooner or

later peripheral neuritis develops, usually beginning with sensory

disturbances, tingling, numbness, formication and occasionally cutaneous

anaesthesia. Later the affected muscles become exquisitely tender, and

then atrophy, while the knee-jerk or other reflex is lost. Pigmentation

of the skin may occur in the later stages. Recovery is very slow, and in

fatal cases death usually results from heart failure.

After acute poisoning, the stomach at a _post-mortem_ presents signs of

intense inflammation, parts or the whole of its mucous membrane being of

a colour varying from dark red to bright vermilion and often corrugated.

Submucous haemorrhages are usually present, but perforation is rare. The

rest of the alimentary canal exhibits inflammatory changes in a somewhat

lesser degree. After chronic poisoning a widely spread fatty

degeneration is present. Arsenic is found in almost every part of the

body, but is retained in largest amount by the liver, secondly by the

kidneys. After death from chronic poisoning it is found present even in

the brain and spongy bone. The detection of arsenic in criminal cases is

effected either by Reinsch's test or by Marsh's test, the urine being

the secretion analysed when available. But Reinsch's test cannot be used

satisfactorily for a quantitative determination, nor can it be used in

the presence of chlorates or nitrates. And Marsh's test is very

unmanageable with organic liquids on account of the uncontrollable

frothing that takes place. But in such cases the organic matter can be

first destroyed by one of the various methods, usually the moist method

devised by Fresenius being chosen.

ARSENIUS (c. 354-450), an anchorite, said to have been born of a noble

Roman family, who achieved a high reputation for his knowledge of Greek

and Roman literature. He was appointed by Theodosius the Great, tutor of

the young princes Arcadius and Honorius, but at the age of forty he

retired to Egypt, where for forty years he lived in monastic seclusion

at Scetis in the Thebais, under the spiritual guidance of St John the

Dwarf. He is said to have gained the admiration of his fellows by the

extreme rigour of his asceticism. The remainder of his life he spent at

Canopus, and Troe near Memphis, where he died at the age of ninety-five.

Of his writings two collections of admonitory maxims are extant: the

first, [Greek: Didaskalia kai parainesis], containing instructions for

monks, is published with a Latin version by Fr. Combefis in _Auctarium

biblioth. patr. novissim._ (Paris, 1672), pp. 301 f.; the second is a

collection of forty-four wise sayings put together by his friends under

the title of [Greek: Apophthegmata] (see Cotelerius, _Eccl. graec.

monum._, 1677, i. pp. 353-372). In the Roman Catholic Church his

festival is on the 19th of July, in the Orthodox Eastern Church on the

8th of May. His biography by Simeon Metaphrastes is largely fiction.

ARSENIUS AUTORIANUS (13th century), patriarch of Constantinople, lived

about the middle of the 13th century. He received his education in

Nicaea at a monastery of which he later became the abbot, though not in

orders. Subsequently he gave himself up to a life of solitary asceticism

in a Bithynian monastery, and is said, probably wrongly, to have

remained some time in a monastery on Mount Athos. From this seclusion he

was in A.D. 1255 called by Theodore II. Lascaris to the position of

patriarch at Nicaea, and four years later, on that emperor's death,

became joint guardian of his son John. His fellow-guardian Georgios

Mouzalon was immediately murdered by Michael Palaeologus, who assumed

the position of tutor. Arsenius then took refuge in the monastery of

Paschasius, retaining his office of patriarch but refusing to discharge

its duties. Nicephorus of Ephesus was appointed in his stead. In 1261

Michael, having recovered Constantinople, induced Arsenius again to

undertake the office of patriarch, but soon incurred his severe censure

by ordering the young prince John to be blinded. Arsenius went so far as

to excommunicate the emperor, who, having vainly sought for pardon, took

refuge in false accusations against Arsenius and caused him to be

banished to Proconnesus, where some years afterwards (according to

Fabricius in 1264; others say in 1273) he died. Throughout these years

he declined to remove the sentence of excommunication which he had

passed upon Michael, and after his death, when the new patriarch

Josephus gave absolution to the emperor, the quarrel was carried on

between the "Arsenites" and the "Josephists." The "Arsenian schism"

lasted till 1315, when reconciliation was effected by the patriarch

Niphon (see Gibbon, _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, ed. J.B.

