The private houses of the Romans were poor affairs until after the
conquest of the East, when money began to pour into the city. Many
houses of immense size were then erected, adorned with columns,
paintings, statues, and costly works of art. Some of these houses are
said to have cost as much as two million dollars.
The principal parts of a Roman house were the _Vestibulum_, _Ostium_,
_Atrium_, _Alae_, _Tablinum_, _Fauces_, and _Peristylium_. The
VESTIBULUM was a court surrounded by the house on three sides, and open
on the fourth to the street. The OSTIUM corresponded in general to our
front hall. From it a door opened into the ATRIUM, which was a large
room with an opening in the centre of its roof, through which the
rain-water was carried into a cistern placed in the floor under the
opening. To the right and left of the Atrium were side rooms called the
ALAE, and the TABLINUM was a balcony attached to it. The passages
from the Atrium to the interior of the house were called FAUCES.
The PERISTYLIUM, towards which these passages ran, was an open court
surrounded by columns, decorated with flowers and shrubs. It was
somewhat larger than the Atrium.
The floors were covered with stone, marble, or mosaics. The walls were
lined with marble slabs, or frescoed, while the ceilings were either
bare, exposing the beams, or, in the finer houses, covered with ivory,
gold, and frescoing.
The main rooms were lighted from above; the side rooms received their
light from these, and not through windows looking into the street. The
windows of rooms in upper stories were not supplied with glass until the
time of the Empire. They were merely openings in the wall, covered with
lattice-work. To heat a room, portable stoves were generally used, in
which charcoal was burned. There were no chimneys, and the smoke passed
out through the windows or the openings in the roofs.
The rooms of the wealthy were furnished with great splendor. The walls
were frescoed with scenes from Greek mythology, landscapes, etc. In
the vestibules were fine sculptures, costly marble walls, and doors
ornamented with gold, silver, and rare shells. There were expensive rugs
from the East, and, in fact, everything that could be obtained likely to
add to the attractiveness of the room.
Candles were used in early times, but later the wealthy used lamps,
which were made of terra-cotta or bronze. They were mostly oval, flat
on the top, often with figures in relief. In them were one or more round
holes to admit the wick. They either rested on tables, or were suspended
by chains from the ceiling.
MEALS.
The meals were the JENTACULUM, PRANDIUM, and COENA. The first was our
breakfast, though served at an early hour, sometimes as early as four
o'clock. It consisted of bread, cheese, and dried fruits. The prandium
was a lunch served about noon. The coena, or dinner, served between
three and sunset, was usually of three courses. The first course
consisted of stimulants, eggs, or lettuce and olives; the second, which
was the main course, consisted of meats, fowl, or fish, with condiments;
the third course was made up of fruits, nuts, sweetmeats, and cakes.
At elaborate dinners the guests assembled, each with his napkin and full
dress of bright colors. The shoes were removed so as not to soil the
couches. These couches usually were adapted for three guests, who
reclined, resting the head on the left hand, with the elbow supported by
pillows. The Romans took the food with their fingers. Dinner was
served in a room called the TRICLINIUM. In Nero's "Golden House," the
dining-room was constructed like a theatre, with shifting scenes to
change with every course.
DRESS.--BATHING.
The Roman men usually wore two garments, the TUNICA and TOGA. The former
was a short woollen under garment with short sleeves. To have a long
tunic with long sleeves was considered a mark of effeminacy. The tunic
was girded round the waist with a belt. The toga was peculiarly a Roman
garment, and none but citizens were allowed to wear it. It was also
the garment of peace, in distinction from the SAGUM, which was worn by
soldiers. The toga was of white wool and was nearly semicircular, but
being a cumbrous garment, it became customary in later times to wear it
only on state occasions. The poor wore only the tunic, others wore, in
place of the toga, the LACERNA, which was an open cloak, fastened to the
right shoulder by a buckle. Boys, until about sixteen, wore a toga with
a purple hem.