Bury, 1898, vol. vi. 467 foll.). Arsenius is said to have prepared from

the decisions of the councils and the works of the Fathers a summary of

divine laws under the title _Synopsis Canonum_. This was published

(Greek original and Latin version) by G. Voel and H. Justel in

_Bibliotheca Jur. Canon. Vet._ (Paris, 1661), 749 foll. Some hold that

the _Synopsis_ was the work of another Arsenius, a monk of Athos (see L.

Petit in Vacant's _Dict. theol. cathol._ i. col. 1994); the ascription

depends on whether the patriarch Arsenius did or did not sojourn at

Mount Athos.

See Georgius Pachymeres ii. 15, iii. _passim_, iv. 1-16; Nicephorus

Gregoras iii. 1, iv. 1; for the will of Arsenius see Cotelerius,

_Monumenta_, ii. 168.

ARSES, Persian king, youngest son of Artaxerxes III., was raised to the

throne in 338 B.C. by Bagoas (q.v.), who had murdered his father and

all his brothers. But when the young king tried to make himself

independent, Bagoas killed him too, with all his children, in the third

year of his reign (336) (Diod. 17.5; Strabo 15. 736; Trogus, Prol. x.,

Alexander's despatch to Darius III.; Arrian ii. 14. 5, and the

chronographers). In Plutarch, _De fort. Alex._ ii. 3. 5, he is called

_Oarses_; in Johannes Antioch. p. 38, _Arsamos_; in the canon of

Ptolemy, _Aroges_ (by Elias of Nisibis, _Piruz_); in a chronological

tablet from Babylon (Brit. Mus. Sp. ii. 71, _Zeitschrift fur

Assyriologie_, viii. 176, x. 64) he is abbreviated into _Ar_. See

PERSIA: _Ancient History_. (Ed. M.)

ARSINOE, the name of four Egyptian princesses of the Ptolemaic dynasty.

The name was introduced into the Ptolemaic dynasty by the mother of

Ptolemy I. This Arsinoe was originally a mistress of Philip II. of

Macedon, who presented her to a Macedonian soldier Loqus shortly before

Ptolemy was born. It was, therefore, assumed by the Macedonians that the

Ptolemaic house was really descended from Philip (see PTOLEMIES).

1. Daughter of Lysimachus, king of Thrace, first wife of Ptolemy II.

Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.). Accused of conspiring against her husband,

who perhaps already contemplated marriage with his sister, also named

Arsinoe, she was banished to Coptos, in Upper Egypt. Her son Ptolemy was

afterwards king under the title of Euergetes. It is supposed by some

(e.g. Niebuhr, _Kleine Schriften_; cf. Ehrlichs, _De Callimachi hymnis_)

that she is to be identified with the Arsinoe who became wife of Magas,

king of Cyrene, and that she married him after her exile to Coptos. But

this hypothesis is apparently without foundation. Magas before his death

had betrothed his daughter Berenice to the son of his brother Ptolemy

II. Philadelphus, but Arsinoe, disliking the projected alliance, induced

Demetrius the Fair, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, to accept the throne

of Cyrene as husband of Berenice. She herself, however, fell in love

with the young prince, and Berenice in revenge formed a conspiracy, and,

having slain Demetrius, married Ptolemy's son (see BERENICE, 3).

2. Daughter of Ptolemy I. Soter and Berenice. Born about 316 B.C., she

married Lysimachus, king of Thrace, who made over to her the territories

of his divorced wife, Amastris. To secure the succession for her own

children she brought about the murder of her stepson Agathocles.

Lysandra, the wife of Agathocles, took refuge with Seleucus, king of

Syria, who made war upon Lysimachus and defeated him (281). After her

husband's death Arsinoe fled to Ephesus and afterwards to Cassandreia in

Macedonia. Seleucus, who had seized Lysimachus's kingdom, was murdered

in 281 by Ptolemy Ceraunus (half-brother of Arsinoe), who thus became

master of Thrace and Macedonia. To obtain possession of Cassandreia, he

offered his hand in marriage to Arsinoe, and being admitted into the

town, killed her two younger sons and banished her to Samothrace.

Escaping to Egypt, she became the wife of her full brother Ptolemy II.,

the first instance of the practice (afterwards common) of the Greek

kings of Egypt marrying their sisters. She was a woman of a masterful

character and won great influence. Her husband, though she bore him no

children, was devoted to her and paid her all possible honour after her

death in 271. He gave her name to a number of cities, and also to a

district (nome) of Egypt.[1] It is related that he ordered the architect

Dinochares to build a temple in her honour in Alexandria; in order that

her statue, made of iron, might appear to be suspended in the air, the

roof was to consist of an arch of loadstones (Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ xxxiv.

42). Coins were also struck, showing her crowned and veiled on the

obverse, with a double cornucopia on the reverse. She was worshipped as

a goddess under the title of [Greek: Thea Philadelphos], and she and her

husband as [Greek: Theoi adelphoi] (Justin xxiv. 2, 3; Pausanias i. 7).

See von Prott, _Rhein. Mus._ liii. (1898), pp. 460 f.

3. Daughter of Ptolemy III. Euergetes, sister and wife of Ptolemy IV.

Philopator. She seems to be erroneously called Eurydice by Justin (xxx.

2), and Cleopatra by Livy (xxvii. 4). Her presence greatly encouraged

the troops at the battle of Raphia (217), in which Antiochus the Great

was defeated. Her husband put her to death to please his mistress

Agathocleia, a Samian dancer (between 210 and 205). She was worshipped

as [Greek: Thea Philopator]; she and her husband as [Greek: Theoi

Philopatores] (Polybius v. 83, 84, xv. 25-33).

4. Youngest daughter of Ptolemy XIII. Auletes, and sister of the famous

Cleopatra. During the siege of Alexandria by Julius Caesar (48) she was

recognized as queen by the inhabitants, her brother, the young Ptolemy,

being then held captive by Caesar. Caesar took her with him to Rome as a

precaution. After Caesar's triumph she was allowed to return to

Alexandria. After the battle of Philippi she was put to death at Miletus

(or in the temple of Artemis at Ephesus) by order of Mark Antony, at the

request of her sister Cleopatra (Dio Cassius xlii. 39; Caesar, _Bell.

civ._ iii. 112; Appian, _Bell. civ._ v. 9).

AUTHORITIES.--For general authorities see article PTOLEMIES. The

article "Arsinoe" in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_ contains a

full list of those who bore the name, and also of the numerous towns

which were called after the various princesses.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The appendix to pt. ii. of the Tebtunis series of papyri

(Grenfell, Hunt and Goodspeed, 1907) contains a lengthy account of

the topography of the Arsinoite nome.

ARSINOITHERIUM (so called from the Egyptian queen Arsinoe), a gigantic

horned mammal from the Middle Eocene beds of the Fayum, Egypt,

representing a sub-order of Ungulata, called Barypoda. The skull is

remarkable for carrying a huge pair of horn-cores above the muzzle,

which seem to be the enlarged nasal bones, and a rudimentary pair

farther back; the front horn-cores, like the rest of the skull, consist

of a mere shell of bone, and were probably clothed in life with horny

sheaths. The teeth form a continuous even series, the small canines

being crowded between the incisors and premolars; the crowns of the

cheek-series are tall (hypsodont), with a distinctive pattern of their

own. Although the brain is relatively larger, the bones of the limbs,

especially the short, five-toed feet, approximate to those of the

Amblypoda and Proboscidea; but in the articulation of the astragalus

with both the navicular and cuboid _Arsinoitherium_ is nearer the former

than the latter group.