The women wore a TUNIC, STOLA, and PULLA. The stola was a loose garment,
gathered in and girdled at the waist with a deep flounce extending to
the feet. The pulla was a sort of shawl to throw over the whole figure,
and to be worn out of doors. The ladies indulged their fancy for
ornaments as freely as their purses would allow.
Foot-gear was mostly of two kinds, the CALCEUS and the SOLEAE. The
former was much like our shoe, and was worn in the street. The latter
were sandals, strapped to the bare foot, and worn in the house. The poor
used wooden shoes.
Bathing was popular among the wealthy. Fine buildings were erected, with
elegant decorations, and all conveniences for cold, warm, hot, and vapor
baths. These bath-houses were very numerous, and were places of popular
resort. Attached to many of them were rooms for exercise, with seats
for spectators. The usual time for bathing was just before dinner. Upon
leaving the bath, it was customary to anoint the body with oil.
FESTIVALS, GAMES, ETC.
The SATURNALIA was the festival of Saturn, to whom the inhabitants
of Latium attributed the introduction of agriculture and the arts
of civilized life. It was celebrated near the end of December,
corresponding to our Christmas holidays, and under the Empire lasted
seven days. During its continuance no public business was transacted,
the law courts were closed, the schools had a holiday, and slaves were
relieved from all ordinary toil. All classes devoted themselves to
pleasure, and presents were interchanged among friends.
The LUPERCALIA; a festival in honor of Lupercus, the god of fertility,
was celebrated on the 15th of February. It was one of the most ancient
festivals, and was held in the Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus were
said to have been nursed by the she wolf (_lupa_). The priests of
Lupercus were called LUPERCI. They formed a collegium, but their tenure
of office is not known. On the day of the festival these priests met at
the Lupercal, offered sacrifice of goats, and took a meal, with
plenty of wine. They then cut up the skins of the goats which they had
sacrificed. With some of these they covered parts of their bodies, and
with others, they made thongs, and, holding them in their hands, ran
through the streets of Rome, striking with them all whom they met,
especially women, as it was believed this would render them fruitful.
The QUIRINALIA was celebrated on the 17th of February, when Quirinus
(Romulus) was said to have been carried up to heaven.
Gladiators were men who fought with swords in the amphitheatre and
other places, for the amusement of the people. These shows were first
exhibited at Rome in 264 B. c., and were confined to public funerals;
but afterwards gladiators were to be seen at the funerals of most men of
rank. Under the Empire the passion for this kind of amusement increased
to such an extent, that gladiators were kept and trained in schools
(_ludi_) and their trainers were called _Lanistae_. The person who gave
an exhibition was called an EDITOR. He published (_edere_), some time
before the show, a list of the combatants. In the show the fights began
with wooden swords, but at the sound of the trumpet these were exchanged
for steel weapons. When a combatant was wounded, if the spectators
wished him spared, they held their thumbs down, but turned them up if
they wanted him killed. Gladiators who had served a long time, were
often discharged and presented with a wooden sword (_rudis_), Hence they
were called _rudiarii_.
THE AMPHITHEATRE, THEATRE, AND CIRCUS.
The AMPHITHEATRE was a place for the exhibition of gladiatorial shows,
combats of wild beasts, and naval engagements. Its shape was that of an
ellipse, surrounded by seats for the spectators. The word Amphitheatre
was first applied to a wooden building erected by Caesar. Augustus built
one of stone in the Campus Martius, but the most celebrated amphitheatre
was built by Vespasian and Titus, and dedicated in 80 A. D. It is still
standing, though partly in ruins, covers nearly six acres, and could
seat ninety thousand people. The name given to it to-day is the
COLOSSEUM. The open space in the centre was called the ARENA, and was
surrounded by a wall about fifteen feet high to protect the spectators
from the wild beasts. Before the time of Caesar the shows were held in
the Forum and in the Circus.