It is probable, however, that these resemblances are mainly due to

parallelism in development, and are in all three cases adaptations

necessary to support the enormous weight of the body. On the other hand,

the marked resemblance of the structure of the tarsus is probably

indicative of descent from nearly allied condylarthrous ancestors (see

PHENACODUS). No importance can be attached to the presence of horns as

an indication of affinity between _Arsinoitherium_ and the Amblypoda;

and there are important differences in the structure of the skulls of

the two, notably in the external auditory meatus, the occiput, the

premaxillae, the palatal foramina and the lower jaw.

From the Proboscidea _Arsinoitherium_ differs broadly in skull

structure, in the form of the cheek-teeth, and in the persistence of the

complete dental series of forty-four without gaps or enlargement of

particular teeth. Whether there is any relationship with the Hyracoidea

cannot be determined until we are acquainted with the forerunners of

_Arsinoitherium_, which is evidently a highly specialized type.

It may be added that as the name Barypoda has been used at an earlier

date for another group of animals, the alternative title Embrithopoda

has been suggested in case the former should be considered barred.

See C.W. Andrews, _Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of

the Fayum, British Museum_ (1906). (R. L.*)

ARSON (from Lat. _ardere_, to burn), a crime which has been described as

the malicious and voluntary burning of the house of another (3 Co.

_Inst._ 66). At common law in England it is an offence of the degree of

felony. In the Roman civil law arson was punishable by death. It appears

early in the history of English law, being known in ancient laws by the

term of _boernet_. It is mentioned by Cnut as one of the bootless

crimes, and under the Saxon laws was punishable by death. The sentence

of death for arson was, says Stephen (_Commentaries_, iv. 89), in the

reign of Edward I. executed by a kind of _lex talionis_, for the

incendiaries were burnt to death; a punishment which was inflicted also

under the Gothic institutions. Death continued to be the penalty at

least down to the reign of King John, according to a reported case

(Gloucester Pleas, pl. 216), but in course of time the penalty became

that of other common-law felonies, death by the gallows. It is one of

the earliest crimes in which the _mens rea_, or criminal intent, was

taken special notice of. Bracton deals at length with the _mala

conscientia_, which he says is necessary for this crime, and contrasts

it with _negligentia_ (f. 146 b), while in many early indictments malice

aforethought (_malitia praecogitata_) appears. Arson was deprived of

"benefit of clergy" under the Tudors, while an act of 8 Henry VI. c. 6

(1429) made the wilful burning of houses, under particular

circumstances, high treason, but acts of 1 Ed. VI. c. 12 (1547) and 1

Mary (1553) reduced it to an ordinary felony. The English law concerning

arson was consolidated by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 30, which was repealed and

re-enacted by the Malicious Damage Act 1861.

The common-law offence of arson (which has been greatly enlarged by the

act of 1861) required some part of the house to be actually burnt;

neither a bare intention nor even an actual attempt by putting fire in

or towards it will constitute the offence, if no part was actually

burnt, but the burning of any part, however trifling, is sufficient, and

the offence is complete even if the fire is put out or goes out of

itself. The burning must be malicious and wilful, otherwise it is only a

trespass. If a man by wilfully setting fire to his own house burn the

house of his neighbour also, it will be a felony, even though the

primary intention of the party was to burn his own house only. The word

_house_, in the definition of the offence at common law, extends not

only to dwelling-houses, "but to all out-houses which are parcel

thereof, though not adjoining thereto." Barns with corn and hay in them,

though distant from a house, are within the definition.

The different varieties of the offence are specified in the Malicious

Damage Act 1861. The following crimes are thereby made felonies: (1)

setting fire to any church, chapel, meeting-house or other place of

divine worship; (2) setting fire to a dwelling-house, any person being

therein; (3) setting fire to a house, out-house, manufactory,

farm-building, &c., with intent to impose and defraud any person; (4)

setting fire to buildings appertaining to any railway, port, dock or

harbour; or (5) setting fire to any public building. In these cases the

act provides that the person convicted shall be liable, at the

discretion of the court, to be kept in penal servitude for life, or for

any term not less than three years (altered to _five_ years by the Penal

Servitude Acts Amendment Act 1864), or to be imprisoned for any time not

exceeding two years, with or without hard labour, and, if a male under

sixteen years of age, with or without whipping. Setting fire to other

buildings, and setting fire to goods in buildings under such

circumstances that, if the building were thereby set fire to, the

offence would amount to felony, are subject to the punishments last

enumerated, with this exception that the period of penal servitude is

limited to fourteen years. The attempt to set fire to any building, or

any matter or thing not enumerated above, is punishable as a felony.

Russell says (_Crimes_, p. 1781) that the term building is no doubt very

indefinite, but it was used in 9 & 10 Vict. c. 25, s. 2; and it was

thought much better to adopt this term and leave it to be interpreted as

each case might arise, than to attempt to define; as any such attempt

would probably have failed in producing any expression more certain than

the term "building" itself. In _R._ v. _Manning_, 1872 (L.R. 1 C.C.R.

338), it was held that an unfinished house was a building within the

meaning of the act. The setting fire to crops of hay, grass, corn, &c.,

is punishable by penal servitude for any period not exceeding fourteen

years, but setting fire to stacks of the same, or any cultivated

vegetable produce, or to peat, coals, &c., is regarded as a more serious

offence, and the penal servitude may be for life. For the attempt to

commit the last two offences penal servitude is limited to seven years.

Setting fire to mines of coal, anthracite or other mineral fuel is

visited with the full measure of penalty, and in the case of an attempt

the penal servitude is limited to fourteen years. By the Dockyards, &c.,

Protection Act 1772 it is a felony punishable by death wilfully and

maliciously to set fire to any of His Majesty's ships or vessels of war,

or any of His Majesty's arsenals, magazines, dockyards, rope-yards,

victualling offices or buildings therein, or any timber, material,

stores or ammunition of war therein or in any part of His Majesty's

dominions. If the person guilty of the offence is a person subject to

naval discipline, he is triable by court-martial, and if found guilty, a

sentence of capital punishment may be passed. The Malicious Damage Act

1861, s. 43, also includes as a felony the setting fire to any ship or

vessel, with intent to prejudice any owner or part owner of the vessel,

or of any goods on the same, or any person who has underwritten any

policy of insurance on the vessel, or upon any goods on board the same.

In Scotland the offence equivalent to arson in England is known by the

more expressive name of fire-raising. The crime was punishable capitally

by old consuetudinary law, but it is now no longer capital, and may be

tried in the sheriff court (50 & 51 Vict. c. 35, s. 56). Formerly the

public prosecutor had the privilege of declining to demand capital

punishment, and he invariably did so. _Wilful fire-raising_, which is

the most heinous form of the crime, requires the raising of fire,

without any lawful object, but with the deliberate intention of

destroying certain premises or things, whether directly by the

application of fire thereto, or indirectly by its application to

something contained in or forming part of or communicating with them;

also the intention to destroy premises or things of a certain

description (much as mentioned above); and such premises or things must

be the property of another than the accused. _Wicked, culpable and

reckless fire-raising_ differs from wilful fire-raising in that the fire

is raised _without_ the deliberate intention of destroying premises or

things, but while the accused was engaged in some unlawful act, or while

he was in such a state of passion, excitement or recklessness as not to

care what results might follow from his acts.