The THEATRE was never as popular with the Romans as with the Greeks. The
plays of Plautus and Terence were acted on temporary wooden stages. The
first stone theatre was built by Pompey in 55 B. C., near the Campus
Martius. It was a fine building, with a seating capacity of forty
thousand. The seats were arranged in a semicircle, as at present,
the orchestra being reserved for the Senators and other distinguished
persons. Then came fourteen rows of seats for the Equites, and behind
these sat the ordinary crowd.
The CIRCUS MAXIMUS. between the Palatine and Aventine Hills, was built
for chariot races, boxing, and gymnastic contests. It was an immense
structure, with galleries three stories high, and a canal called
Euripus, and it accommodated one hundred thousand spectators. In the
centre Caesar erected an obelisk one hundred and thirty-two feet high,
brought from Egypt. The seats were arranged as in the theatre. Six kinds
of games were celebrated: 1st, chariot racing; 2d, a sham-fight between
young men on horseback; 3d, a sham-fight between infantry and cavalry;
4th, athletic sports of all kinds; 5th, fights with wild beasts, such
as lions, boars, etc.; 6th, sea fights. Water was let into the canal
to float ships. The combatants were captives, or criminals condemned
to death, who fought until one party was killed, unless saved by the
kindness of the Emperor.
A TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION.
The Imperator, when he returned from a successful campaign, was
sometimes allowed to enjoy a triumphal procession, provided he had been
Dictator, Consul, or Praetor. No one desiring a triumph ever entered
the city until the Senate decided whether or not he deserved one. When
a favorable decision was reached, the temples were all thrown open,
garlands of flowers decorated every shrine and image, and incense smoked
on every altar. The Imperator ascended the triumphal car and entered a
city gate, where he was met by the whole body of the Senate, headed by
the magistrates.
The procession then proceeded in the following order:--
1. The Senate, headed by the magistrates. 2. A troop of trumpeters. 3.
Carts laden with spoils, often very costly and numerous. 4. A body of
flute-players. 5. White bulls and oxen for sacrifice. 6. Elephants and
rare animals from the conquered countries. 7. The arms and insignia
of the leaders of the conquered enemy. 8. The leaders themselves, with
their relatives and other captives. 9. The lictors of the Imperator
in single file, their fasces wreathed with laurel. 10. The Imperator
himself, in a circular chariot drawn by four horses. He was attired in
a gold-embroidered robe, and a flowered tunic; he held a laurel bough in
his right hand, a sceptre in his left, and his brow was encircled with a
laurel wreath. 11. The grown up sons and officers of the Imperator. 12.
The whole body of infantry, with spears adorned with laurel.
The OVATION was a sort of smaller triumph. The commander entered the
city on foot, or in later times on horseback. He was clothed in a
purple-bordered robe. His head was crowned with laurel, and a sheep
(_ovis_) was sacrificed, instead of a bull as in the case of a triumph.
POMOERIUM.
The Pomoerium was the sacred enclosure of the city, inside of which no
person holding the _Imperium_ was allowed to enter. It did not always
run parallel to the city walls.
NAMES.
Every man in Rome had three names. The given name (_praenomen_), as
Lucius, Marcus, Gaius. The name of the gens (_nomen_), as Cornelius,
Tullius, Julius. The name of the family (_cognomen_), as Scipio, Cicero,
Caesar. To these names was sometimes added another, the _agnomen_, given
for some exploit, or to show that the person was adopted from some
other gens. Thus Scipio the elder was called AFRICANUS, and all his
descendants had the right to the name. Africanus the younger was adopted
from the Cornelian gens into the Aemilian gens; therefore he added to
his other names AEMILIANUS.
The women were called only by the name of their gens. The daughter of
Scipio was called, for example, CORNELIA, and to distinguish her from
others of the Cornelian gens she was called Cornelia daughter of Scipio.
If there were more than one daughter, to the name of the eldest was
added _prima_ (first), to that of the next, _secunda_ (second), etc.
MARRIAGE.