_United States._--The same general principles apply to this crime in

American law. In some states by statute the intent to injure or defraud

must be shown, e.g. when the property is insured. In New York one who

wilfully burns property (including a vessel or its cargo) with intent to

defraud or prejudice the insurer thereof, though the offence of arson is

not committed, is punishable by imprisonment for not more than five

years (N.Y. Pen. Code, ss. 575, 578). There must be an intent to destroy

the building (_ibid._ s. 490; California Code, s. 447). An agreement to

commit arson is conspiracy (_ibid._ s. 171). Killing a person in

committing the crime of arson is murder in the first degree (_ibid._ s.

183); this is so in California, even where the crime is merely an

attempt to commit arson (Cal. Pen. Code, s. 189). Explosion of a house

by gunpowder or dynamite is arson (Texas Pen. Code, art. 761), but a

charge of arson by "burning" will not be sustained by proof of exploding

by dynamite, even though part of the building is burnt by the explosion

(_Landers_ v. _State_ [Tex.], 47 S.W. 1008).

AUTHORITIES.--W.S. Holdsworth, _History of English Law_, vol. iii.;

Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_; Stephen, _History of

Criminal Law_, vol. iii.; Stephen, _Commentaries_; Russell on

_Crimes_.

ARSONVAL, a village of France in the department of Aube, lies on the

right bank of the Aube, about 30 m. east of Troyes. It has a church

dating from the 12th century. Pop. 434.

ARSOT, the name of a forest in France, in the immediate neighbourhood of

Belfort. It has an area of about 1500 acres, is almost encircled by a

small stream, the Eloie, and is about 1400 ft. above the sea. On the

east it is continued by the forest of Denney, which contains the

fortress of Roppe, dominating the road from Colmar into France.

ARSUF, a town on the coast of Palestine, 12 m. N.N.E. of Jaffa, famous

as the scene of a victory of the crusaders under Richard I. of England

over the army of Saladin. After the capture of Acre on the 12th of July

1191, the army of the crusaders, under Richard Coeur-de-Lion and the

duke of Burgundy, opened their campaign for the recovery of Jerusalem by

marching southward towards Jaffa, from which place it was intended to

move direct upon the holy city. The march was along the sea-shore, and,

the forces of Saladin being in the vicinity, the army moved in such a

formation as to be able to give battle at any moment. Richard thus moved

slowly, but in such compact order as to arouse the admiration even of

the enemy. The right column of baggage and supplies, guarded by

infantry, was nearest the sea, the various corps of heavy cavalry, one

behind the other, formed the central column, and on the exposed left

flank was the infantry, well closed up, and "level and firm as a wall,"

according to the testimony of Saracen authors. The columns were united

into a narrow rectangle by the advanced and rear guards. The whole march

was a running fight between untiring horse-archers and steady infantry.

Only once did the column open out, and the opportunity was swiftly

seized by the Saracens, yet so rapid was the rally of the crusaders that

little damage was done (August 25). The latter maintained for many days

an absolutely passive defence, and could not be tempted to fight;

Richard and his knights made occasional charges, but quickly withdrew,

and on the 7th of September this irregular skirmishing, in which the

crusaders had scarcely suffered at all, culminated in the battle of

Arsuf. Saladin had by now decided that the only hope of success lay in

compelling the rear of the Christians' column to halt--and thus opening

a gap, should the van be still on the move. Richard, on the other hand,

had prepared for action by closing up still more, and as the crusaders

were now formed a simple left turn brought them into two lines of

battle, infantry in first line, cavalry in second line. Near Arsuf the

road entered a defile between the sea and a wooded range of hills; and

from the latter the whole Moslem army suddenly burst forth. The weight

of the attack fell upon the rear of Richard's column, as Saladin

desired. The column slowly continued its march, suffering heavily in

horses, but otherwise unharmed. The first assault thus made no

impression, but a fierce hand-to-hand combat followed, in which the

Hospitallers, who formed the rear of the Christian army, were hard

pressed. Their grand master, like many other subordinates in history,

repeatedly begged to be allowed to charge, but Richard, who on this

occasion showed the highest gift of generalship, that of feeling the

pulse of the fight, waited for the favourable moment. Almost as he gave

the signal for the whole line to charge, the sorely pressed Hospitallers

rode out upon the enemy on their own initiative. At once the whole of

the cavalry followed suit. The head (or right wing) and centre were not

closely engaged, and their fleeter opponents had time to ride off, but

the rear of the column carried all before it in its impetuous onset, and

cut down the Saracens in great numbers. A second charge, followed by a

third, dispersed the enemy in all directions. The total loss of the

Saracens was more than tenfold that of the Christians, who lost but

seven hundred men. The army arrived at Jaffa on the 10th of September.

See Oman, _Hist. of the Art of War_, ii. 303-317.

ARSURE, a village of France in the department of Jura, has some stone

quarries and extensive layers of peat in its neighbourhood. Its church

has a choir dating from the 11th century. Pop. 370.

ARSURES, a village of France in the department of Jura, situated on a

small stream, the Lurine. It is surrounded by vineyards, from which

excellent wine is produced. Pop. 233.

ART, a word in its most extended and most popular sense meaning

everything which we distinguish from Nature. Art and Nature are the two

most comprehensive genera of which the human mind has formed the

conception. Under the genus Nature, or the genus Art, we include all the

phenomena of the universe. But as our conception of Nature is

indeterminate and variable, so in some degree is our conception of Art.

Nor does such ambiguity arise only because some modes of thought refer a

greater number of the phenomena of the universe to the genus Nature, and

others a greater number to the genus Art. It arises also because we do

not strictly limit the one genus by the other. The range of the

phenomena to which we point, when we say Art, is never very exactly

determined by the range of the other phenomena which at the same time we

tacitly refer to the order of Nature. Everybody understands the general

meaning of a phrase like Chaucer's "Nature ne Art ne koude him not

amende," or Pope's "Blest with each grace of nature and of art." In such

phrases we intend to designate familiarly as Nature all which exists

independently of our study, forethought and exertion--in other words,

those phenomena in ourselves or the world which we do not originate but

find; and we intend to designate familiarly as Art all which we do not

find but originate--or, in other words, the phenomena, which we add by

study, forethought and exertion to those existing independently of us.

But we do not use these designations consistently. Sometimes we draw an

arbitrary line in the action of individuals and societies, and say, Here

Nature ends and Art begins--such a law, such a practice, such an

industry even, is natural, and such another is artificial; calling those

natural which happen spontaneously and without much reflection, and the

others artificial. But this line different observers draw at different

places. Sometimes we adopt views which waive the distinction altogether.

One such view is that wherein all phenomena are regarded as equally

natural, and the idea of Nature is extended so as to include "all the

powers existing in either the outer or the inner world, and everything

which exists by means of those powers." In this view Art becomes a part

of Nature. It is illustrated in the familiar passage of Shakespeare,

where Polixenes reminds Perdita that

"Nature is made better by no mean,

But nature makes that mean: so, over that art

Which, you say, adds to nature, is an art

That nature makes." ...

"This is an art

Which does mend nature, change it rather, but

The art itself is nature."

A posthumous essay of John Stuart Mill contains a full philosophical

exposition and defence of this mode of regarding the relations of Nature

and Art. Defining Nature as above, and again as a "collective name for

all facts, actual and possible," that writer proceeds to say that such a

definition

"is evidently inapplicable to some of the modes in which the word is

familiarly employed. For example, it entirely conflicts with the

common form of speech by which Nature is opposed to Art, and natural

to artificial. For in the sense of the word Nature which has thus been

defined, and which is the true scientific sense, Art is as much Nature

as anything else; and everything which is artificial is natural--Art

has no independent powers of its own: Art is but the employment of the

powers of Nature for an end. Phenomena produced by human agency no

less than those which, as far as we are concerned, are spontaneous,

depend on the properties of the elementary forces, or of the

elementary substances and their compounds. The united powers of the

whole human race could not create a new property of matter in general,

or of any one of its species. We can only take advantage for our

purposes of the properties we find. A ship floats by the same laws of

specific gravity and equilibrium as a tree uprooted by the wind and

blown into the water. The corn which men raise for food grows and

produces its grain by the same laws of vegetation by which the wild

rose and the mountain strawberry bring forth their flowers and fruit.