Intermarriage (_connubium_) between patricians and plebeians was
forbidden previous to 445, and after that the offspring of such
marriages took the rank of the father. After the parties had agreed, to
marry, and the consent of the parents or persons in authority was given,
the marriage contract was drawn up and signed by both parties. The
wedding day was then fixed upon. This could not fall upon the Kalends,
Nones, or Ides of any month, or upon any day in May or February. The
bride was dressed in a long white robe, with a bridal veil, and shoes
of a bright yellow color. She was conducted in the evening to her future
husband's home by three boys, one of whom carried before her a torch,
the other two supporting her by the arm. They were accompanied by
friends of both parties. The groom received the bride at the door, which
she entered with distaff and spindle in hand. The keys of the house were
then delivered to her. The day ended with a feast given by the husband,
after which the bride was conducted to the bridal couch, in the atrium,
which was adorned with flowers. On the following day another feast was
given by the husband, and the wife performed certain religious rites.
The position of the Roman woman after marriage was very different from
that of the Greek. She presided over the whole household, educated her
children, watched over and preserved the honor of the house, and shared
the honors and respect shown to her husband.
FUNERALS.
When a Roman was at the point of death, his nearest relative present
endeavored to catch the last breath with his mouth. The ring was removed
from the dying person's hand, and as soon as he was dead his eyes and
mouth were closed by the nearest relative, who called upon the deceased
by name, exclaiming "Farewell!" The body was then washed, and anointed
with oil and perfumes, by slaves or undertakers. A small coin was placed
in the mouth of the body to pay the ferryman (Charon) in Hades, and the
body was laid out on a couch in the vestibulum, with its feet toward the
door. In early times all funerals were held at night; but in later times
only the poor followed this custom, mainly because they could not afford
display. The funeral, held the ninth day after the death, was headed by
musicians playing mournful strains, and mourning women hired to lament
and sing the funeral song. These were sometimes followed by players and
buffoons, one of whom represented the character of the deceased, and
imitated his words and actions. Then came the slaves whom the deceased
had liberated, each wearing the cap of liberty. Before the body were
carried the images of the dead and of his ancestors, and also the crown
and military rewards which he had gained. The couch on which the body
was carried was sometimes made of ivory, and covered with gold and
purple. Following it were the relatives in mourning, often uttering loud
lamentations, the women beating their breasts and tearing their hair.
The procession of the most illustrious dead passed through the Forum,
and stopped before the _Rostra_, where a funeral oration was delivered.
From here the body was carried to its place of burial, which must be
outside the city. Bodies were sometimes cremated, and in the later times
of the Republic this became quite common.
EDUCATION.
In early times the education of the Romans was confined to reading,
writing, and arithmetic; but as they came in contact with the Greeks a
taste for higher education was acquired. Greek slaves (_paedagogi_)
were employed in the wealthy families to watch over the children, and to
teach them to converse in Greek.
A full course of instruction included the elementary branches mentioned
above, and a careful study of the best _Greek_ and Latin writers,
besides a course in philosophy and rhetoric, under some well known
professor abroad, usually at Athens or Rhodes.
BOOKS.--LETTER WRITING.
The most common material on which books were written was the thin rind
of the Egyptian papyrus tree. Besides the papyrus, parchment was often
used. The paper or parchment was joined together so as to form
one sheet, and was rolled on a staff, whence the name volume (from
_volvere_, to roll).
Letter writing was very common among the educated. Letters were usually
written with the _stylus_, an iron instrument like a pencil in size
and shape, on thin slips of wood or ivory covered with wax, and folded
together with the writing on the inside. The slips were tied together
by a string, and the knot was sealed with wax and stamped with a
signet ring. Letters were also written on parchment with ink. Special
messengers were employed to carry letters, as there was no regular mail
service. Roman letters differed from ours chiefly in the opening and
close. The writer always began by sending "greeting" to the person
addressed, and closed with a simple "farewell," without any signature.
Thus "Cicero S. D. Pompeio" (S. D. = sends greeting) would be the usual
opening of a letter from Cicero to Pompey.