A house stands and holds together by the natural properties, the

weight and cohesion of the materials which compose it. A steam engine

works by the natural expansive force of steam, exerting a pressure

upon one part of a system of arrangements, which pressure, by the

mechanical properties of the lever, is transferred from that to

another part, where it raises the weight or removes the obstacle

brought into connexion with it. In these and all other artificial

operations the office of man is, as has often been remarked, a very

limited one; it consists of moving things into certain places. We move

objects, and by doing this, bring some things into contact which were

separate, or separate others which were in contact; and by this simple

change of place, natural forces previously dormant are called into

action, and produce the desired effect. Even the volition which

designs, the intelligence which contrives, and the muscular force

which executes these movements, are themselves powers of Nature."

Another mode of thought, in some sort complementary to the last, is

based on the analogy which the operations of forces external to a man

bear to the operations of man himself. Study, forethought and exertion

are assigned to Nature, and her operations are called operations of Art.

This view was familiar to ancient systems of philosophy, and especially

to that of the Stoics. According to the report of Cicero, Nature as

conceived by Zeno was a fire, and at the same time a voluntary agent

having the power or art of creating things with regularity and design

("naturam esse ignem artificiosum ad gignendum progredientem via"). To

this fire not merely creative force and systematic action were

ascribed, but actual personality. Nature was "non artificiosa solum, sed

plane artifex." "That which in the works of human art is done by hands,

is done with much greater art by Nature, that is, by a fire which

exercises an art and is the teacher of other arts." This conception of

Nature as an all-generating fire, and at the same time as a personal

artist both teaching and including in her own activity all the human

arts, on the one hand may be said, with Polixenes and J.S. Mill, to

merge Art in Nature; but on the other hand it finds the essence of

Nature in the resemblance of her operations to those of Art. "It is the

_proprium_ of art," according to the same system, "to create and beget,"

and the reasoning proceeds--Nature creates and begets, therefore Nature

is an artist or Demiurgus. A kindred view is set forth by Sir Thomas

Browne in the _Religio Medici_, when he declares that "all things are

artificial; for Nature is the Art of God."

But these modes of thought, according to which, on the one hand, the

processes of Art are included among processes of Nature, or on the other

the processes of Nature among the processes of Art, are exceptional. In

ordinary use the two conceptions, each of them somewhat vague and

inexact, are antithetical. Their antithesis was what Dr Johnson had

chiefly in his mind when he defined Art as "the power of doing something

which is not taught by Nature or by instinct." But this definition is

insufficient, because the abstract word Art, whether used of all arts at

once or of one at a time, is a name not only for the power of doing

something, but for the exercise of the power; and not only for the

exercise of the power, but for the rules according to which it is

exercised; and not only for the rules, but for the result. Painting, for

instance, is an art, and the word connotes not only the power to paint,

but the act of painting; and not only the act, but the laws for

performing the act rightly; and not only all these, but the material

consequences of the act or the thing painted. So of agriculture,

navigation and the rest. Exception might also be taken to Dr Johnson's

definition on the ground that it excludes all actions of instinct from

the genus Art, whereas usage has in more languages than one given the

name of Art to several of those ingenuities in the lower animals which

popular theory at the same time declares to be instinctive. Dante, for

instance, speaks of boughs shaken by the wind, but not so violently as

to make the birds forgo their Art--

"Non pero dal lor esser dritto sparte

Tanto, che gl' augelletti per le cime

Lasciasser d' operar ogni lor _arte_."